COMPREHENSIVE SHORT NOTES: RE-

SEARCH METHODOLOGY (RM_Module_1)

Module 1: Overview of Research

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1. Meaning of Research
Research refers to a search for knowledge through objective and systematic
methods.
Definitions: - Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic - It is an art of scientific investigation - The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines it as: “A careful investigation or inquiry,
specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge” - Core
Essence: The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solutions to a problem

2. Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through scientific
procedures. The main aim is to find out hidden truths not yet discovered.
Four Main Objectives:

Objective Definition Research Type

Gain Familiarity To gain familiarity Exploratory/Formulative
with a phenomenon Research
or achieve new
insights into it
Portray To portray Descriptive Research
Characteristics accurately the
characteristics of a
particular individual,
situation, or group
Determine To determine the Diagnostic Research
Frequency frequency with which
something occurs or
is associated with
something else

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Objective Definition Research Type
Test Hypothesis To test a hypothesis Hypothesis-Testing Research
developed for a
research topic

3. Motivation in Research
Researchers are motivated by five primary desires:
1. Desire to Get a Research Degree - Along with its consequential ben-
efits (career advancement, social status)
2. Desire to Face Challenges - Concern over practical problems and solv-
ing unsolved issues
3. Desire for Intellectual Joy - Creative work and intellectual satisfaction
4. Desire to Serve Society - Contributing to social welfare and solving
social problems
5. Desire for Respectability - Gaining recognition and credibility in aca-
demic and professional circles

4. Significance of Research
Research is fundamental to progress, knowledge development, and decision-
making across multiple domains.
General Significance: - “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often
better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads
to invention.” - Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking - De-
velops logical habits of thinking and organization - Encourages questioning
and inquiry, leading to new ideas and inventions
Role in Different Fields:

Domain Role of Research

Business & Greatly increased role in applied economics; basis
Economics for economic decisions
Government Policy Provides foundation for nearly all government
policies; budgets rest on analysis of people’s needs
and available revenues
Social Sciences Essential for studying social relationships and
solving social problems

Significance for Different Groups:

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 1. Students (Master’s/Ph.D.) - Means of careerism and attaining high
social position
2. Professionals in Research Methodology - Source of livelihood and
income
3. Philosophers and Thinkers - Outlet for new ideas and insights
4. Literary Persons - Development of new styles and creative work
5. Analysts and Intellectuals - Generalization of new theories

5. Research Methods versus Methodology

A. Definition of Research Methods Research methods are all those
methods/techniques used for conducting research.
Three Main Types of Research: - Library Research - Using published
sources and existing literature - Field Research - Conducting research in real-
world environments - Laboratory Research - Conducting research in con-
trolled environments (LFL)

B. Three Groups of Research Methods Research methods are categorized

into three groups based on their function:

Group Purpose Description

Group 1: Data Collection of data Used where available data is
Collection insufficient for arriving at
required solutions
Group 2: Establishing Statistical methods used for
Statistical relationships establishing relationships
Techniques between data
Group 3: Accuracy evaluation Methods used to evaluate the
Evaluation accuracy of results obtained
Methods

C. Definition of Research Methodology Research methodology is a way

to systematically solve research problems and is the science of studying
how research is done scientifically.
Key Distinction: - Methodology � Methods - Methodology explains WHY
and HOW research is done - Methods are the actual tools and techniques
used
What Research Methodology Includes: - The research methods used -
The logic behind the methods - Why a particular method is chosen - Why
other methods are not chosen - The reasoning for methodological decisions

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6. Types of Research
Research can be classified into multiple types based on different criteria:

6.1 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive Research:
• Definition: Surveys and fact-finding enquiries that describe the state of
affairs as it exists at present
• Characteristic: Researcher has no control over variables; can only re-
port what happened or is happening
• Also Known As: Ex post facto research (“after the fact” research)
• Example: Examining the fluctuations of U.S. international trade balance
during 1974-1995
• Methods: Surveys, observations, fact-finding studies
• Focus: WHAT is happening or WHAT has happened

Analytical Research:
• Definition: Researcher uses facts or information already available
and analyzes them to make critical evaluation of the material
• Characteristic: Researcher analyzes existing data for relationships and
patterns
• Focus: WHY and HOW something happens
• Example: Explaining why and how the U.S. trade balance moves in a
particular way over time
• Methodology: Establishing relationships using statistical methods
Key Contrast Table:

Aspect Descriptive Analytical

Focus What happened Why & how it happened
Data Primary data; current Existing/secondary data
observations
Control No control over variables Analyzes available data
Methods Surveys, observations Critical evaluation,
statistical analysis
Example Trade balance fluctuations Reasons for trade balance
(1974-1995) movements

6.2 Applied (Action) vs. Fundamental (Basic/Pure) Research

Fundamental Research:

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 • Definition: Concerned with the formulation of theory; “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake”
• Objective: To develop theories and general ideas; adds to organized body
of scientific knowledge
• Does NOT try to solve immediate practical problems
• Focus: Understanding and theoretical knowledge
• Examples: Research on natural phenomena; pure mathematics; theoret-
ical physics

Applied Research:
• Definition: Aims at finding solutions for immediate problems facing
society, industries, or business organizations
• Objective: Discovery of solution for pressing practical problems
• Focus: Practical application and immediate solutions
• Example: Investigating if sleeping rooms in work environments con-
tribute to greater productivity
Key Contrast Table:

Aspect Fundamental Applied

Purpose Knowledge for Knowledge for solving
understanding problems
Focus Theories and general ideas Practical solutions
Time Horizon Long-term; no urgency Immediate/short-term
Beneficiary Scientific community Society, industry,
business
Example Pure mathematics Productivity
investigation

6.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research:
• Definition: Applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms
of quantity
• Basis: Based on measurement of quantity
• Focus: Numbers, measurements, “how much,” “how many,” “how often”
• Data Nature: Numerical and countable
• Examples:
– Measuring the effect of a new drug on blood pressure
– Analyzing customer satisfaction scores
– Market size calculations

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Qualitative Research:
• Definition: Concerned with qualitative phenomena (phenomena re-
lating to or involving quality or kind)
• Especially Important In: Behavioral sciences where aim is to discover
underlying motives of human behavior
• Focus: Feelings, opinions, behavior, why people think or feel in a certain
way
• Data Nature: Descriptive, non-numerical
• Example: Research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution
Key Contrast Table:

Aspect Quantitative Qualitative

Data Type Numbers, measurements Feelings, opinions,
behavior
Measurement Countable, numerical Descriptive, narrative
Focus How much, how many Why, how, what
Analysis Mathematical, statistical Interpretive, thematic
Domain Natural sciences, Behavioral, social sciences
economics

6.4 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

Conceptual Research:
• Definition: Related to abstract ideas or theories
• Primary Users: Philosophers and thinkers
• Purpose: Develop new concepts or reinterpret existing ones
• Methods: Theoretical exploration, idea comparison
• Data Collection: Does NOT involve experiments or primary data col-
lection
• Example: Philosopher exploring various theories of justice, comparing
and contrasting ideas from different thinkers; Sir Isaac Newton’s concep-
tualization of gravitation and motion through observation and theoretical
thinking

Empirical Research:
• Definition: Based on real data, experiments, and observations
• Basis: Relies on experience or observation, with due regard for system
and theory
• Data-Based: Coming up with conclusions capable of being verified by
observation or experiment

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 • Methodology: Researcher provides working hypothesis/guess, then gath-
ers facts to prove or disprove hypothesis
• Also Known As: Experimental research
• Results: Verifiable and testable through observation or experiments
Key Contrast Table:

Aspect Conceptual Empirical

Focus Ideas, concepts, theories Real data, experiments,
observations
Data Theoretical, abstract Actual, observable
Methods Philosophical exploration Experimentation,
observation
Verification Logical consistency Observable, testable
results
Example Justice theories Drug testing on blood
pressure

6.5 Other Types of Research (Minor Classifications)

These are variations based on purpose, time, environment, or other factors:

Historical Research:
• Utilizes historical sources (documents, remains, artifacts)
• Studies events or ideas of the past
• Explores philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of
time

Field-Setting vs. Laboratory Research:

• Field-Setting Research: Conducted in real-world, natural environ-
ments
• Laboratory Research: Conducted in controlled, artificial environments

Clinical or Diagnostic Research:

• Goes deep into causes of things or events of interest
• Uses very small samples and deep probing data gathering devices
• Focuses on understanding root causes

One-Time vs. Longitudinal Research:

• One-Time Research (Cross-Sectional): Research confined to a single
time-period; snapshot view

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 • Longitudinal Research: Research carried on over several time-
periods; tracking changes over time

7. Research Approaches
Research approaches are the overarching strategies for conducting research.
There are two basic approaches:

7.1 Quantitative Approach

Definition: Involves the generation of data in quantitative form which
can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fash-
ion.
Can be Sub-Classified Into Three Types:

i) Inferential Approach
• Purpose: Form a data base from which to infer characteristics or rela-
tionships of a population
• Usually Means: Survey research where a sample is studied to determine
its characteristics
• Inference: Results from sample are inferred to apply to the whole popu-
lation
• Application: Studying a small group (sample) to understand the whole
population

ii) Experimental Approach

• Characteristic: Much greater control over research environment
• Methodology: Some variables are manipulated to observe their ef-
fect on other variables
• Control Level: Strong researcher control over research setting
• Purpose: Test cause-and-effect relationships
• Variables: Some intentionally changed to see effects on others

iii) Simulation Approach

• Definition: Construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated
• Purpose: Permits observation of dynamic behavior of a system under
controlled conditions
• Method: Model or artificial environment created for study
• Advantage: Controlled observation without real-world constraints
Summary Table of Quantitative Approaches:

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Approach Focus Method Control Level
Inferential Population Survey of Moderate
characteris- sample
tics
Experimental Cause-effect Variable High
relation- manipulation
ships
Simulation System Artificial High
behavior environment

7.2 Qualitative Approach

Definition: Concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions,
and behavior.
Characteristics: - Research is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions - Generates results either in non-quantitative form or not sub-
jected to rigorous quantitative analysis - Depends heavily on researcher’s un-
derstanding and interpretation - Results are not in numerical form -
Analysis does NOT use strict mathematical methods - Does NOT focus
on numerical data
Key Differences from Quantitative: - Focuses on feelings, opinions, behav-
ior - Interpretive and subjective - Non-numerical results - In-depth understand-
ing rather than measurement

8. Research and Scientific Method

8.1 Meaning of Scientific Method
Definition: Research and scientific method are closely related concepts.
Research Definition (in context of scientific method): - “An inquiry
into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set
of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur”
Scientific Method Definition: - A specific logical sequence within
methodology used to test hypotheses through observation and experimen-
tation - Attempts to achieve systematic interrelation of facts through: -
Experimentation - Observation - Logical arguments from accepted
postulates - Combination of these three in varying proportions

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8.2 Basic Aspects/Characteristics of Scientific Method
Good research following the scientific method is based on seven fundamental
aspects:

Aspect Description Implication

1. Empirical Relies on real evidence Data-driven, not
Evidence and observations intuition-based
2. Relevant Utilizes relevant concepts Theoretical grounding
Concepts and ideas required
3. Objective Committed to only Personal bias excluded;
Considerations objective considerations facts only
4. Ethical Presupposes ethical Aims at adequate and
Neutrality neutrality correct statements; no
personal agenda
5. Probabilistic Results into probabilistic Predictions based on
Predictions predictions probability, not certainty
6. Known Methodology made Open to critical
Methodology known to all for scrutiny examination and replication
7. General Aims at formulating most Develops scientific theories
Axioms general axioms (theories) and general rules

Core Principle: The scientific method ensures research is systematic, verifi-

able, and capable of testing and replication by others.

9. The Research Process (11 Steps)

The research process is a systematic, step-by-step procedure for conducting
research from problem formulation to final reporting.

Step 1: Formulating the Research Problem

Importance: The most important step in the entire research process; all
other steps depend on it.
Two Essential Steps: 1. Understanding the problem thoroughly 2.
Rephrasing the problem in meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view
Methods for Understanding: - Discussion: Discuss with colleagues or ex-
perts who have knowledge of the problem - Guidance: In academic institutions,
seek help from an experienced guide/supervisor - Literature Review: Study
previous research and literature (conceptual and empirical)

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Literature Types Reviewed: - Conceptual Literature: Concerns concepts
and theories - Empirical Literature: Consists of studies made earlier similar
to the proposed research
Outcome: Knowledge of available data and materials enables researcher to
specify the research problem in a meaningful context.

Step 2: Extensive Literature Survey

Sequence: Conducted after problem formulation.
Initial Action: - Write a brief summary of the problem - For Ph.D. students:
Prepare and submit a synopsis for approval to Research Committee/Board
Purpose of Literature Survey: - Discover what data and information are
already available - Identify gaps in existing research - Understand what has
been done previously - Build theoretical foundation
Sources to Consult: 1. Abstracting and Indexing Journals - First place
to start 2. Published/Unpublished Bibliographies - Comprehensive refer-
ence lists 3. Academic Journals - Latest peer-reviewed research 4. Confer-
ence Proceedings - Recent developments and discussions 5. Government
Reports - Official data and findings 6. Books - Comprehensive theoretical
foundations 7. Earlier Similar Studies - Carefully study relevant prior re-
search
Important Note: “One source will lead to another” - citation chaining helps
discover additional sources.
Resource: A good library is invaluable at this stage.

Step 3: Developing the Hypothesis

Timing: After extensive literature survey.
Definition: A working hypothesis or hypotheses should be stated in clear
terms.
Role of Hypothesis: - Guides the researcher in the right direction - Delimits
the area of research; keeps researcher on track - Sharpens thinking and focuses
attention on important facts - Indicates type of data required - Specifies type
of data analysis methods to be used
Approach to Developing Hypotheses:
Hypotheses are developed using the following methods:
1. Discussions with Colleagues and Experts
• About the problem, its origin, and objectives

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 • Gain insights from experienced professionals
2. Examination of Data and Records
• Study available data concerning the problem
• Look for trends, peculiarities, patterns, and clues
3. Review of Similar Studies
• Study similar research in the area
• Learn from studies on similar problems
4. Exploratory Personal Investigation
• Original field interviews on limited scale
• Engage with interested parties and individuals
• Gain insight into practical aspects of the problem

Step 4: Preparing the Research Design

Prerequisite: Problem must be formulated in clear, cut terms.
Definition: Research design is the conceptual structure within which re-
search will be conducted; the basic plan or blueprint of how research will be
carried out.
Primary Function: - Provide for collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of: - Time - Effort - Money
Depends On: Research purpose (which determines design strategy).
Four Categories of Research Purpose (EDDE):

Purpose Definition
Exploration (E) To find new ideas or information; initial
investigation
Description (D) To describe what is happening;
characterize situations
Diagnosis (D) To find the causes of a problem; root
cause analysis
Experimentation (E) To test ideas through experiments;
cause-effect testing

Considerations When Preparing Research Design:

1. Means of Obtaining Information
• Determine data collection methods (observation, survey, experiment)
2. Availability and Skills
• Researcher and staff qualifications
• Available expertise in the field
3. Explanation of Selected Methods

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 • How information will be organized
• Reasoning for method selection
• Why certain methods chosen over others
4. Time Factor
• Time available for completing research
• Timeline for each phase
5. Cost Factor
• Finance available for research
• Budget for different activities
• Cost-effectiveness of methods

Step 5: Determining Sample Design

Requirement: Researcher must decide the method of selecting a sample.
Definition: Sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data collection for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Two Main Types of Samples:

A. Probability Sampling Definition: Each member of the population has

an equal chance of being selected.
Probability Sampling Methods:
i) Random Sampling (Simple Random Sampling) - Definition: Every
element has equal probability of selection - Method: Random selection tech-
niques
ii) Systematic Sampling - Definition: Selection at fixed intervals from a
list or area - Method: Select every 10th, 15th, etc. unit - Examples: - Every
15th name on a list - Every 10th house on one side of a street - Enhancement:
Element of randomness introduced using random numbers to pick starting unit
iii) Stratified Sampling - Definition: Population is divided into sub-
populations (strata) based on common characteristics - Process: Sample
items are selected from each stratum - Advantage: Ensures all sub-groups
are represented - Example: Academic Performance Study - Population: 1,000
high school students in a city - Stratification by grade: 250 each in 9th, 10th,
11th, 12th grades - Sample: Select 25 students from each grade - Result: All
grades equally represented in sample
iv) Cluster/Area Sampling - Definition: Population divided into smaller
groups called clusters; clusters are randomly selected - Advantage: Groups
selected, not individuals - Approach: Groups or clusters included in sample
rather than individual elements

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v) Area Sampling - Definition: Special type of cluster sampling based on
geographical areas - Process: - Total area divided into non-overlapping
regions (geographical clusters) - Some regions randomly selected - All peo-
ple in selected areas included in study - Applicable When: Total geograph-
ical area of interest is large - Example: Company with branches in various
cities - Study objective: Employee satisfaction - Method: Randomly select few
branches, survey all employees in those branches

B. Non-Probability Sampling Definition: Does NOT utilize random

sampling techniques; probability of getting any particular sample can-
not be calculated.
Non-Probability Sampling Methods:
i) Convenience Sampling - Definition: Participants selected based on easy
accessibility and availability - Characteristic: Sample chosen from group
convenient for researcher, not randomly - Usage: When quick and easy data col-
lection is needed - Advantage: Fast, easy, economical - Example: Company
gathers product feedback - Researchers stand in shopping mall - Ask passersby
to participate in quick survey - People chosen because easily accessible - Limi-
tation: May not represent population accurately
ii) Judgement Sampling (Purposive Sampling) - Definition: Re-
searcher’s judgement is used to select items considered representative of the
population - Characteristic: Based on researcher’s expertise and judgment -
Example: Judgement sample of college students selected to get reactions to
new teaching method - Advantage: Targets specific, relevant subjects
iii) Quota Sampling - Definition: Population divided into mutually ex-
clusive subgroups (strata) based on characteristics; quotas set for each
subgroup
Process: 1. Divide Population: Into subgroups based on demographics (age,
gender, location, etc.) 2. Set Quotas: Specify number of participants needed
from each subgroup 3. Recruit: Select individuals until quotas are met for
each subgroup
Example: - Survey requires: 50 males, 50 females - Researcher selects people
until both quotas are completed

Step 6: Collecting the Data

Context: In real-life research, available data is often insufficient; new data
must be collected.
Variability: Data collection methods differ in: - Money costs - Time require-
ments - Other resources needed

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Two Primary Methods of Data Collection:

A. Experimental Method
• Researcher conducts an experiment
• Observes quantitative measurements
• Gathers data to examine truth

B. Survey Method Survey data can be collected through five methods:

i) Observation Method - Definition: Collection of information by inves-
tigator’s own observation WITHOUT interviewing respondents - Focus:
What is currently happening (present behavior) - Not Affected By:
Past behavior, future intentions, or attitudes - Characteristics: - Expensive
method - Limited information provided - Direct observation of real phenomena
- Advantage: Real-time, behavior-based data
ii) Personal Interview Method - Definition: Investigator follows rigid
procedure, seeks answers to pre-conceived questions through face-to-face
interaction - Process: - Fixed and prepared questions - Asked face-to-face to
respondents - Answers recorded - Advantage: Direct, detailed responses; can
clarify questions
iii) Telephone Interview Method - Definition: Information collected by
contacting respondents on telephone - Usage Level: Not widely used
but plays important role in industrial surveys - Advantage: Particularly use-
ful when survey must be accomplished in very limited time - Developed
Regions: More common in industrial surveys in developed regions - Advan-
tage: Fast, cost-effective for geographically dispersed respondents
iv) Mailing of Questionnaires Method - Definition: Researcher and re-
spondents do NOT come in direct contact; questionnaires mailed with re-
quest to complete and return - Popularity: Most extensively used method
in various economic and business surveys - Requirement: Questionnaire must
be carefully prepared to be effective in collecting relevant information - Ad-
vantages: - Cost-effective - Reaches geographically dispersed population - Non-
intrusive - Variations: Can be mailed by post or email
v) Schedules Method - Definition: Trained enumerators appointed and
provided with schedules (forms) containing relevant questions - Process:
- Enumerators given training - Provided with schedules - Go to respondents
with schedules - Enumerators fill schedules based on respondent replies (not
respondents filling themselves) - Advantage: - Ensures accurate completion
- Allows clarification during response - Higher response quality - Difference
from Questionnaire: Trained personnel fill forms, not respondents

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Step 7: Execution of the Project
Importance: A very important step in the research process.
Primary Responsibility: Researcher must ensure project is executed: - Sys-
tematically - On time
Key Requirements:
1. Selection and Training of Interviewers (if applicable) - Proper selec-
tion criteria established - Training provided using instruction manuals - Manuals
clearly explain job at each step
2. Field Checks - Occasional field checks conducted - Purpose: Ensure
interviewers doing assigned job: - Sincerely - Efficiently - Correctly
3. Statistical Control - Survey must be under statistical control - Col-
lected information must meet pre-defined accuracy standards - Ensures
data quality
4. Quality Assurance - Verify data collection procedures followed - Monitor
for errors or deviations

Step 8: Analysis of Data

Definition: Analysis requires closely related operations to extract meaning
from collected data.
Analysis Components:
1. Establishment of Categories - Purpose: Define different categories
or variables to classify data - Example: For survey responses - age groups,
income levels, satisfaction ratings - Benefit: Systematic organization of data
2. Coding - Definition: Raw data assigned to categories or coded with
numbers/symbols - Purpose: Organize data systematically for easier analy-
sis - Examples: - “Very satisfied” = 5 - “Satisfied” = 4 - “Neutral” = 3 -
“Dissatisfied” = 2 - “Very dissatisfied” = 1
3. Tabulation - Definition: Coded data arranged in tables/organized
summaries - Purpose: - Organize data for clarity - Identify patterns and
trends - Example: Table showing number of respondents in each satisfaction
category
4. Drawing Statistical Inferences - Definition: Statistical methods ap-
plied to tabulated data to draw conclusions - Methods Include: - Calculating
averages/means - Testing hypotheses - Identifying correlations and relationships
- Creating visualizations (graphs, charts) - Purpose: Extract meaningful con-
clusions from data

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Step 9: Hypothesis Testing
Timing: After data analysis.
Objective: Test hypotheses formulated earlier in the research process.
Key Question: - Do the facts support the hypotheses? - OR are the facts
contrary to the hypotheses?
Testing Methods: - Various statistical tests used depending on: - Nature of
research - Object of research inquiry
Outcome: - Accept the hypothesis (supported by data) - Reject the hy-
pothesis (not supported by data)
Result: Binary conclusion - hypothesis either confirmed or refuted by evidence

Step 10: Generalizations and Interpretation

Principle: When a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, re-
searcher can arrive at generalizations (build a theory).
Real Value of Research: Lies in its ability to arrive at certain general-
izations that can be applied beyond the original study.
Definition - Generalization: - Process of applying learned knowledge
or theories to new situations - Checking whether theories work in different
contexts/situations
Importance: - Other researchers use these theories for their own research -
Theories tested in new conditions to verify reliability - Builds scientific knowl-
edge base
Outcome: Creation of general rules and scientific theories applicable
across situations

Step 11: Preparation of the Report or Thesis

Final Step: Researcher must prepare the report of work completed.
Critical Requirement: Writing must be done with great care.

Report Structure (3 Main Parts): A. Preliminary Pages

Contains introductory materials: - Title and date - Acknowledgements -
Credits to those who helped - Foreword - Brief introduction to the report -
Table of Contents - Outline of report structure - List of Tables - All tables
included in report - List of Graphs and Charts - All visual aids included

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B. Main Text
Contains substantive research content with the following sections:
i) Introduction - Must Contain: - Clear statement of research objective -
Explanation of methodology adopted - Scope of the study - Various lim-
itations of the study - Purpose: Provide context and framework for research
ii) Summary of Findings - Statement of findings and recommendations
in non-technical language - If findings extensive: Summarize them - Pur-
pose: Highlight key results clearly
iii) Main Report - Main body of the report - Presented in logical sequence
- Broken down into readily identifiable sections - Contains detailed analysis,
data, and supporting information
iv) Conclusion - Final summing up of research - Results of research stated
clearly and precisely - Restatement of major findings - Final conclusions
drawn from evidence
C. End Matter
Contains supporting materials: - Appendices - Technical data and support-
ing information - Bibliography - Comprehensive list of: - Books consulted -
Journals reviewed - Reports referenced - Other sources used

Report Writing Guidelines: 1. Style and Language - Write in concise

and objective style - Use simple language - Avoid vague expressions
such as: - “it seems” - “there may be” - Other ambiguous phrases
2. Visual Elements - Charts and illustrations used only if: - They present
information more clearly - They are not overdone - They enhance understanding
3. Accuracy and Transparency - Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must
be mentioned - Various constraints experienced in research operations should
be stated - Explain limitations and potential sources of error
4. Report Quality - Ensure clarity and coherence - Logical flow of ideas -
Comprehensive but concise presentation

10. Criteria of Good Research (SLER)

Acronym: SLER represents four essential qualities of good research.

1. Good Research is Systematic (S)

Definition: Research is structured with specified steps taken in a speci-
fied sequence in accordance with well-defined set of rules.

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Characteristics: - Follows a planned, organized approach - Does not de-
pend on guessing - Each step follows logically from previous step - Does
NOT rule out creative thinking but: - Rejects use of guessing in arriv-
ing at conclusions - Rejects intuition-based conclusions - Uses systematic
methodology and procedures
Implication: Ensures reproducibility and reliability of findings.

2. Good Research is Logical (L)

Definition: Research is guided by rules of logical reasoning.
Two Types of Logical Processes (Essential for Research):
i) Inductive Reasoning - Used To: Develop new theories - Process:
Moving from specific observations to general conclusions - Example: Observing
multiple cases to develop a general principle
ii) Deductive Reasoning - Used To: Test existing theories - Purpose:
Select best techniques for implementation - Process: Moving from general
principles to specific applications - Example: Applying an existing theory to
a new situation
Value: Logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
Implication: Ensures research conclusions are rational and defensible.

3. Good Research is Empirical (E)

Definition: Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a
real situation and deals with concrete data.
Definition (Alternative): Empirical research is any study whose conclu-
sions are exclusively derived from: - Concrete evidence - Verifiable
evidence - Scientific experimentation and/or evidence
Key Characteristic: - Concrete evidence - Specific proofs based on: - Facts
- Observations - Real data
Provides: External validity to research results
Implication: Research findings are grounded in reality and verifiable, not the-
oretical assumptions alone.

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4. Good Research is Replicable (R)
Definition: Research results can be verified by replicating the study.
Definition (Alternative): A research study is replicable (or repeatable)
when: - Entire research process conducted again - Using same methods
- With new data - Still yields same results
Significance: - Demonstrates that original results are reliable - Builds
sound basis for decisions - Allows scientific community to verify findings
Implication: Research methodology must be transparent and documented so
others can repeat the study.

CHAPTER 2: DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. What is a Research Problem?

Definition: A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Conditions for a Problem to Exist: For a research problem to exist, the

following conditions must be met:
i) Individual/Group/Organization (I) - There must be an individual (or
group or organization) - Call this entity ‘I’ - This entity occupies an environ-
ment (N) - The problem is attributed to this entity
ii) Multiple Courses of Action (C1, C2) - Must be at least two courses
of action available - Each represents a different possible response - If only one
option exists, there is no choice and no problem
iii) Multiple Possible Outcomes (O1, O2) - Must be at least two possible
outcomes of the courses of action - One outcome should be preferable to the
other - Researcher must have a clear objective or goal - At least one outcome
is desired/wanted
iv) Unequal Chance of Success (Differential Probability) - The courses
of action must provide different chances of obtaining the objective - Cannot
have same probability of success - If all actions give same result, choice is
irrelevant and no real problem exists
v) Specific Environment (N) - Difficulty must pertain to some environ-
ment(s) - Problem is context-specific, not abstract

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2. Components of a Research Problem
A complete research problem consists of five essential components:

Component Description
Individual/Group/Organization The entity facing the difficulty or
problem
Objective(s) Specific goal(s) to be attained; must
exist or there is no problem
Alternative Means At least two courses of action available;
multiple choices must exist
Doubt/Uncertainty Researcher must be uncertain about
which alternative is best; this
uncertainty drives the need for research
Environment The specific situation/context to which
the difficulty pertains

Key Principle: If ANY component is missing, a true research problem does

not exist.

3. Necessity of Defining the Problem

The Principle: “A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.”

Why Definition is Critical: 1. Keeps Researcher on Track - Proper

definition enables researcher to stay on course - Ill-defined problem creates
hurdles and obstacles
2. Guides Strategic Planning - Well-defined problem enables researcher to
plan strategy and find answers to critical questions: - What data should
be collected? - What characteristics of data are relevant? - What
relations should be explored? - What techniques should be used?
3. Foundation for Research - Defining research problem is prerequisite
for any study - Is a step of highest importance in entire research
4. Prevents Wasted Effort - Unclear problem causes confusion, wasted time,
and incorrect direction - Clear definition ensures efficient, focused research

Implication: Research success depends heavily on clearly and properly

defining the research problem at the outset.

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4. Technique for Defining a Research Problem (SUSDR)
Defining a research problem must NOT be done hurriedly; it requires sys-
tematic, step-by-step process.
Five-Step Technique (SUSDR):

Step 1: Statement of the Problem in a General Way (S)

Process: - Problem should be stated in broad, general terms - Keep in
view: - Some practical concern - Some scientific or intellectual interest
Required Preparation: - Researcher must immerse himself thoroughly
in subject matter - Must understand the domain comprehensively
Actions for Understanding: - In social research: Do some field obser-
vation and/or pilot survey (preliminary small-scale study) - Helps researcher
gain practical insight
Formulation: - Researcher can personally state the problem - OR seek
guidance of guide/subject expert
Refinement: - Problem stated in broad way may contain various ambigui-
ties - Must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem
- Through careful analysis, clarify vague elements
Outcome: A reasonably clear, but still broad, statement of the research prob-
lem.

Step 2: Understanding the Nature of the Problem (U)

Objective: Clearly understand origin and nature of the problem.
Best Method: - Discuss with those who first raised the problem - Deter-
mine how problem originally came about - Understand what objectives
they sought in addressing it
If Self-Identified Problem: - Researcher should reconsider all points that
induced him to make initial general statement - Reflect on what motivated
problem formulation
For Better Understanding: - Enter into discussions with those having
good knowledge of: - The problem itself - Similar problems in the field - Gain
insights from experienced professionals
Key Questions to Answer: - Why does the problem exist? - What is its
purpose/significance? - What context gave rise to it?
Outcome: Clear understanding of problem’s origin, context, and nature.

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Step 3: Surveying the Available Literature (S)
Timing: Before giving final definition of research problem.
Requirement: - All available literature concerning the problem must be
surveyed and examined
What Researcher Must Do: - Be well-conversant with: - Relevant the-
ories in the field - Reports and records concerning the problem - All other
relevant literature - Devote sufficient time reviewing: - Research already
undertaken on related problems - Similar studies in the area
Purpose of Literature Survey:
1. Identify Available Data
• Find out what data and materials are available
• “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow
the problem itself” as well as technique to be used
2. Identify Gaps
• Discover gaps in existing theories
• Understand unexplored areas
3. Check for Inconsistencies
• Determine if existing theories are inconsistent with each other
• Assess whether current theories apply to the problem
4. Refine Research Focus
• Use findings to narrow and refine the research problem
• Better specify what needs to be investigated
Sources to Review: - Academic journals - Reports and records - Research
papers - Theoretical literature - Related studies
Outcome: Comprehensive understanding of existing knowledge, gaps, and ap-
plicable theories.

Step 4: Developing Ideas Through Discussions (D)

Principle: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful in-
formation.
Purpose: - Develop various new ideas through discussion - Gain insights
from experienced perspectives
With Whom to Discuss: - Colleagues - Others with enough experience
in the same area - Professionals working on similar problems - Experience
survey - discussions with experienced professionals
Value of Such Discussions:

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1. Enlightenment - People with rich experience enlighten researcher on
different aspects of proposed study
2. Advice and Comments - Invaluable contributions from experienced
professionals - Guidance on practical considerations
3. Practical Insights - Help with general approach to the problem - Sug-
gest techniques that might be used - Propose possible solutions - Share
lessons learned from similar research
Benefit: Harness collective expertise to strengthen research approach.
Outcome: Refined understanding, better methodology ideas, and practical
suggestions.

Step 5: Rephrasing the Research Problem into a Working Proposition

(R)
Timing: Final step, after all previous steps completed.
Prerequisites Completed: - Nature of problem clearly understood - Environ-
ment defined - Discussions undertaken - Available literature surveyed
Task: Rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.
Result of Rephrasing: - Problem stated in specific terms - Becomes op-
erationally viable (actionable and researchable) - Helps in development of
working hypotheses - Clear problem statement guides all subsequent research
activities
Process: - Once all preparatory steps done, rephrasing is “not a difficult task”
- Problem becomes clear, specific, and ready for research
Outcome: - Clear, specific problem statement - Working hypotheses
developed - Research plan can be properly formulated
Summary: Through this 5-step process (Statement → Understanding nature
→ Surveying literature → Discussions → Rephrasing), a researcher transforms
a vague concern into a clearly defined, researchable problem.

END OF COMPREHENSIVE NOTES

QUICK REFERENCE SUMMARY TABLE: KEY RE-

SEARCH CLASSIFICATIONS

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Classification Types Key Distinctions
Research by Purpose Exploratory, Different objectives in
Descriptive, Diagnostic, discovering knowledge
Hypothesis-Testing
Research by Descriptive What happened
Outcome vs. Analytical vs. Why/How it
happened
Research by Applied Practical problems
Application vs. Fundamental vs. Theoretical
knowledge
Research by Data Quantitative Numbers
Type vs. Qualitative vs. Feelings/Opinions
Research by Basis Conceptual Theoretical vs. Real
vs. Empirical data/Experimental
Research by Time One-time Single period
vs. Longitudinal vs. Multiple periods
Research by Field vs. Laboratory Real-world
Environment vs. Historical vs. Controlled
vs. Historical
Data Collection Observation, Interview, Different methods with
Telephone, varying costs/benefits
Questionnaire, Schedule
Sampling Probability (Random, Random selection
Systematic, Stratified, vs. Non-random
Cluster, Area) selection
vs. Non-Probability
(Convenience,
Judgment, Quota)

QUICK REFERENCE: 11 STEPS OF RESEARCH PRO-

CESS
1. Formulating the Research Problem - Understand and rephrase prob-
lem
2. Extensive Literature Survey - Review existing knowledge and theories
3. Developing the Hypothesis - State possible answers/predictions
4. Preparing the Research Design - Plan how research will be conducted
5. Determining Sample Design - Decide how sample will be selected
6. Collecting the Data - Gather information through various methods
7. Execution of the Project - Carry out research systematically
8. Analysis of Data - Organize, code, tabulate, and analyze data
9. Hypothesis Testing - Test hypotheses with statistical methods

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10. Generalizations and Interpretation - Draw conclusions and develop
theories
11. Preparation of the Report - Document findings in structured report

QUALITY CHECKLIST FOR RESEARCH (SLER)

• � Systematic - Follows structured steps and rules, not intuition
• � Logical - Uses inductive and deductive reasoning appropriately
• � Empirical - Based on concrete, verifiable evidence from reality
• � Replicable - Can be repeated by others with same/similar results

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