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MODULE-1: ARTHROPODA - INSECTA

Learning objectives

This module deals with,

• classification of arthropoda,
• general features of arthropoda,
• metamorphosis,
• types of larva and pupa,
• characteristics of insecta and
• general features of dipteran fly.

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

• Arthropoda is a greek word meaning ‘arthros’-joint; ‘podos’-foot which refers to the fact that members of Phylum
Arthropoda have jointed limbs.
• The following characters are unique or special for members of this phylum:
o Morphology
o Exoskelton
o Internal structure
o Circulatory system
o Respiration
o Nervous System
o Alimentary /Digestive system
o Excretory system
o Reproductive system

GENERAL FEATURES OF ARTHROPOD

MORPHOLOGY- ARTHROPODS
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• Arthropods are metamerically-segmented

• The segments of arthropods are associated in groups, the anterior segments form the head, the middle ones -the thorax
and the posterior ones- the abdomen
• Appendages on the body are paired
• Head
o Paired antenna and paired appendages modified for feeding
• Thorax
o Walking legs
o 3 Jointed legs-each limb is made up of pieces called Podomeres
• Peculiar internal anatomy
o General body cavity is not a coelom, it’s a space filled with blood called haemocoel
• Tagmata
o The tendency to form tagma/regions is unique to arthropods e.g. cephalisation
o The process of modification of foremost segments to form head is called cephalisation
o Other segments of body are fused to form definite regions of the body

EXOSKELETON- ARTHROPODS
Striking features

• The hard outer covering of arthropod is made of chitin, it forms the Exoskeleton which covers the external surface of the
body
• It passes through the mouth and lines the anterior part of the alimentary tract which is called Stomodaeum
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• It also goes through the anus into posterior part of alimentary canal which is called Proctodaeum
• Exoskeleton is usually in the form of chitinous plates called Sclerites
• The dorsal sclerite is called Tergum
• Ventral sclerite is called Sternum
• Lateral plate between tergum and sternum is called Pleuron
• The tergum, sternum and pleuron of each segment are united by more flexible portions of exoskeleton which are
termed sutures
• As arthropods grow the exoskeleton will become too small for it, so it periodically casts off the exoskeleton and a new
exoskeleton is formed
• Casting off, of the exoskeleton is called Ecdysis or moulting
• The exoskeleton is lined by wax layer which serves as waterproofing to protect arthropods from desiccation
• The wax layer is covered by a cement layer whose function is to protect the vital wax layer

Function of exoskeleton

Acts as,

• Protection to the internal organs

• The first line of defence against extrinsic injuries
• Limiting membrane or skin
• For attachment of muscles
• Gives rigidity to the body
• Waterproofs the insect

INTERNAL STRUCTURE - ARTHROPODS

• The internal space - haemocoel is filled with blood called haemolymph

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - ARTHROPODS

• Expansion of blood vessels results in disappearance of blood vessels

• Their place is taken up by haemocoelic spaces which surround the internal organs
• These organs are bathed in hemolymph
• Blood is propelled through the body by the heart
• Heart is an enlarged or dilated longitudinal dorsal blood vessel
• It is enclosed in a compartment called pericardium
• Pericardium is like rest of haemocoel filled with hemolymph
• When heart pulsates it sucks hemolymph through openings on its wall called OSTIA and expels it again through short
arteries (the only blood vessels in the body)

RESPIRATION - ARTHROPODS

• Through skin in areas where exoskeleton remained thin and permeable - exchange of gases takes place. e.g. parasitic mites
• Through Gills
o Portions of body modified to form gills. e.g. Aquatic larvae of mosquitoes
• Through organs developed which can take air into interior of body
o Air breathing organs include
▪ Lung books e.g. Scorpions /spiders/Crabs
▪ Trachea e.g. Ticks, insects
▪ Tracheal lungs e.g. larvae of Hypoderma
▪ Tracheal system has large thin walled dilations- air sacs e.g. Lucilia
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NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Ganglia in head is connected to a double ventral nerve cord

• Along its course is a ganglion in each segment from which nerves pass into various organs
• When segments fuse ganglia also fuse
• Sense organs like auditory organ, statocysts (which enable arthropods to orient itself in space) tactile organs, eyes, sensory
setae and antennae are also present

ALIMENTARY/DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - ARTHROPODS

• Includes
o Anterior stomodaeum or foregut
o Mesenteron or midgut
o Porterior proctodaeum or hindgut
• Lined by chitinous exoskeleton.
• Anterior part of alimentary canal may have pharynx, at times behind this, a dilatation -the crop or proventriculus is
present which in some species is followed by a gizzard. The proventriculus acts as a valve to prevent regurgitation and may
have "teeth" to aid in the disintegration of food particles (flea)
• This leads to mesenteron or mid gut. It is flask shaped and its anterior narrow part is called cardia.
• It is here that food is digested and absorbed.
• The proctodaeum consists of an anterior ileum, colon, dilated rectum and anus. It opens out into exterior through anus.
The main function of the hind gut is the absorption of water from the faeces and urine
• Urine passes into the hindgut from the malpighian tubules, which open just behind the midgut.
• Faeces are excreted as dry pellets and nitrogenous waste as uric acid.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM - ARTHROPODS

• Nephridia e.g. crustaceans

• Excretory organs of insecta are called Malpighian tubules which are arranged in a ring around alimentary canal at the
junction of mid gut and proctodeum
• Coxal glands Malpighian tubules and coxal glands used for excretion by Arachnida

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - ARTHROPODS

• Sexes are usually separate except in some of the crustaceans.

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METAMORPHOSIS - ARTHROPODS

• Change in form of the arthropod associated with ecdysis or moulting is called Metamorphosis
• Two types of Metamorphosis,
o Ametabola or unchanged- Metamorphosis is absent. e.g. Thysanura (silver fish)
o Complete Metamorphosis or Holometabola
o Incomplete Metamorphosis or Hemimetabola

Click here to view Complete Metamorphosis vz. Incomplete Metamorphosis

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE

METAMORPHOSIS
Complete Metamorphosis Incomplete Metamorphosis
• Examples: Flies, Fleas • Ticks, Lice, Mites, Bugs

LIFE CYCLE

• EGG-NYMPH-ADULT e.g. Lice

• EGG-LARVA-PUPA(Imago)-Adult
• EGG-LARVA-NYMPH-ADULT e.g.
(Chrysalis)
Ticks
• (Click here to view the Lifecycle of
• (Click here to view the Lifecycle of
Complete Metamorphosis)
Incomplete Metamorphosis)
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• Complete metamorphosis is when • Incomplete metamorphosis is when

the adult stages are totally different the adults and immature stages
from the immature stages resemble one another
morphologically morphologically

• They also differ in their habitat • They share the same habitat too
• The young one is called larvae. It is
• Larvae/Nymph
immature stage of insect
• Larvae have ocelli only. No • Nymph and adult have compound
compound eyes eyes

• There is a prolonged resting phase-

• No resting stage
pupal stage
HABITAT

• Adults and immature stages occupy

• Occupy same habitat
different habitats e.g. mosquito
• Mites larvae/nymph and adult are all
larvae/pupae are aquatic while the
seen in the skin of host
adult is terrestrial

FEEDING HABIT
• Adults and immature stages feed • Similar feeding habits and mouth
differently parts

• Adults and immature stages have

different types of mouth part
• E.g. Mosquito piercing and sucking • E.g. In biting louse chewing mouth
mouth part in adult, chewing parts in larvae, nymph and adult
mouthparts in larvae, pupa non-
feeding stage

TYPES OF LARVAE
Classification of the types of larvae is mainly based on the head and number of legs

Eucephalus

• Larvae with distinct head and mouth part. e.g. larvae of mosquito

Acephalus

• Larvae with reduced head (or) no head. e.g. larvae of dipteran flies

Polypod larvae
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• Eucephalus
• Thorax with three segments, each with a pair of legs
• Abdomen with ten segments first 5 segments bearing fleshy hooked legs called prolegs
• It has both thoracic and abdominal legs e.g. caterpillar of butterfly

Oligopod larvae

• Eucephalus
• Thorax with three pairs of legs
• No abdominal legs. e.g. beetle larvae

Apodous larvae

• Acephalus (reduced head)

• No thoracic or abdominal legs e.g. larvae of house flies/blow flies

TYPES OF PUPA

• It is the quiescent phase between larva and imago (adult)

• Also called Chrysalis inside which the Imago is formed- (i.e) imago is the adult insect inside pupa

Types of Pupa

Exarate or Free Pupa

• Active pupa
• The wings and legs of developing adult can be seen externally and they are free from the rest of the body. e.g. beetles

Obtectate Pupa

• The legs and wings of developing adult is bound down to the body by moulting fluid
• They can be seen externally
• The adult emerges from pupa through a ‘T’ shaped opening. e.g. Brachycera, Nematocera

Coarctate Pupa

• Last larval skin is not cast off but forms a puparium inside which adult develops
• Developing adult cannot be seen externally
• Young adult emerges out through circular opening on pupal case e.g. pupa of house fly, stable fly

CLASS : INSECTA

• About 70% of all the species of all kinds of animals are insects
• Few are of veterinary importance
• Easily recognized because the body is clearly divided into
o Head
o Thorax
o Abdomen

HEAD - INSECTA
Head
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• Head is a rigid capsule formed by union of number of sclerites

• In some sutures between the sclerites are visible
• On the head is seen
o Eyes
o Antennae
o Mouth parts

Eyes

• Two types,
o Compound
o Simple

Compound Eyes

• Are placed laterally on the head.

• They are seen above the cheek or the gena.
• They may be
o HOLOPTIC - Compound eyes may meet at the mid line. e.g. Male mosquitoes, Male Tabanus
o DICHOPTIC- Compound eyes may be placed wide apart. e.g. Female mosquitoes, Female Tabanus

Dichoptic eye

• Each compound eye is made up of numerous facets or ommatidia

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• Function
o Perceives movement of objects
o Also night/day vision

Simple Eyes or Ocelli

• Typically three in number forming an inverted triangle

• Placed dorsally on the vertex (area between compound eyes)
• Function
o Perception of very near objects-coarse image light & dark

Antenna

• A pair of mobile jointed antenna are seen attached to head in front of and between the eyes
• Function
o Olfactory sense
o Tactile
o Hearing (auditory)- Johnston’s organ-important for identification
o The 1st antennal segment is called the scape, the next is the Pedicel while the remaining segments are called
the Flagellum
• Based on the number of segments the Order Diptera is classified into three sub orders-
o Nematocera
o Brachycera
o Cyclorrhapha
▪ Nematocera are dipterans with 14-16 antennal segments
▪ Brachycera have less than 6 segments usually 3 with annulations
▪ Cyclorrhapha have three antennal segments (short/squat in house flies).
o Antenna is also called Pilose or Plumose antenna based on the number of hairs on them
o Pilose antenna has less hair on the segment, the hairs are short (eg. female mosquito), while plumose antenna is
one which is very hairy. The hairs are long (eg. male mosquito)
o Some antennae also bear a specialised bristle called Arista
o Such antennae are called aristate antennae e.g. Musca domestica has a arista which is bilaterally plumed upto to
the tip

Mouth parts

• Mouth parts are studied to know the host skin piercing and non-piercing nature of insects thereby how the pathogenic
organisms are aquired and transmitted and what control measures may be best employed

Comprise of,

• Upper lip or Labrum which is the upper boundary of mouth

• Lower lip or Labium which is the lower boundary of the mouth
• Between these are a pair of mandibles and maxillae
• On the underside of labrum is a small membraneous structure – Epipharynx which bears the organ of taste
• Usually epipharynx is attached to the labrum to form Labrum epipharynx
• On the upper surface of labium is another membraneous structure - Hypopharynx which bears the opening of salivary
duct
• Sensory structures include maxillary and labial palps
• Typical chewing mouth parts are not seen in all insects
• Modifications occur e.g. fine piercing stylets as in mosquitoes expansion of labium into a greatly expanded structure for
inbibing fluids e.g. Musca spp.
• Mouth parts are classified -
o lapping type (sieve mechanism) e.g. House fly
o Piercing and sucking type e.g. Bed bug, Tick, Mosquito
o Cutting and lapping type [Link]
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THORAX - INSECTA

• Has three segments

o Prothorax
o Mesothorax
o Metathorax
• These segments may be distinct and separate or may be fused together.
• Appendages on the thorax include
o Legs- a pair, one for each segment
o Wings

Legs

• Consist of basal coxa by which the leg is attached to the body, followed by trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus.
• Tarsus is usually five jointed.
• Last tarsal segment is provided with a pair of claws.
• Below each claw a pad like structure called pulvilli is seen.
• Between the claws a sensory pad like structure or spine/bristle like structure called empodium /arolium can be seen.

Wings

• Normally two pairs-on meso and meta thorax

• In Diptera the posterior pair is reduced to a pair of balancers or halteres
• Wings are supported by veins or breathing tubes (trachea) which give rise to the wing venation. Identification of insects is
based on wing venation. The veins are named as costa, sub costa and 6 longitudinal veins. Refer the textbooks for other
methods of naming wing venation

ABDOMEN - INSECTA

• Clearly segmented, soft and membranous

• Copulatory claspers are seen in male on the last abdominal segment while in the females, the Ovipositor is seen

GENERAL FEATURES OF A DIPTERAN FLY

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ANTENNA AND WINGS OF DIPTERA

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MODULE-2: NEMATOCERA - CULICIDAE AND PSYCHODIDAE

Learning objectives

This module deals with,

• Mosquitoes (Culicidae),
• Sand flies(Psychodidae) and
• the details of morphology, life cycle pattern, effect of these flies on the host and control.

NEMATOCERA

• Sub Order: Nematocera (Nemato means long, cera means antenna).

• Family
o Culicidae
o Psychodidae
o Simuliidae
o Ceratopogonidae

MOSQUITOES

• Family: Culicidae
• Species: Anophles quadrimaculatus, [Link]
▪ Culex tarsalis, Culex fatigans
▪ Aedes dorsalis, Aedes aegypti
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o General Morphology
o Life Cycle
o Differences between Anopheline and Culicine mosquitoes
o Control

MOSQUITOES-GENERAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Head

• Small and spherical

• Eyes: Large compound eyes, holoptic in males and dichoptic in `females , Ocelli absent
• Antenna: Long and slender antenna, 14-15 segmented, plumose in males and pilose in females
• Mouthparts: Mouthparts are piercing and sucking type - type of feeding is called solenophage - pipe feeding
• Only females feed on blood
• Females show the presence of a pair of mandibles which are long and needle like –they pierce the skin
• A pair of maxillae which are stylet like are present
• Food channel is formed by the opposition of hypopharynx and labrum epipharynx
• Labium does not enter the wound
• Male mosquitoes live on nectar or fruit juices as they do not have the mandibles or maxillae

Thorax

• Wedge shaped
• Legs: Three pairs of legs, the third pair is called the floating pair since it does not touch the substrate while resting
• Wings: Wings are narrow, lanceolate and bears scales
• Wing venation is characteristic in that the 2nd, 4th and 5th longitudinal veins are forked

Abdomen

• Long and slender

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MOSQUITOES-LIFECYCLE
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EGG - MOSQUITOES

• Laid on water
• Wide variation in habitat occurs
• It depends on the individual species preference for presence or absence of decayed material, acidity and alkalinity
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MOSQUITOES - LARVA

• Mosquitoes - Larva is called as “wrigglers”

• Four larval stages in the life cycle
• Larvae feed on algae and other organic matter available in the water
• Body has head, thorax and abdomen
• Head bears simple eyes, antennae and hairs. The mouth parts are mastigatory and are surrounded by brushes called the
feeding brushes. These produce currents in the water in order to draw the food particles to the mouth openings
• Thorax is unsegmented and bears hairs
• Abdomen has 10 segments. Tufts of hair are seen on the lateral aspect of all segments with the help of which the larvae
stay afloat
• Stigmal opening is located at the junction of the 8th and 9th abdominal segments. The opening is called Respiratory fossa
in Anophelines while in the Culicines it is covered by a tube called the Siphon tube
• On the ventral aspect of the siphon tube is a row of spines called the Pecten
• The 8th abdominal segement in certain species reveals the presence of spines called combs
• The 10th segment usually bears tufts of hairs – the dorsal and ventral caudal brushes and the tracheal gills
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PUPA - MOSQUITOES

• Commonly called the "tumblers" due to the tumbling movement they exhibit
• Aquatic, comma shaped
• The head and the thorax are fused together to form the Cephalothorax
• Below this is the flexed abdomen
• On the dorsal aspect of the head a pair of breathing trumpets are seen
• The 9th abdominal segment shows the presence of a pair of paddles which enable the pupa to move
• The life cycle is usually completed in a weeks time-it may be prolonged under adverse conditions
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANOPHELINE AND CULICINE

MOSQUITOES
Character Anophelines Culicines
Genus and species • Genus : Anopheles • Genus: Culex
• Species: A. • Species: C. fatigans
stephensi • Genus: Aedes
• Species: A. aegypti
Common Names • Anopheles is referred to as • Aedes is called the tiger
thedappled mosquito due mosquitodue to the presence
to the presence of of white bands at the leg
dappling on the wings joints
Difference in the adults
Resting Posture Rests at an angle to • Rests with the abdomen
the surface. The proboscis parallel to the surface while
is held forward, thus the proboscis is bent down.
proboscis and abdomen So abdomen and proboscis
are in a straight line are at an angle to one
another
Morphology Head –
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Mouthparts • Maxillary palp is as long

as the proboscis and has a
Male club shaped appearance
• Maxillary palp as long as the
proboscis and not clubbed

Female • Maxillary palp as long as

the proboscis
• Maxillary palp is short and is
one third the length of the
proboscis

Antenna
Thorax

• Scutellum •Unilobed and crescent •Trilobed

shaped

• Accumulation of scales at
•Wings the anterior border of the •No dappling
wing giving it a dappled
appearance
• No white bands at the
•Legs joints of legs • White bands are seen at the
joints of legs in the case of
the Aedes alone
• Last abdominal segment is
Abdomen • Last abdominal segment is narrow and pointed
broad and rounded at the
tip

• While Culex spp. Can fly

more than a mile from the
• Fly almost a mile from breeding place Aedes spp. do
their breeding areas, not fly far from their
Habits anthrophilic, nocturnal breeding area. The bites of
biter, painful bites and the culicines are not so
prefer the ankle of man painful as that of the
and in animals the fetlock anophelines. They are
region ornithophilic in addition to
being anthrophilic

Difference in the lifecycle

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Breeding areas • Prefer fresh water such as • Culex spp. oviposit in dirty,
running water, rain water, contaminated water such as
water used for irrigation those in the drains, cess pit,
purposes, streams, lakes ditches
etc., etc.,Aedes [Link]
prefers water held in
containers, such as tanks,
water stored in buckets, rain
water in the tree holes, tyres,
tins, pots etc.,
Egg • Laid single, boat shaped • Culex spp. lays eggs in
with lateral floats and masses. The eggs are
frills arranged vertically with the
• One female can lay 40-100 pointed end towards the
eggs at a time surface of the water. Its
referred to as the “Egg raft”
A female can lay around
200-600 eggs at a
time. Aedes spp. lays single
eggs. The eggs are
cylindrical and reticulated
• Siphon tube is long and
Larvae • Absence of siphon tube conical inCulex [Link] it’s
Larvae lie parallel to the short in Aedesspp. Larvae
water surface with the hang down vertically from
respiratory fossa applied the water surface. Palmate
to the water surface. hairs are absent. Pecten is
Palmate hairs present on present, its short in the case
the body segments enable ofCulex spp. while
the larvae to float parallel in Aedes spp. its long. A
to the water surface. larva of Culex spp. is smaller
Green in colour than the Aedes spp.
Pupae • Breathing trumpets are • Breathing trumpets are long
short and broad. and narrow. No palmate
Abdominal segments with hairs.
palmate hairs. • Cephalothorax away from
Cephalothorax close to the the abdominal segment
1st abdominal segment

Difference in the vector potentiality

Man • Human malaria(caused • Filariasis in man caused
byPlasmodium byWuchereria bancrofti,
falciparum, [Link], Brugia malayi. Culex spp. is
[Link] etc.,) responsible for the
transmission of Japanese B
encephalitis virus in
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children which causes brain

fever. Aedesspp is involved
in the transmission of
Yellow fever virus, dengue,
haemorraghic fever, Rift
valley fever virus,
Animals Chikungunya fever virus
• Both the genus are involved
in transmission
•Dirofilaria immitis in of Dirofilaria immitis in
dogs dogs, Setaria digitatain
cattle, Eastern equine
• Setaria digitata in cattle encephalitis virus and
[Link] encephalitis virus

Click here to view the difference in lifecycle between Anopheline and Culicine mosquito
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MOSQUITOES - CONTROL
Immature Stages (Larvae and Pupae)

Managemental practices

• This is done by elimination/reduction of the breeding areas

• Stagnation of water to be avoided –fill up pits with sand
• Removal of vegetations and weeds over the water bodies
• Drains, cess pits etc., to be covered
• Aedes spp. can be easily controlled by covering stored water in buckets or over head tank, water in tree holes can be
drained or covered up, proper disposal of tyres and other containers that can hold water and be a potential source for
breeding of the mosquito

Biological control

• Use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis –control of Culicines.

• Fishes such as Gambusia, Guppies feed on the larvae of mosquito-useful in control in ornamental tanks
• Predacious larvae of the mosquito species, Toxorhynchites spp.
• Extracts of Vasambu (Acorus calamus)

Chemical control

• Spraying insecticides is not recommended in fresh water sources –however the insecticides can be sprayed in sewage,
drains etc to control the culicines
• Spraying of paris green (copper acetoarsenite) mixed with kerosene is a safe larvicide
• Radiation technique e.g. sterile insect technique

Adults

• Use of nets, impregnated nets, repellents on individuals

• Use of insecticides in the form of mats, coils, vapourisers and sprays
• Currently used insecticides are the synthetic pyrethroids
• For animal sheds malathion can also be used

SAND FLIES

• Family : Psychodidae
• Genus : Phlebotomus
• Species : [Link]., [Link]
o Small hairy flies about 2.5 mm in length
o Wings heavily clothed with hairs/scales so venation is obscured, wings are held roof like over the abdomen
during rest
o Referred to as Sand Flies/Moth Flies/Owl Midges
▪ Morphology
▪ Life cycle
▪ Habits
▪ Effect on the host
▪ Control

SAND FLIES - MORPHOLOGY

• Small, like miniature mosquitoes

• 2-3 mm long, rarely 5 mm
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• Light yellow to grey in colour- hence the common name sand fly
• Body densely covered with hairs

Head

• Elongated, hangs down from the thorax

• Eyes: Conspicuous large dark compound eyes-hence the common name owl midges
• Antenna: similar in both males and females - Moniliform (with a beaded appearance), 16 segmented Each segment of the
antenna is encircled by whorls of hair
• Mouthparts: adapted for biting
• Palps: pendulous, hairy and 5 jointed

Thorax

• Raised/arched/humped, covered with hairs

• Wings: large lanceolate, held roof like over the abodomen. 2 nd longitudinal vein forked twice.
• Legs: long slender and stilt like covered with hairs

Abdomen

• Long, 8-10 segmented, and covered with hairs

• It is rounded posteriorly in females while in males claspers are present
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LIFECYCLE- SAND FLIES

• Egg -Larva(L1-L4) -Pupa- Adult

• Breeding habitat
o Cracks, crevices, holes in the wall, rocks
o Non aquatic
o Dark, moist areas with decaying organic matter

Click here to view the life cycle of Sand flies

SAND FLIES - EGGS

• Ellipsoidal in shape, 0.3 to 0.4 mm long with rounded ends

• Yellowish in colour when laid which turns dark brown
• Show the presence of shining longitudinal black wavy lines, raised slightly and joined by slender cross lines
• 40-50 eggs are laid in a lifetime by the female fly

SAND FLIES-LARVAE

• Eggs hatch in 1-2 weeks, the emergence of the L1 is by using the egg breaker situated at the anterior end
• Larvae feed on faeces of lizard and other animals, decaying organic matter and even dried leaves
• They have a distinct sclerotized head
• Eyes are absent
• They have 12 segments, 3 thoracic and 9 abdominal
• All segments have feathered hairs resembling match stick
• Terminal segments have the characteristic caudal bristles, 4 bristles in L 3 and 2 in L 1 and L 2
• The first seven segments possess small false legs called the Pseudopods
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SAND FLIES - PUPA

• Pupal stage lasts for 1 to 2 weeks

• Last larval skin is not discarded, so the pupa remains in an upright position with the last larval skin attached to it
• It has a triangular head and a curved abdomen
• It resembles a miniature ram since the long antennal sheath curves below its eyes making it to look like a rams horn

SAND FLIES - HABITS

• Females suck blood while the males feed on plant juices

• Active at night and hides during day time
• They are weak fliers and make short hopping flights
• Seen only in the ground floor of buildings
• Females bite dogs, men, rodents, reptiles, lizards and other vertebrates
• In India, life cycle is completed in one and a half to two and a half months time
• In temperate regions the L 4 rests (diapause)

SAND FLIES - EFFECT ON THE HOST

Direct

• Nuisance due to the bites at night

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Indirect

• Vectors for the protozoan Leishmania donavani (which causes visceral leishmanosis)
• Phlebotomus sergenti is the vector for Leishmania tropica (which causes cutaneous leishmanosis)
• Sandfly fever or Papatasi fever due to a virus which is also transmitted by this fly

SAND FLIES - CONTROL

• Removal of dense vegetations to discourage breeding of the flies

• Plastering the walls of the huts with a mixture of lime and mud
• Mosquito eradication measures also enable control of Phlebotomus species
• Use of Impregnated nets
• Aphid alarm pheromone induces feeding of poison baits which kill the flies
• Cyfluthrin corn oil mixture sprayed in breeding areas of sandflies also helps in
control

MODULE-3: NEMATOCERA - SIMULIDAE AND

CERATOPOGONIDAE
Learning objectives

This module deals with,

• Buffalo Gnats(Simulidae),
• Punkies(Ceratopogonidae) and
• the details of morphology, life cycle pattern, effect of these flies on the host and control.

BLACK FLIES

• Family: Simuliidae
• Genus: Simulium
• Species: S. indicum, [Link], [Link], [Link]
• Common Name: Black flies, Buffalo gnats, Turkey gnats
• Small, dark (hence the name black flies), squat bodied, thick set flies
• Hump backed nematocera, larger than the ceratopogonids
o Morphology
o Life Cycle
o Habits
o Effect on Host
o Control

BLACK FLIES - MORPHOLOGY

• Body covered with short golden or silvery hairs

Head
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• Eyes: Kidney shaped compound eyes, dichoptic in females and holoptic in males
• Antenna: Short, thick, cigar shaped which projects forward (resembles the horn of a buffalo and hence the common name)
o 11 segmented, compacted and is moniliform or beaded in appearance
o Not plumose or pilose- bare
• Palps: 5 segmented, pendulous, longer than the proboscis
• Mouthparts: biting type in female

Thorax

• Humped over head

• Wings: short, broad with large anal lobe
• Well developed radial veins (anterior veins), weaker cubital and median veins (posterior veins)
• Characteristic feature is the presence of alary nipples on the wing which help to waterproof the wing

Abdomen

• Male terminalia compact and inconspicuous

BLACK FLIES- LIFECYCLE

Egg- Larva (L1-L6-9)-Pupa- Adult.

Breeding site

• Fluvial ecosystem- running water, ranging from torrential mountain streams to slow moving lowland rivers
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• In India seen in the waterfall areas of Himalayan mountains and in Tamil Nadu recorded at Kuttralam

(Click here to view the Lifecycle of Black fly)

BLACK FLIES - EGGS

• Laid during the afternoon and evening times, laid in batches of 200-800
• Communal egg mass is common
• Laid on water/objects close to the waterline or in areas wetted by water or in the splash zone
• 100-400 μm in size, long ovoid triangular in shape and covered with a gelatinous sticky substance
• Hatch in 3-4 days or even 12-14 days

BLACK FLIES - LARVAE

• Whitish or greenish in colour

• 6-9 larval stages, mature larva is 4-12 mm long, elongate, Indian club or hour glass shaped body
• The posterior end of the abdomen and thorax are broader than the anterior part of the abdomen
• Distinct sclerotized head, black with a pair of simple eyes
• Prominent pair of cephalic fans (labral fans) which aid filter feeding by the larvae
• Larvae are anchored to the rocks by means of the thoracic and abdominal prolegs, these are provided with a circlet of
hooks which enables adhesion with the substrate
• The larva also produces silk with the help of the silk glands and the hooks on prolegs enmesh with the silk pad produced
by the silk glands
• Typical movement of the larvae over the substrate is by the looping movement, especially in areas where there is threat of
the fast flowing water removing the larvae from its original habitat
• Mature larva is recognized by a gill spot on either side of the thorax
• Larva is also provided with 3 pairs of retractable anal gills
• Larvae are carnivorous and predacious on aquatic organisms
• They are phoretic on crabs or any fast moving objects
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BLACK FLIES - PUPA

• Obtectate
• Mature larva is a pharate pupa within the larval skin. The pharate pupa spins a cocoon often slipper shaped, brown in
colour with the closed end directed upstream and the open end downstream which helps to prevent the cocoon getting
torn off from the substrate
• Cocoon is formed within an hour of the last larval skin being shed
• The head and the thorax of the pupa are combined to form cephalothorax
• There is the presence of a segmented abdomen which has spines and hooks on it to engage with the threads of the cocoon
and retain the pupa in its place
• The cephalothorax bears a pair of prominent, filamentous, elongate, branched pupal gills which trail downstream of
cocoon. These are homologous to the respiratory trumpets
• Pupa does not feed and becomes darker as the adult develops. The mature pupa takes a silvery appearance when a film of
air is seen between the pharate adult and the pupal cuticle
• When the pupal exuviae splits, the adult floats up to the surface of water in a bubble of air
• Mass emergence of thousands of adults takes place (communal breeder) resulting in thousands of bubbles on the water
surface giving the appearance of boiling water!!
• Pupal period lasts for 2-6 days
• Newly emerged adults crawl up some immersed objects
• In tropical countries continuous breeding occurs
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BLACK FLIES - HABITS

• Adult females suck blood, attack in swarms

• They are opportunistic feeder, feed either on human or animals, also known to be ornithophilic
• They are diurnal, exophilic and exophagic
• Can enter the natural openings of the body
• Mating is close to the breeding site

BLACK FLIES - EFFECT ON THE HOST

Direct Effect

• Annoyance, painful bites resulting in severe reactions which may lead to death of an individual
• Petechial haemorrhages especially on areas of fine skin, oedema of throat and abdomen is common
• Flies enter the natural orifices especially the nose, eyes, ears and mouth of individuals
• The flies attack in swarms and gadding is seen in animals
• Milch cows are badly bitten and the teats are bloody and blocked or so sore that they do not tolerate milking, calves can
not suckle
• Repeated biting in man results in a syndrome called the black fly fever. This is characterised by headache, fever, sweating,
shivering, nausea, swelling and tenderness of the lymphnodes, aching joints, lassitude and psychological depression
• Causative agents : S. venustum, S. erythrocephalum, S. posticalum.

Indirect Effect (vector potentiality)

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• Transmits Leucocytozoon smithi in turkeys and L. simondi in ducks

• Intermediate host for Onchocerca gutturosa in cattle and O. volvulus of man which is very important since the filarid is
the cause of river blindness in man
• Mansonella ozzardi?
• It also transmits eastern equine encephalitis virus and vesicular stomatitis virus in cattle

CONTROL - BLACK FLIES

• Very difficult since the flies breed far away from habitations and the flies can fly 3-5 kms or more in search of hosts.
• Since they are exophilic, medicated screen can be used in animal houses and animals must be restrained within the houses
during the fly season.
• The breeding areas of the flies are highly fragile eco systems, use of chemicals in such areas is not warranted.
• WHO has recommended the use of a biodegradable product – Abate(Temephos) to be sprayed aerially using helicopters
.This is a part of the 20 year programme along the nile river to control river blindness in man.
• Cholphoxim can be used in areas where resistance to abate has developed.
• For poultry, dust baths with 0.5% Lindane is recommended.
• Biological control using Bacillus thuringiensis has been attempted.

BITING MIDGES

• Family : Ceratopogonidae
• Genus : Culicoides
• Species : C. fulvithorax, [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]
• Common names : Biting midges, No-see-ums, Punkies
o Small inconspicuous flies with wings folded over the abdomen, usually appear as swarms
o Of the four sub-families, only sub-family Ceratopogoninae is of veterinary importance
▪ Morphology
▪ Life Cycle
▪ Habits
▪ Effect on Host
▪ Control

MORPHOLOGY - BITING MIDGES

• Small, 1-2mm long

Head

• Small with prominent eyes

• Antenna : 12-14 segmented, plumose in male and pilose in female
• Small biting type of mouthparts
• Maxillary palps : Long

Thorax

• Wings with light and dark pattern, due to pigmentation in the wing membrane-grey with pale spots covered with minute
setae
• Presence of distinct humeral pits in the anterolateral region of the scutum
• Legs are relatively short

Abdomen

• 9 segmented, dull grey to yellowish black or brown in colour

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• Male slender than female with conspicuous claspers

• Posterior end is rounded in females

LIFECYCLE - BITING MIDGES

Egg- Larva (L1-L4)-Pupa-Adult

Breeding site

• Wet soil- can be seen in a wide variety of habitats. Individual species utilise only a very limited range of breeding sites
• Usually can be seen along the muddy shoreline of dairy waste, water ponds and muddy sites contaminated with decaying
vegetable matter or even excreta
• Most species disperse only short distance from their breeding site- important point to be noted for control of these pests
• Mostly are diurnal in habit

Click here to view the life cycle of Biting midges

EGGS - BITING MIDGES

• Small, 0.5 mm long, laid in batches of 30-40

• They are banana shaped, cylindrical and curved
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• They are dark in colour and hatch in 2-9 days

LARVAE - BITING MIDGES

• Four larval instars

• They are cylindrical, white with well sclerotized head
• There are 11 body segments i.e. 3 thoracic and 8 abdominal and are
without appendages
• Larvae show a characteristic eel like or serpentine movement
• At the posterior end they have 2 pairs of narrow, bifid anal papillae (gills)
which are retractable into the rectum
• This stage lasts for 14-25 days

Last modified: Thu

PUPA - BITING MIDGES

• 2 - 4 mm, brown and highly
chitinised
• Head and thorax are fused
together
• It bears moderately long,
tubular prothoracic horns for
respiration
• Dorsal surface of pupa is
covered with spines and
tubercles
• Segmented abdomen ends in a
pair of caudal spines with the
help of which the pupa moves
over the substrate.
• This is a short lived, non
feeding stage
• Usually seen buried in the
substrate and only prothoracic
horns protrude on the surface
• This stage lasts for 3 - 10 days
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HABITS - BITING MIDGES

• Females suck blood from both man and animals

• They are painful biters, crepuscular in feeding habit
• Following a blood meal, the female usually appears like a drop of blood flying in the air
• They feed close to the breeding sites, are exophilic and exophagic

EFFECT ON THE HOST- BITING MIDGES

Direct

• They cause very painful bites and are a source of irritation to man and animals
• C. robertsi is known to cause an allergic dermatitis in horses in Queensland, Australia
• The condition is called as Queensland itch, sweet itch, sweat itch or summer dermatitis
• The withers and base of the tail of the horse which are bitten by the fly are mainly affected
• There is an immediate hypersentitivity reaction and intense pruritis is observed in affected horses
• Further, there is loss of hair and hyperpigmentation
• The condition resolves by itself

Indirect (vector potentiality)

• They act as vectors for,

o Blue tongue virus in sheep
o African Horse sickness virus
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o Bovine ephemeral fever virus

o Eastern equine encephalitis virus
o Leucocytozoon caulleryi in fowls
o Haemoproteus nethionis in ducks, geese etc.
• They also act as intermediate host for filarid nematodes like Onchocerca cervicalis in horses and O. gibsoni in cattle

CONTROL - BITING MIDGES

• Identification and modification of breeding areas is essential

• Since Culicoides spp. breed around leaking water troughs- stagnation of water giving rise to the optimum breeding
condition of this fly should be prevented
• For man, clothes impregnated with DEET (N N diethyl m toulamide) is recommended
• Light/U.V traps are available for trapping Culicoides
• Baits using a potential attractant -1 Octane 3 Ol which simulates the body odour of cattle can be made use of
• Biological control can be affected using Eucalyptus extract, Bacillus thuringiensis

MODULE-4: BRACHYCERA
Learning objectives

This module deals with,

• TABANUS SP. (BRACHYCERA),

• pupipara flies namely Hippoboscids, Melophagus and Pseudolynchia,
• the morphology, life cycle and vector potentiality.

BRACHYCERA

• Sub Order :Brachycera (brachy – short; cera- horn)

• Family : Tabanidae

HORSE FLY
Family : Tabanidae

Genus : Tabanus
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T.
Species : striatus,
[Link]

Common Names: Blind fly, horse fly, gad fly, marsh fly, breeze fly, green heads

• Morphology
• Life Cycle
• Habits
• Effect on the host
• Control

MORPHOLOGY- HORSE FLY

• Large and robust fly

Head

• Eyes: Large compound eyes, unicolorous and horizontally banded. Holoptic in males and dichoptic in females. Ocelli
vestigial
• Antenna: 3 segmented and porrect. Third segment is the largest and equal to the 1st and 2nd put together. Third segment
has a tooth like projection/spur at the base and 4 annulations
• Mouthparts: cutting and sponging type. Coarse biting parts, mandibles are blade or sword like, maxillae ending in rasp
like structures distally. Mandibles cut the skin of the host while the maxillae probe deeper, hypopharynx adds the
anticoagulant and blood is drawn into the food channel
• The flies are pool feeders - Telmophagy
• Labium ends in labella containing the pseudotracheal membrane which also helps to lap up blood during the feeding
process. Maxillary palps are two segmented and prominent
• The coarse mouth parts and feeding habit of the tabanids frighten the host and hence the tabanids are interrupted while
feeding which necessitates the intermittent feeders to visit many animals for engorgement. This intermittent feeding habit
of Tabanids makes them potential vectors of diseases

Thorax

• Has longitudinal white stripes

• Wings are clear with the 4th radial vein being forked at the apex
• Discal cell is hexogonal in shape

Abdomen
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• Brown in colour
• Frequently has longitudinal stripes

LIFE CYCLE - HORSE FLY

Egg - Larva (L1-L 7-11) - Pupa-Adult.

Breeding areas

• Hemihydrobionts- (i.e.) they lay eggs on the soil or vegetation near water

Click here to view the lifecycle of Horse Fly

EGGS - HORSE FLY

• Laid in masses of 200-1000, glued to the surface of substrate especially vegetation overhanging water
• Creamy white in colour, become darker later on
• Stratified into 2-3 layers
• Cigar shaped and water proofed

HORSE FLY - LARVAE

• Hatch out in 4-7 days and drop into the water or the mud
• 7-11 larval instars are seen
• They are 11 segmented, maggot like, cylindrical with pointed ends
• The larvae are carnivorous and can even bite man
• They have a distinct chitinous head, 3 thoracic and eight abdominal segments
• A retractible siphon tube is seen on the 8th abdominal segment. An organ called the Graber’s organ is located on the
penultimate segment and is known to have respiratory and sensory functions
• The 1-7 abdominal segments show the presence of fleshy projections on the ventral aspect which are referred to as the
pseudopods
• Terminal abdominal segment has fleshy anal papillae

PUPAE - HORSE FLY

• Obtectate with distinct cephalothorax and 8 abdominal segments

• Usually seen in the drier parts of the breeding area
• Have ear shaped spiracles to enable respiration
• The terminal abdominal segment has six lobes bearing spine like processes called the caudal aster
• This stage lasts for 1-3 weeks

HABITS - HORSE FLY

• Flies are very fond of sunlight, usually seen in morning hours

• Flies have a habit of skimming over water and occasionally dipping their bodies into it
• The entire life cycle can take even 6 months to complete, so usually 2 broods of flies are produced every year
• Females suck blood around the naval are, neck, withers, abdominal region also the back and hindlegs
• Vicious biters and bite [Link] bite indiscriminately and cannot be easily disturbed while feeding and hence
the common name blind fly
• Feed during the hottest parts of the day
• Flies prefer large animals like horses, cattle but attack man when animals are not available
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EFFECT ON THE HOST - HORSE FLY

Direct Effect

• The sight of the fly results in panic amongst the animals and they run madly- gadding. This results in the animals getting
fractured, abortion in pregnant animals and even death
• The bites are painful and irritating and may give rise to wheals in soft skinned animals
• The tabanids also feed blood @0.2-0.3ml per day which can result in anaemia
• Due to the addition of anticoagulant through the saliva of tabanids, blood continues to ooze out of the wound and this
attracts other flies like Musca domestica to feed on the oozing blood- which can result in myiasis of the affected animal
• 17% reduction in feed conversion efficacy has been recorded in animals affected by Tabanid infestation

Indirect Effect (vector potentiality)

• Interrupted method of feeding of Tabanus makes mechanical vector for Trypanosoma evansi and cyclical vector
for Trypanosoma theileri
• Mechanically they can also transmit Anaplasma maginale and the causative organisms of anthrax, tularaemia, rinderpest
and equine infectious anaemia

CONTROL - HORSE FLY

• Very difficult since they fly far from their breeding areas

Adults

• Residual sprays of malathion on the shed walls

• Since the fly skims over water kerosene on water was used earlier to control the flies
• Ear tags with cypermethrin are effective
• Avoid the sunny parts of the day for grazing the animals
• Traps which are coloured black can be placed near breeding areas to trap tabanids

Immature stages

• Biological control using hymenopteran insects such as Hunterellus hookeri and ants such as Telenomus spp., which feed
on the eggs of tabanids

MODULE-5: CYCLORRHAPHA - MUSCIDAE AND OESTRIDAE

Learning objectives

This module deals with,

• musca and stomoxys (Muscidae)

• oestridae and to differentiate them on the basis of morphology, life cycle, breeding habitats, how they affect the host and
how to control them.

CYCLORRHAPHA

• Sub Order : Cyclorrhapha

• Series : Schizophora ; Pupipara
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SCHIZOPHORA
Series : Schizophora

Section • Calypterae (The squama of the • Acalypterae

wing is not well developed to
cover the halters)

Family • Muscidae • Gasterophilidae

• Oestridae
• Calliphoridae

HOUSE FLY - STABLE FLY

Family : Muscidae

Genus Musca Stomoxys

Species [Link], [Link], [Link]

[Link]

Common name House Fly, Picnic Fly Stable Fly

• Morphology, Life Cycle and Effect on host of House Fly and Stable Fly.
• Control
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOUSE FLY AND STABLE FLYT

Characters House Fly (Musca domestica) Stable Fly (Stomoxys calcitrans)

MORPHOLOGY

Common House Fly, Picnic Fly, Dairy Fly (View Stable Fly, Dog Fly, Biting house
Name image...) Fly (View image...)
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Medium sized, grey in colour, 6 to 7 mm Resembles [Link]

long

Head • Two large compound eyes • Differs in that the arista is

• Three segmented antenna plumed only on the dorsal
• Presence of arista on the third aspect- has 8-10 bristles
antennal segment • Mouthparts non retractile and a
• Arista bilaterally plumed upto the forwardly directed baton like
tip proboscis. (Click here to view
• Mouthparts- lapping and sponging the mouth parts of Stomoxys)
type of mouth part. (Click here to • Biting type of mouth part
view the mouth parts of Musca) • Flies are blood suckers
• Retractible into the head
• Flies are not blood suckers
Thorax • Grey with four longitudinal dark • Grey with four longitudinal
stripes all of which extend to the stripes but the lateral pair are
posterior border of the thorax narrow and do not extend upto
• Wing venation is characteristic in the posterior border
that the 4th longitudinal vein • The apical cell is open
curves upwards at about the • Wing kept at divergent angle
middle and joins the 3rd vein to
form the closed apical cell
Abdomen • Yellowish round colour • Ground grey
• Five segments of which 4 are • Yellowish stripes on 2ndand
visible. Presence of median black 3rd segment which do not reach
longitudinal stripe which diffuses the lower border
on the 4th abdominal segment in • Two lateral circular dots on 2nd
male while in females either side and 3rd segment.4th segment
of the abdomen is marked with a wth triangular spot or band
diffuse dark band
LIFE CYCLE

Breeding • Garbage, manure- horse dung • Prefers to lay eggs on the

areas preferred, decaying organic bedding material of horses-
debris (View image...),Poultry that is straw which is soiled
manure, human excreta, abundant with urine of the horses
in rainy season • Never breed on human excreta,
abundant in summer and
autumn
Eggs • 100-150 eggs are laid at a time and • 25- 50 eggs are laid after blood
an average of 600/lifetime meal
• Elongate creamy white, • Eggs are dirty white or yellow
oval/banana shaped/ 1mm long in colour, 1 mm, with only one
with two ridge like thickenings on dorsal ridge or hatching pleat
the dorsal aspect- the hatching • Both male and female suck
pleat blood
• Singly laid
Larvae • Three larval stages. Larval • Acephalus, apodous. The larval
development takes a week stages last 20 days
• L3 • Similar to Musca spp. except
o 12 mm long, white, maggot that the posterior spiracles are
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like with 12 segments, 3 widely separated and are

thoracic and 8 abdominal roughly triangular in shape
segments (View image...) with three ‘S’ shaped stigma
o Head with two chitinised slits
black oral hooks with
sensory tubercles (2)
o Mouth lies between them
o Above mouth is a pair of
hooks- black and chitinous
o Oral (or) mouth hooks- Its
part of cephalopharyngeal
skeleton. Left hook smaller
than right
o Last segment largest with
obliquely truncated shape
o Ventral aspect of the
segments (8) show
cresentric pads covered
with short recurved spines-
aids in locomotion
o Fan shaped lateral
spiracles on Prothorax
o D shaped with 3 ‘m’
shaped winding slits-
button- posterior spiracles
Pupa • Last larval skin retained- • Pupation in drier part of
puparium breeding area
• Barrel shaped,6-8 mm long, • Similar to Musca spp. Pupal
creamythen turn reddish (View stage lasts for 8 days
image...)
• Coarctate , brown, oval shaped
• Pupa emerges out by inflating the
ptilineal suture
• This stage lasts for 3 days
Adult • Sexually mature in 10-14 days • Life span- 1 month
after imergence • Entire lifecycle is completed in
• Average life span- 1 month one month
• Musca adult flies do not feed on • Both male and
blood – they lap blood which flow female Stomoxys spp. are
out of wounds etc haematophagus
• Entire lifecycle is completed in 7
to 12 days
EFFECT ON THE HOST

Direct • Nuisance, fly worry is known to • Both male and female suck
effect bring down production and feed blood and are painful biters
conversion efficacy • Anaemia in young animals
• Feed on wounds etc and result in • Fly worry
production of myiasis
Indirect • Musca is a synanthrope and hence • Mechanically
effect- has a high vector potentiality transmits Trypanosoma evansi
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vector • Bacterial diseases such as cholera, • Also is a mechanical vector for

potentiality typhoid, paratyphoid, T.B, anthrax, rinderpest, tetanus
salmonella, [Link], bacteria and poliomyelitis virus
anthrax etc., • Its an intermediate host
• Viral diseases such as for Habronema majus
poliomyelitis and infectious
hepatitis
• Protozoan diseases such as
amoebic dysentery, giardiasis
• Acts as the intermediate host
forHabronema muscae, Draschia
megastoma, Thelazia rhodesii,
Raillietina spp., Choanotaenia
infundibulum
• Mechanical transmission of the
eggs of the following is also
possibleTaenia solium, Toxocara
sp, Ancylostoma, Hymenolepis,
Dipylidium caninum and
Diphyllobothrium latum
CONTROL - HOUSE FLY
Managemental

• Potential breeding sites should be avoided by

o Regular removal of manure
o Stacking of manure- heat generated kills fly larvae- treating sides of stack with insecticides
o Spreading manure in a thin sheet
o Improve sanitation, collect garbage in cans. with tight fitting lids, incinerate garbage/ Hodge's garbage trap/
Babers Fly trap, latrin system on open ground should be avoided
o Do not expose food
o Use of various types of screens, electrocution grids
o Fly line (resin+paraffin oil sticky coat ---> 1,50,000 flies killed within 310 mts long string
o Insecticidal use,
▪ Aerosol sprays
▪ Residual sprays for walls, ceilings
▪ Insecticide impregnated cards/strips
▪ Insecticide in solid or liquid baits
▪ Insecticide dust bags "back rubbers"
▪ Impregnated ear traps, tail bands and halters (mostly synthetic pylrethroids)

Biological Control

• Steinernema feltiae- a common soil nematode is used to kill fly larvae(box with granules of S. feltiae)
• Parasitic wasps/cannibal fly- Predators
• Fungus- Beauvaria bassiana

OESTRIDAE

• Hairy flies, with rudimentary mouth parts, the adults do not feed
• These are protelean parasites where the larval stages are parasitic and the adults are non parasitic
• Family : Oestridae
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Genus Species
Oestrus [Link]
Hypoderma [Link]
SHEEP NASAL FLIES
Oestrus ovis

• Common name : Sheep nasal fly, Nasal bot fly, Sheep head fly, Sheep gad fly
• Morphology
• Lifecycle
• Effect on the host
• Control
• Prophylaxis

Click here to view the larva inside the sinus tracts of sheep skull

MORPHOLOGY - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

• Dark grey coloured hairy fly

Head

• Arista bare
• Mouth parts vestigial in adults
• Muscid type wing venation

Thorax

• Tarry spots are seen on the thorax

Abdomen

• Few black coloured spots are also seen on the abdomen

• The adult stages are non parasitic while the larval stages are seen in the nasal cavity and other sinuses of sheep/sometimes
in goats and man as well
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LIFECYCLE - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

• The flies are larviparous

• The female fly darts at the sheep
• When the sheep raises its head it deposits a larvae around the nostril of the sheep
• The first stage larvae then crawls into the nasal passage
• The larvae moves within using its oral hooks and feeds on the excess nasal discharge produced by the affected sheep
• The rate of the development of the first instar varies, may take just 2 weeks or could get extended to many months
• The larvae moults to form the second stage larvae which moves into the frontal and maxillary sinuses, here they develop
rapidly and form the third stage mature larvae
• Generally the third stage larvae is sneezed and the pupation occurs on the ground
• Usually the larval development is completed in 25 days time but can be extended to 9 months in unfavourable conditions
• The adult emerges in a month’s time

DESCRIPTION OF THE LARVAE - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

• The first stage larvae is whitish in colour

• The mature third stage larvae is large, around 3 cms long, with black oral hooks, dark black bands on all the segments on
the dorsal aspect
• On the ventral aspect they have small rows of rose thorn shaped spines
• The posterior end of the larvae appears large and truncated and the posterior spiracles are very clearly visible
• The spiracles are brown, ‘D’ shaped with radiating slits
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EFFECT ON THE HOST - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

Due to adult fly

• The very presence of the flies causes panic in sheep

• The flies may cause gadding in animals which run madly about resulting in injury and even death of young animals
• The animal stops feeding, becomes restless, shake their heads or even press their noses to the ground or between other
sheep in an attempt to avoid the fly from larvipositing. Since the feed intake is affected the condition of the animals
deteriorate

Due to larval stages

• The first stage larvae moves around in the nasal passage causing considerable irritation with its oral hooks and spines.
This result in the secretion of a viscid mucous exudates on which the larvae feed. At times the damage may result in blood
tinged mucous being secreted
• The infected sheep shakes its head, has a nasal discharge and sneezes frequently
• The nasal region of the affected sheep is dirty in appearance and hence the condition is sometimes called ‘snotty nose’
• Sometimes from the frontal and maxillary sinus the second stage larvae may accidentally move towards the brain, causing
injury to the brain and even erosion of the skull all of which leads to neurological symptoms in sheep which resemble the
condition caused by Coenurus cerebralis. Hence the condition is termed as ‘False gid’ or ‘sturdy’
• At times the larvae are deposited by the adult fly on man- frequently affected are the shepherds who are in close contact
with the animals
• The larvae have been reported to have been deposited on the eyes, nostrils, gums, lips etc., of man
• Click here to view the animation

CONTROL - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

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Treatment of the affected animals

• Instillation of HCH in oil 1-4% into the nostrils

• 55-88 mglkg of a mixture of 2g Neguvon and 0.2g asuntol
• 7.5mg/kg of Rafoxanide as a drench(nasal instillation?)
• Ivermectin

PROPHYLAXIS - SHEEP NASAL FLIES

• Feed sheep in narrow trouphs

• The edges of the trough should be smeared in tar. This enables the animals to
smear themselves with a repellent
• Neem oil can also be used as repellent

OX WARBLE FLIES
Hypoderma lineatum

• Common name : Ox warble fly, Heel fly, Cattle grub fly

• Morphology
• Life cycle
• Effect on the host
• Control
• Prophylaxis

MORPHOLOGY - OX WARBLE FLIES

• Hairy flies, resembles a bee

Head

• Vestigeal mouth parts

• Covered with yellowish white hairs

Thorax

• Covered with yellowish white hairs

Abdomen

• Light yellow hairs on the anterior end, darker hairs in the middle, posterior end of abdomen has orange yellow hairs

LIFECYCLE - OX WARBLE FLIES

• The adult fly does not feed and only oviposits on the cattle – usually the lower regions of the hind legs, hence the common
name ‘heel fly’
• A fly oviposits atleast 6 eggs towards the base of the hair of the cattle during the summer months
• The eggs are spindle shaped and provided with a clasper with the help of which they hold on to the hair
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• The egg hatches in 3-4 days

• The first stage larvae pierces through the skin and migrates in the intermuscular connective tissues to reach the
diaphragm
• Most larvae reach the tissues of the oesophagus in 4 months time and spend the winter in the submucosal connective
tissue of the oesophagus- hence the site is referred to as the winter resting site
• The first stage larvae moults to form the second stage larvae which in the beginning of spring, i.e., January migrate
towards the dorsal aspect of the body, reaches the subcutaneous tissue of the back and moults to the third stage
• The back of the animal is hence referred to as spring resting site
• When the larvae reach the skin of the back an inflammatory reaction results in the formation of sweliings
• The second stage larvae perforates the swelling
• It then moults and the third stage larvae lies upside down with the posterior spiracle directed against the perforation
• The mature larvae has no oral hooks and feeds on the inflammatory exudates in the swelling. These swellings in the skin
of the cattle are referred to as warbles
• The warble stage lasts for 30 days
• It falls off the warble into the soil and pupates
• Pupation take 1 month time
• Entire lifecycle is completed in one year

DESCRIPTION OF THE LARVAL STAGE - OX WARBLE FLIES

• Mature larvae lacks oral hook,2.5 cm in size, presence of fleshy tubercles on each of the segments, presence of fine spines
on the segments
• Posterior spiracles are kidney or bean shaped with radiating slits

EFFECT ON THE HOST - OX WARBLE FLIES

Due to Adult fly
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• The characteristic buzzing noise and the persistant ovipositing behaviour of the fly causes panic in cattle
• The flies may cause gadding in animals which run madly about resulting in injury, spontaneous abortion, and even death
of young animals
• The animal stops feeding, becomes restless. Since the feed intake is affected the condition of the animals deteriorate
• There is retarded growth and reduced milk yield

Due to larval stage

• Due to first larval stage

o Many larvae enter through the same opening in the skin which results in an exudate from the injured heel
region
o The opening made by the larvae is prone to bacterial infection and to myiasis
o The entry holes are oedematous and inflamed
• Due to the second and third stage larvae
o Migration of the larvae through the subcutaneous tissue results in the production of greenish yellow tracts with
eosinophilic infiltrations
o The affected beef is called ‘licked beef’ while the gelatinous tracks in the beef are temed ‘butchers jelly’
o The beef is unaesthetic and hence extensive trimming of the affected areas are required before sale, this results
in extensive loss to the farmer
o The affected beef even following trimming has a short shelf life
o The presence of the first and second stage larve in the oesophageal region can cause stenosis of the oesophagus
o Causes rupture?
o The presence of the second and the third stage larvae on the back of the animal results in formation of warbles
o In addition to being painful to the animal these warbles due to the perforation in them downgrades the quality
of hide to a great extent
o Accidental rupture of the warbles can result in anaphylactic shock
o It can also result in the production of abscess, due to bacterial infection
o The perforation can also attract other myiasis producers
o Affected animals are generally debilitated in appearance
o Thus carcass and hide depreciation are the most important features of this infestation
• Abberant host
o Man has been known to be affected – result in painful warbles in the chest region
o Horses can also be affected

CONTROL - OX WARBLE FLIES

• Mechanical removal of the larvae – can be done when the larvae is mature
• However attempts to squeeze out the larvae may rupture it which in turn results in localised swelling and abscess
formation
• Insecticides can be used – Ivermectin at 0.2mg/kg BW S/C is effective, Organophosphorus has also been given
parentrally or dermally
• Caution is required while using insecticide, since the death of the larvae in oesophageal region could have detrimental
effects
• Dry dressing could be applied to the warble especially to clog the pores which results in the death of the mature larvae

PROPHYLAXIS - OX WARBLE FLIES

• Prevention of the fly from ovipositing is possible if water bodies are available for the cattle to wade into and thus protect
their heel region
• Prophylaxis using vaccine is under study
• Hypodermin A is a potential vaccine candidate for [Link]

MODULE-6: CYCLORRHAPHA - GASTEROPHILIDAE

Learning objectives

This module deals with,

drprofessionals

• the important horse intestinal bot fly, gasterophilus equi. going through it will enable you to identify it, based on
morphology, learn its lifecycle and associate the pathogenesis caused by it.
• How to treat the condition and preventive measures are also included?

HORSE BOT FLIES

Family : Gasterophilidae
Genus : Gasterophilus
Species : [Link]([Link]), [Link], [Link]

• Common Name : Horse bot fly, Horse grub fly, Intestinal bot fly, Stomach bot
• The fly is a protelean parasite wherein the adult stages are non parasitic and the larval stages are parasitic
• They are seen in the stomach of horses
o Morphology
o Life cycle
o Effect on the host
o Treatment
o Control

MORPHOLOGY - HORSE BOT FLIES

• Adult flies are brown in colour, hairy, somewhat resembling bees

• 18mm long

Head

• Vestigial mouth parts

Thorax

• Wing shows the presence of a dark, irregular transverse band running across it

Abdomen

• Ends in a characteristic crooked prominent ovipositor

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LIFECYCLE - HORSE BOT FLIES

• Female fly hovers around the animal and oviposits on the distal half of the hair in the scalpular region and also around the
fetlocks of the forelimb
• The eggs are glued to the hair and hatch 5-10 days later only when the horse rubs and licks the area
• The moisture and friction is essential for the hatching of the eggs
• The first stage larvae penetrate the mucosa of the tongue and wander for a period of 28 days
• They moult to the second stage and this stage passes down the pharynx, oesophagus and reach the cardiac end of the
stomach where they attach themselves
• They remain for 5 weeks after which they moult to the third stage mature larvae
• The larvae remain in the non glandular portion of the stomach for a period of 10 months and the mature larvae is excreted
in the faeces
• Pupation is on the ground and one month later the adult flies emerge
• Total life cycle takes a year for completion

DESCRIPTION OF THE LARVAL STAGE - HORSE BOT FLIES

• Brown in colour with 2 rows of elongated spines encircling segments 2nd to 8th
• Oral hooks present in all the three stages
• The posterior spiracle is bean shaped with three wavy longitudinal slits
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EFFECT ON THE HOST - HORSE BOT FLIES

Adult flies

• The presence of the hovering flies result in gadding in horses and the resultant
injury, loss of condition due to improper feeding

Larval stages

• The first stage larvae during its migration in the tongue can result in ulceration
of the tongue
• The second stage larvae may attach itself to the epiglottis, the pharynx and can
cause injury to these regions by its oral hooks
• Since the second and third stage larvae ultimately attach to the non glandular
part of the stomach they do not seem to cause much damage
• However there is a inflammatory reaction to the attached larvae and the stomach
mucosa is thickened into a rim around the site of attachment
• Debility is observed in animals with the infestation and is believed to be due to
the toxicity of the excretions and secretions of the larvae
• The third stage mature larvae is also capable of causing injury by its oral hooks
and other spines to the rectal region when its passed out in the faeces
• However, generally horses harbour these larvae without any sign of discomfort or
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disease

Last modified: Wednesday, 30 June 2010, 02:13 PM

TREATMENT - HORSE BOT FLIES

Old Treatment

• Carbon disulphide given in a stomach tube or in a capsule at the rate of 2-5ml/kg Bwt. after an 18 hour fast
• Piperazine, Carbon disulphide complexor this mixture with phenothiazine complex @ 110mg/kg is effective against
Gasterophilus larvae

Others include

• Trichlorofon in feed or in water by stomach tube @ 39.6 mg/kg

• Combination of Thiobendazole and Trichlorofon @ 2gm Thiobendazole and 18gm Trichlorofon per 50kg Bwt
• Dichlorovos @ 26-50mg/kg feed or as a paste @ 20mg/kg
• Butonate @ 45mg/kg given by stomach tube

CONTROL - HORSE BOT FLIES

• Sponging the fetlock and scapular areas of horses with a warm insecticidal solution will simulate the licking of horses and
thus the eggs hatch
• The released larvae are killed when they come into contact with the insecticide

MODULE-7: CALLIPHORINE AND MYIASIS

Learning objectives

This unit will help the learner to learn about

• calliphorine flies, how to differentiate them, their lifecycle,

• definition of myiasis, types of myiasis producers, factors which increases susceptibility to myiasis and how to
prevent/control these flies and the deleterious effects they cause.

FAMILY : CALLIPHORIDAE

• Includes large number of species whose larvae are saprophagus, flesh feeders
• Family has 2 subfamilies- Calliphorinae and Sarcophaginae

CALLIPHORINAE

• Sub Family : Calliphorinae

• Genus : Lucilia
o Species: [Link] and [Link]
• Genus : Chrysomia
o Species: [Link], Calliphora erythrocephala,
▪ Callitroga hominivorax
• These are the “blow flies”
• Metallic blue or green in colour

Genus Lucilia ([Link] and [Link])

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• Causes blow fly strike

• Common name: Green bottle flies, Copper bottle flies

Morphology

• Flies with bright metallic colours

• Bright green

Genus : Chrysomia ([Link])

• Common Name: Old world screw worm

Morphology

• Medium sized, stout

• Bluish green fly
• Four dark stripes on prescutum
• Face is orange – yellow

(Click here to view the lifecycle of Chrysomia)

Strike

• A disease condition called “STRIKE” is caused by the larvae of genus Lucilia, Calliphora and Chrysomyia.

MATURE LARVAE
Morphology of mature larvae

• L3 larva resembles larvae of Musca

• 10-14mm long
• Greyish white/pale yellow in colour
• Anterior extremity with a pair of oral hooks
• Posterior spiracle on broad, flattened posterior end

Posterior spiracle

• Three long slender slits more or less parallel to one another

• Two types of larvae recognised
o Smooth larvae eg. Lucilia sp
o Hairy larvae – has thorn like projections with small spines at the tip eg. larvae of Chrysomyia sp

SARCOPHAGA
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• Common
Name : Flesh
flies
• Species of this
genus lays their
larvae in
decomposing
flesh, wounds
and ulcers
• Sarcophaga
dux is seen in
lesions in skin
of camels, cow
and bullock in
India

Morphology

• Grey
longitudinal
striped thorax
• Checker–
board marking
on abdomen/c
hess board
marking on
abdomen
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MYIASIS - INTRODUCTION

• Myia - (Greek word for fly)

• Hope 1940 coined it and it refers to animal disease due to fly larvae
• Zumpt (1965) defined myiasis as:
o Infestation of live human and vertebrate animals with the larvae of dipteran fly which atleast for a certain period
feed on the host’s dead or living tissues, liquid body substances or ingested food
o In sheep it is referred to as “strike” or blow fly myiasis. Generally caused by larvae of Chrysomia, Lucilia,
Phormia and Calliphora

CLASSIFICATION OF MYIASIS
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FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE BLOW FLY STRIKE-MYIASIS

• Those controlling prevalence of flies

• Those determining susceptibility of sheep

PREVALENCE OF FLIES- MYIASIS

• Depends on
o Season – temperature, humidity
o Abundance of food
o Larvae obtains food from either living sheep or carrion on which adult lay eggs
• Click here for Classification of Flies

CLASSIFICATION OF FLIES
drprofessionals

• In carrions the larvae of primary flies develop during autolytic and early bacterial decomposition, then the secondary flies
during liquefaction and the tertiary flies follow when the carcass dries up.

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SHEEP-MYIASIS

• Depends on inherent and temporary factors. Sheep are struck mostly in breech region – breech or crutch strike (Merino
breed has narrow breech with excessive wrinkling)
• Around tail – tail strike
• In Rams and wethers penile sheath has a narrow opening and is soiled by urine resulting in pizzle strike
• Rams with deep head folds or with horns lying close to head – sweaty condition of head results in poll strike
• Any wounds can be struck – wound strike
• When dorsal region of body is affected it is called Body strike (after prolonged wet weather + bacterial activity) leads to
fleece rot. Sheep with long, fine wool commonly affected
• Foot rot also predisposes sheep to strike

EFFECT ON THE HOST- MYIASIS

• Wool of sheep which is kept moist for long time, soiled skin with urine and faeces, these produces decomposition and
smell of it attracts the primary flies. The larvae of these flies initiate strike and create favourable condition for secondary
flies. These flies liquify the tissue of host and feed on this material developing in the lesion. The central portion of lesion
heal by scab formation, with further extension of lesion due to action of larvae. The smell produced from such lesion
attracts other flies to deposit the eggs.

Click here to view the animation

CLINICAL SIGNS IN AFFECTED ANIMALS- MYIASIS

• IrritationAnimal stands with its head down

• Does not feed, moves away from flock
• Attempts to bite affected area
• If lesion is in tail region, animal stamps or jerks its hind legs, wags its tail
• Examination reveals discoloured moist wool with bad odour and presence of foul smelling liquid
• Trimming the wool reveals presence of maggots
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• Progression of disease lead to

o Malnutrition
o Loss of production
o Death
• A condition called lightning strike occurs when toxaemia / septicaemia occurs wherein the animals dies within few days of
strike
• Animal does not feed properly
• Weak and debilitated
• Toxaemic (absorption of toxic substances from lesion)
• Septicemia and death
• Financial loss:
o decrease in the value of fleece
o reduction in meat and milk production
• Death of animal
• Labour cost towards surveillance and handling of blow fly strike
•

Diagnosis

• Clinical signs
• Trimming the wool helps to reveal the presence of larvae

MYIASIS-TREATMENT

• Ascertain extent of lesion

• Clip hairs, remove larvae and kill them
• Dress wound with bland non toxic material

MYIASIS - CONTROL

• Render sheep less attractive to flies by

1. Selective breeding to eliminate folds in poll region / narrow breech
2. Surgical removal of breech folds - Mules operation
▪ A crescentric area on either side of urinogenital area is removed, resultant scarring flattens the skin –
effective for breech strike
▪ ‘Chemical mulesing’ -40% phenol when applied along prepuce of young wethers or even in breech
region
3. Docking at 4th instead of 2nd caudal vertebrae reduces strike . The short tail produced by docking at the
2nd caudal vertebrae results in a stump surrounded by folds – “rose tail” appearance which is susceptible to
strike. A longer tail stump covers the anal area and thus makes it less susceptible
4. Crutching
▪ Regular clipping of wool around tail, breech to prevent soiling of wool
5. Dagging
▪ Removal of faecal soiled wool
6. Burial or burning of carcasses
7. Use of chemicals – Insecticides in wounds infested with larvae
• 5% coumaphos Ivermectin jetting fluid
• Oral ivermectin / closantel
• Chitin synthesis inhibitor – cyromazine is a larvicide
• Synthetic pyrethroids

MYIASIS-BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

• Wettable powder formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis was found effective against Lucilia cuprina
• Sterile insect technique (SIT)
o Release of irradiated sterile male flies into a wild population is called SIT
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o Female that mate with irradiated males produce eggs that fail to hatch
o When enough irradiated males are released, a large proportion of matings with fertile female is obtained,
eventually driving the species to extinction

MYIASIS-BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

• Wettable powder formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis was found effective against Lucilia cuprina
• Sterile insect technique (SIT)
o Release of irradiated sterile male flies into a wild population is called SIT
o Female that mate with irradiated males produce eggs that fail to hatch
o When enough irradiated males are released, a large proportion of matings with fertile female is obtained,
eventually driving the species to extinction

MYIASIS - GENETIC CONTROL

• Female killing (FK) system or Genetically impaired female technique (GIFT),

o Genetic modification of male flies results in mutations, which affect eye colour
o When wild females mate with these genetically altered males a large percentage of the progeny are homozygous
for one or more of eye pigment mutations
o Its expressed as white or yellow eye colour
o These female flies lack the light filtering pigments and hence are blind in daylight such blind females die rapidly
in wild

MYIASIS - VACCINES

• Recombinant peritrophic membrane vaccine against Lucilia

• PM44 / PM48/PM95

MYIASIS - BAITS AND LURES

• Screwworm adult trapping system (SWASS)

• chemical lure, food and 2% dichlorvos
• For Lucilia spp
o Carrion baited traps were used along with insecticide / chemosterilant/ IGR to decrease the population
of Lucilia
• Swormlure is a synthetic chemical attractant used against Cochliomyia spp

MODULE-8: CYCLORRHAPHA - PUPIPARA

Learning objectives

• This module deals with Pupipara flies namely Hippoboscids, Melophagus and Pseudolynchia.
• The learner can read the morphology, lifecycle and vector potentiality of the above in this module.

PUPIPARA

• Series : Pupipara
• Family : Hippoboscidae
• Genus : Hippobosca; Melophagus, Pseudolynchia
o These include flies which lay larvae which immediately pupates
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o The larvae unlike that of Glossina spp. is incapable of movement, feeding and hence the group has been placed
under pupipara

HIPPOBOSCIDAE

• Family : Hippoboscidae
• Genus : Hippobosca; Melophagus; Pseudolynchia

Common Morphological Characters

• Body is broad and flattened dorsoventrally

Head

• Large compound eyes are present, ocelli are absent

• Antenna immovable, single segmented and lies within a pit in the head region
• Mouthparts are biting type. Porrect
• The main portions of the proboscis is retracted into the head and generally the narrow terminal part is hidden by the 2
palps

Thorax

• Wings may or may not be present

• Few of this series do have wings which fall off once the host is reached
• Wings when present have a characteristic venation- veins crowded in the anterior margin while the posterior portion
reveals fine wrinkling
• Legs are provided with strong claws, since the flies of this series are generally almost permanent ectoparasites of the host
the strong claws provide them with firm attachment to the host
• In species affecting birds additional spurs are observed

Abdomen

• Abdomen is indistinctly segmented, soft and leathery

HORSE KED

• Family : Hippoboscidae(Hippo-horse. Bos-to feed)

Genus : Hippobosca
Species : Hippobosca maculata – cattle ked
[Link] – dog ked
[Link]- equine ked
Common name : Forest flies, Louse fly, horse keds.
• Blood sucking ectoparasites of birds and mammals related to blood sucking muscids.
• Morphology
• Life cycle
• Effect on the host
• Control

MORPHOLOGY - HORSE KED

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Similar to the
series characters
with the
following
variations:

• Thorax
and
abdomen
are
reddish
brown in
colour.
• Thorax is
marked
with clear
yellow
markings.

LIFE CYCLE - HORSE KED

• Female flies are viviparous, oviposit one larvae at a time in sheltered spots off the host such as crevices in mud walls
• They are creamy white, flattened posterior end with dark spiracular plates
• The larvae pupates immediately within 4-6 hours
• Initially its yellow in colour and then turns red black in colour
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• The pupal stage gives rise to the adults usually in 4 weeks

• The adult female fly attaches to the host in areas which are thin and hairless and feeds frequently several times
• In horses it is seen feeding under the tail/genitlia, in cows the tail, udder region, in buffaloes the inner aspect of the thigh,
genitalia while in dogs the ears and the neck region are preferred feeding sites
• They feed for long periods on blood of their hosts and their claws are so efficient that neither the host, nor human beings
can dislodge them easily

HABITS - HORSE KED

• Active in summer, remain long periods on the host, not inclined to fly although they are strong fliers, usually leave the
host to larviposit only
• They cluster in hundreds in the perineal region, under the tail, between the hind legs to the pubic region. Female fly does
not lay eggs but it deposits the larvae singly in dry soil

EFFECT ON THE HOST - HORSE KED

Direct

• The flies are a source of irritation to newly infested animals

• Animals which are not used to the fly react adversely
• No such reaction is seen in animals where infestation is common
• Blood sucking habit of the fly can result in anaemia in young animals

Indirect

• Transmits Trypanosoma theileri cyclically to cattle

CONTROL - HORSE KED

• The flies can be readily controlled by use of insecticides such as synthetic pyrethroids, 0.25% DDVP etc.,oral ivermectin

SHEEP KED

• Genus : Melophagus
Species : [Link]
Common names : Sheep ked, sheep tick fly.
• Morphology
• Life cycle
• Effect on the host
• Control

MORPHOLOGY - SHEEP KED

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Characters similar to Hippoboscidae with the following exceptions,

• Head short broad and immovable

• Wingless
• Abdomen is large, broad and hairy

LIFE CYCLE - SHEEP KED

• They are permanent ectoparasites and the females glue the mature larvae to the wool of the sheep
• The larvae is initially yellowish and soon turns into chestnut brown colour pupa
• Pupa is ovoid with broad ends and lasts for 21days
• The female fly survives for 5 months and produces 10-15 larvae during her lifetime
• The gestation period is 10-12 days for each larvae. The infection from sheep to sheep is spread by contact
• Sheep with dense wool are known to spread the infestation

EFFECT ON HOST - SHEEP KED

Direct

• The keds are permanent ectoparasites and live on the host and suck blood, large infestations can result in anaemia
• The irritation caused by the biting fly is so great that its feeding is impaired- loss of condition of the sheep
• The infested animal bites the wool, rubs the body on hard objects which in turn leads to injury to the animal and damage
to the wool
• The bites and the wounds are susceptible to myiasis
• The excreta of the ked stains the wool, the stain cannot be washed off, so downgrading of wool occurs
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• The skin blemish affects the quality of leather

• Heavy infestation leads to a condition called ‘sheep cockle or rib cockle’ – the affected skin is pitted due to allergic reaction
to the bite of the ked which results in scattered brown nodules on the skin. There is also vertical ridging of the skin. The
nodules cannot be flattened out and they are impermeable to dyes – this results in extensive loss to the leather garment
industry
• Another condition reported due to sheep ked is ‘back loss’ wherein the intense irritation leads the sheep to fall on its back
to alleviate the irritation, then its unable to rise, suffocates and dies

Indirect

• Transmits a non pathogenic Trypanosoma melophagium

CONTROL - SHEEP KED

• Shearing especially before winter markedly reduces keds

• Tip spraying with OPs or synthetic pyrethroids are also effective
• Rafoxanide 7.5 mg/kg BW

PIGEON FLIES

• Genus : Pseudolynchia
Species : [Link]([Link])
Common name : Pigeon fly
• Morphology
• Life cycle
• Effect on the host
• Control

MORPHOLOGY - PIGEON FLIES

Similar characters of the family,

• Dark brown fly, smaller when compared to the other hippoboscids, 6mm long
• The wings are long and transparent, venation similar to Hippobosca
• Can be differentiated from Hippobosca spp. by the absence of yellow markings on the thorax
• And by the claws which are spurred

LIFE CYCLE - PIGEON FLIES

• Flies are usually seen feeding on young nestling pigeons

• They feed on featherless areas and cause painful wounds in pigeons. 4-5 larvae are produced by the female and the larvae
roll of the host into the nest and pupate either in nest or in cracks and crevices
• The pupae are yellow with a dark posterior pole
• It turns black within a few hours and lasts for a month

EFFECT ON THE HOST - PIGEON FLIES

Direct

• Inflict painful bites to the pigeons-restlessness and loss of condition

• Anaemia in heavy infestation
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Indirect

• Transmits Haemoproteus columbae

CONTROL - PIGEON FLIES

• OP dusts or sprays
• Carbaryl

MODULE-9: FLEAS
Learning objectives

• This module deals with Siphonaptera, Ctenocephalides, Echidnophaga and Xenopsylla.

• The learner can read the morphology, lifecycle and vector potentiality of the above in this module.

SIPHONAPTERA

• Order : Siphonaptera (siphon: suck blood from host; aptera- no wings)

MORPHOLOGY

• The body is laterally flattened- an important adaptation for parasitic lifecycle, enable the fleas to move rapidly, minimise
damage from host reactions to their bite
• Thick dark brown chitinous covering-mahogony brown in colour 1-6mm long
• Females larger than males
• Not host specific and are found parasitizing a large number of hosts

HEAD

• No compound eyes, lateral ocelli are present on either side of the head (certain authors feel that these are the reduced
compound eyes)
• Antenna is three segmented, short, clubbed and found recessed in deep antennal fossa- another adaptation of the flea to
easily move about on the host
• Mouth parts are piercing and sucking type in the adult and its mastigatory type in larvae
• Backwardly directed bristles or spines are seen in the gena region- called the genal combs
• Adaptation to impede flea being dragged backwards due to the host activity
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THORAX

• Three segmented – the first segment shows the presence of spines or bristles which are backwardly directed- the pronotal
combs
• Three pairs of legs present, the third pair being long and powerful - aids in the jumping and leaping movement exhibited
by the flea-energy for jumping is stored in the pleural arches which are pads of a rubbery protein called resilin
• Legs end in powerful claws and bristles
• Two pairs of spiracles are seen on each segment

ABDOMEN

• Shape of abdomen helps to distinguish the sexes

• Female fleas have both ventral and dorsal surfaces convex while in male the dorsal part is more or less flat while the
ventral surface is curved
• 10 abdominal segments 8 being easily recognisable
• The 8th ,9th and 10th segments are fused –anal segments
• 9th abdominal segment in the case of both the male and the female bears a pincushion like dorsal plate called the
sensilium or pygidium –this is covered with sensory setae which aids in detection of air currents etc
• The tergum of the 9th abdominal segment in the male forms the paired manubria – a part of the aediagus or the penis
• In females the 7th abdominal segment bears a single spermatheca - this is ‘s’ shaped haing a head , a small constriction-
base, and a tail portion. This enables species identification in fleas

FAMILY : PULICIDAE
Genus Species
• [Link]
Ctenocephalides • [Link] felis
• [Link] orientalis
• [Link] (poultry) -
Echidnophaga
stick tight flea
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• [Link] (human flea)

Pulex • Xenopsylla cheopis - Rat,
Cat, Man

Habits

• Fleas are not specific for their host

• Fleas are found in crevices in floors, under carpets
• Life of fleas varies from 17-34 months

LIFE CYCLE

• Both male and female suck blood

• The female produces eggs

EGG

• Large pearly white, glistening and oval in shape

• 200 eggs produced in 2-4 days time
• Eggs may be sticky or dry as in [Link]- enabling the egg to roll off the host
• It fallys on the floor or bedding and L1 develops in 2 days time
• The first stage larvae use the hatching spine to emerge from the egg

LARVAE

• Three larval stages

• Has a distinct head and 13 body segments, with no difference between the thoracic and abdominal segments
• Whitish in colour 4-10mm in size
• Has mastigatory type of mouth parts and feeds on organic matter as well as undigested blood from the adult flea
• They are semipredatory and attacks damaged adults and even kills them

PUPA

• The third stage larvae spins a cocoon around its body

• The cocoon is sticky and so becomes covered with dust and debris- camouflaged
• Remain quiescent till the arrival of the host
• The pupa emerges from the cocoon in response to the bark of the dog or the footfall of the host
• Usually the pupa is ready to moult by 1-3 weeks

CTENOCEPHALIDES
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• Genus : Ctenocephalides
[Link]-dog flea
[Link] felis- cat flea
• See link for difference
between C. felis and C. canis
• Important morphological
characters include,
o Thorax is not reduced
and is well developed
o Presence of genal
combs
o Presence of pronotal
combs

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN [Link] AND [Link]

• Difference between [Link] and [Link] is as follows,

Character C. felis C. canis

Head Long and Short and
slender head rounded head
Frons Frons elongate Sloping frons
Comb First genal First genal
comb is as long comb is half the
as the second length of the
one second
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EFFECT ON THE HOST

Direct Effect

Flea bite dermatitis

• Flea bite allergy is common in dogs and cats

• It is due to the sensitization of the animal to the saliva of the flea, a hapten in the saliva of the flea becomes antigenic by
fusion with skin collagen and incites an immediate hypersensitive reaction followed by delayed hypersensitivity reaction
• This results in intense pruritus in the lumbosactral area, abdomen, hind legs and neck region
• Lesions vary from moist dermatitis to acathosis, hyperpigmentation, hyperkeratinisation etc
• Moist dermatitis may be further complicated by secondary bacterial infection
• In cats, small papules are seen in affected animals which is associated with pruritis which is referred to as Miliary
dermatitis
• Excess grooming results in diffuse alopaecia
• The affected animal loses its condition rapidly, usually a high level of infestation is seen in animals especially cats which
are already in a poor condition due to probably some debilitating diseases
• Older animals are also commonly infested with fleas
• Restlessness due to the itching and scratching results in poor body condition and poor appearance of the coat
• Since the fleas suck blood, a heavy infestation can also result in anaemia

Indirect Effect

• Intermediate host for the tapeworm of dogs- Dipylidium caninum - the eggs of the tapeworm are seen in faeces and the
larval stages of the flea feeds on it
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• The infective stage of the tapeworm- the cysticercoids develops inside the flea larvae and reaches infective stage in the
adult flea
• When the flea with the cysticercoid is accidentally ingested by dogs the dogs get the tapeworm infection
• Children are also prone to pick up the infection when they accidentally swallow the flea while in close contact with their
pet dogs
• Also transmit a filarid worm of dogs- Dipetalonema reconditum

Click here to view the symptoms of Dog flea and Cat flea

FOWL FLEA

• Genus : Echidnophaga
• Species : [Link]
• Common name : Stick tight flea, stick fast flea or the fowl flea

MORPHOLOGY - FOWL FLEA

Head

• Absence of genal combs

• Angulate fron.
• Strongly developed mandible with recurved teeth, which helps them to hold on to the host

Thorax

• Foreshortened thoracic segments- the thoracic segments are telescoped into one another and are ill developed
• Legs are not very powerful
• Absence of pronotal combs

Abdomen

• As in general characters
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FOWL FLEA

• The fleas are attached to the combs, wattles and around the eyes of infested fowls
• Heavy infestations reveal clusters of these small fleas in the head region
• The fleas are permanently attached to the host which is why they are referred to as stick tight fleas
• Hence the modification in the morphology (absence of combs, less powerful legs and a foreshortened thorax)
• The area around the attached flea swells up and encloses the flea’s body
• Due to the swelling of the eyelids the birds may lose their eyesight temporarily or even become blind
• The fleas consume blood and in large infestation can result in anaemia and death of birds
• The swellings around the flea may also ulcerate and the fleas eggs will be seen in these ulcers, once the larvae hatches out
it falls off the host and develops like the dog flea on the ground
• Presence of fleas and the irritation and anaemia it causes leads to drop in egg production and severe weight loss in birds

CONTROL - ADULT FLEA

• Use of insecticides in the form of collars-flea collar –plastic strips impregnated with dichlorvos (DDVP) 9.3% for dogs and
4.65% for cats is effective
• Impregnated medallions for dogs (19.6% DDVP)

Disadvantages

• The duration of protection is only 3 months

• Contact dermatitis may occur to the flea collar in some animals
• The flea collar should not be used on nursing animals, sick or convalescent animals
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• Generally owners forget to replace the collar which is ineffective after 3 months
• Carbaryl formulated shampoos can be used in mild infestations
• Allethrin, resmethrin, other synthetic pyrethroids with piperonyl butoxide are also useful
• Fleas are able to jump to a height of 33 cm and mechanical control in dog kennels were made possible by increasing the
height of the kennel from the floor to 35 cm
• Currently fleas are controlled mainly by using insect growth regulators
• The chitin synthesis inhibitor- Lufenuron is commonly used. One tablet given to a dog or cat can protect the animal for a
month

CONTROL - LARVAE AND PUPA

• This is the most important part of flea control

• Insect growth regulators- juvenile hormone analogue such as methoprene can be used to control the immature stages of
the flea within the house
• Vacuum cleaning the carpet and areas where the dog/cat frequents is one of the best methods of mechanical control of
fleas
• Spraying insecticides in the kennels/sheds especially the corners of the room is effective in killing the immature stages
• In heavy infestations it would be better to destroy the bedding material of the pets inorder to destroy the immature stages
• Application of a sodium borax powder causes dessication of the immature stages
• Use of D-limonene- is a biological control option

CONTROL - STICK TIGHT FLEA

• 5% malathion dust is effective

• Earlier 0.1% DDT dips were used
• Also used were 5% DDT dusts

XENOPSYLLA CHEOPSIS

• Genus :Xenopsylla
• Species :[Link]
• Common Name: Oriental rat flea or black rat flea

ORIENTAL OR BLACK FLEA

• This flea is associated with the transmission of Bubonic plague (by Yersinia pestis)

Morphology

• Presence of vertical thickening in Mesopleuron

• Ocular bristle in front of the eye
• 9th sternite club shaped
• Thorax is foreshortened

PULEX IRRITANS

• Neither genal are Pronotal ctenidia are present

• Outer margin of the head is smoothly rounded
• Presence of single ocular bristle below the eye
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MODULE-10: LICE
Learning objectives

• This module deals with biting and sucking lice, the difference between them and also about Pediculosis.

MALLOPHAGA : SIPHUNCULATA

• Order : Mallophaga (Biting lice); Siphunculata/Anoplura (Sucking lice)

• Earlier both the Orders were referred to as Order: Pthiraptera
o Blood suking insects entirely parasitic on animals
o Permanent ectoparasites of birds and mammals
o Body flattened dorsoventrally and covered with small spines
o Spiracles dorsally situated
o Thorax with 3 pairs of legs with 2 segmented tarsus
o Wings absent
o Mouth parts adapted for biting or sucking
o Antennae 3-5 jointed
o Metamorphosis incomplete (Egg-Nymph-Adult)- 3 Ecdyses (moults)
o Carriers of bacterial and helminthic diseases
o Highly host specific

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BITING LICE AND SUCKING LICE

BITING LICE SUCKING LICE
• Order: Mallophaga • Order: Siphunculata
• Small, wingless, dorsoventrally flattened • Small, wingless, dorsoventrally flattened

HEAD
• Antenna short 3-5 • 5 segmented
• Eyes vestigeal • Absent/Present
• Rounded head • Conical pointed head
THORAX
• Indistinct segmentation • All three segments fused
• Meso and Meta thorax fused • Tarsi with 1 segment, 1 claw
• Pro thorax- distinct and seperate
• Legs: Tarsi with 1 or 2 segments, 2 claws or
one
• Wings: Absent
ABDOMEN
• 8 segment visible out of 11. 1, 2 and 9,10 are • 7 of 9 segments are visible
fused, 11- not seen
• Incomplete metamorphosis
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BITING LICE
Order: Mallophaga (Biting Lice)
SUB ORDER
Amblycera Ischnocera
• Very active • Slow

ANTENNA
• In grooves • Filiform
• Not visible • Visible
• 3rd segment stalked • 3-5 segmented
• Egg cup to hold 4th segment

MAXILLARY PALP
• Visible, confused with antenna (2-5 • No maxillary palp
segmented, 3rd not stalked)

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
• Female elongate with swollen
1stsegment, appendage on 3rd

MANDIBLES
• Bite horizontally • Bite vertically

HEAD
• Broad, rounded anteriorly

Parasites of Birds/Mammals
• Birds: 2 claws
• Mammals: 1 claw
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Ex. Ex.
• Menopon gallinae • Lipeurus caponis, [Link]
• Menacanthus stramineus • Damalinia bovis
• Damalinia ovis
• Columbicola columbae

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AMBLYCERA AND ISCHNOCERA

Amblycera Ischnocera
• Lice are active • Lethargic
• Mandibles bite horizontally • Mandibles bite vertically
• Antennae concealed in antennal • Antennae long, filiform
grooves in ventral sides of the head • visible at the sides of the head (Not
• They may not be readily seen concealed in grooves)
• Maxillary palp present • Maxillary palps absent
• Meso and meta thorax usually • Meso and meta thorax fused
• Examples: Menopon gallinae, • Examples: Lipeurus tropicalis,
Menacanthus stramineus, Damalinia ovis
Heterodoxus spiniger
SHAFT LOUSE
Menopon gallinae

• Sub Order : Amblycera

• Host: Pigeon, Fowl, Duck

Morphology

• Yellowish in colour
• Male- 1.7mm; Female- 2.0 mm
• Thoracic and Abdominal segments with one row of dorsal bristles

Eggs

• Eggs in clusters on feathers.

Effect on host

• Moves actively arround

• Birds restless
• Depluming occurs due to irritation
• Weight loss
• Egg yield goes down

YELLOW BODY LOUSE

Menacanthus stramineus

• Host : Fowls
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• Area : Breast, thigh, cloaca region

• Morphology : Thorax and Abdomen with 2 rows of bristles/spines
• Eggs
o Eggs with filaments at the anterior end
o Eggs in clusters on feathers near skin

WING LOUSE

Lipeurus caponis

• Host : Fowls, Pheasants.

• Location : Underside of wing feathers.
• Morphology
o Slender, elongate, sluggish.
o Head rounded
o The head end is angular in L.
tropicalis a species common to
Tamilnadu

DOG LOUSE

Heterodoxus spiniger

Host

• Dog, Jackal

Morphology

• Head conical
• Clavate antenna
• Palp 4 jointed
• Bite horizontally
• Abdomen clothed with stiff slender spine

Effect on the host

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• Animal restless, pull hairs, hairless patches seen in affected dogs, sick
appearance, condition of the animal goes down and looks emaciated
• Feeds on blood and tissue of dog
• Transmits filarid nematode- Dipetalonema reconditum

Another dog lice is Trichodectes canis

SUCKING LICE
Order : Siphunculata / Anoplura (Sucking Lice)
FAMILY
• Haematopinidae • Linognathidae

HEAD
• Eyes absent • Eyes Absent
• Head with forward prolongation-
temporal angles behind antenna
THORAX
• Thorax broad • Thorax narrow
• Marked paratergal plates • Paratergal plates absent - membraneous
ABDOMEN
• Abdomen broad • Abdomen narrow
• One row of spines on each • Hairs present
abdominal segment
LEGS
• All three pairs of legs similar in • 1st pair of legs smallest
size
• Tarsi with one claw, hair held
between claw and a thumb like
process on ventral apical angle of
tibia- spiny pad- tibial pad
Ex. Ex.
• [Link] (buffalo louse) • Linognathus vituli (Long nosed cattle
• Hematopinus louse)
quadripertusus (Tail switch • [Link] (goat louse)
louse) • Pediculus humanus (human head louse)
• Haematopinus suis (hog louse) • Phthirus pubis (human pubic louse)
• [Link] (cattle louse)
TAIL SWITCH LOUSE
Haematopinus quadripertusus

• Mostly seen on tails

• Eggs laid on tail
• Hatch in 9 days
• Egg to Egg may be 25- 30 days
• Head broad, short and blunt/anteriorly pointed
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• All legs equal in size

• Thorax having a sternal plate which is distinctly longer than broad and has three anterior processes
• Abdomen with paratergal plates
• Abdominal segments with single row of bristles/hairs
• Abdomen very broad and with prominent spiracular openings
• Eyes absent

HOG LOUSE
Haematopinus suis

• Largest louse on farm animals

Order

• Siphunculata/Anoplura

Morphology

• Male- 5mm; Female- 4.2mm

• Greyish brown
• Black markings covers entire body

Economic Importance

• From Sow to piglets- unthrifty growth/production

• 2% reduction in weight
• 2-6% loss in market value of hogs

LONG NOSED CATTLE LOUSE

Linognathus vituli

• Seen all over the body, more on calves

• Long and narrow pointed head
• Forelegs more slender than the rest
• Plates absent, transparent
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• Abdomen comparatively narrower. Abdominal segments with two rows of long hairs
• Eyes absent
• Spiracular opening not very prominent
• Lay one egg per day, hatch in 10 days. Egg to Egg may be 30 days
• Eggs of lice are called Nits.
• Metamorphosis is incomplete. The phase which develops in the egg is first nymph which is structurally similar to adult

EFFECT OF LICE ON THEIR HOST

• The chief effects of lice on their host are due to the irritation they cause
• They are numerous in winter, because of longer hair on the host’s coat, closer contact of animals and also lack of general
vigour
• Hosts become restless, do not feed or sleep well and they may injure themselves or damage their feathers, hair or wool by
bitting and scratching the parts of their bodies irritated by the lice
• The egg production of birds and the milk production of cattle may fall
• In mammalian hosts scratching may produce wounds or bruises on the animals, while in sheep the wool is damaged
• It is also soiled by the faeces of the lice
• The coat becomes rough and shaggy and if the irritation is severe, the hair may become matted
• Excessive licking of hairs by calves may lead to formation of “hair-balls” in stomach
• The foot louse of sheep (Linognathus pedalis) is found most frequently around the dew-claws and severe infections may
produce lameness

VECTOR POTENTIALITY

• Haematopinus suis transmits swine virus

• Heterodoxus spiniger transmits Dipylidium caninum and Dipetalonema reconditum to dogs
• Pediculus humanus transmits Trench fever in India by bite of louse or by contamination of skin by the faeces of lice. It
also transmits epidemic typhus (by rickettsia) by crushing the body of infected louse.

DIAGNOSIS - LOUSINESS

• By finding lice or by detecting eggs or nits on hairs or feathers

TREATMENT AND CONTROL OF LICE

Poultry

• 0.5%-5% DDT as dust

• 1% BHC as dust
• 5% Chlordane as dust
• Fenitrothion (Sumithion 50% EC). 0.125% as spray (25 ml in 10 litres of water)
• Malathion (Cythion)- 100ml in 10 litres of water for 300 birds. 200 ml in 4 litres of water for wall spray.
• Coumaphos (Asuntol 50%wp), 2g/litre of water for 300 birds. 200 ml in 4 litres of water for wall spray
• Deltamethrin (Butox liquid) 2ml /litre of water as spray
• Fenvalerate (Sumicidin 20% EC) 0.5 ml/litre of water as spray on body, 1-2ml/litre of water for shed
• Carbaryl (Sevin) 5% dust or spray
• Propoxur (Baygon) 0.05% as spray
• Permethrin (Ectiban) 0.05% as spray

Cattle / Sheep / Goats

• Crotoxyphos (ciodrin) 3% dust

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• Ciovap (1% Cotoxyphos + 0.25% dichlorvos) as spray

• Coumaphos as 0.06% spray
• Crufomate-35% dip, 25% spray, 13.5% pour-on application
• Ronnel-0.25% spray
• Malathion-0.5% spray
• Cypermethrin-a synthetic pyrethroid used in a concentration of 150 ppm as a dip or Spray
• Ivermectin-0.2 mg/kg. b.w.s/c injection

Dogs

• Coumaphos-0.5% as dust
• Ronnel-0.25-1% topical solution
• Lindane-as 1% spray or dip
• Carbaryl is available as shampoo or soap
• Ivermectin-0.2 mg/kg b.w.s/c injection
• Deltamethrin (Butox)-2 ml/litre of water as spray

MODULE-11: BUGS

Learning objectives

• This module teaches about the morphology, lifecycle, effect on host and the
control of cimex and vector potentiality of hemiptera.

Last modified: Tuesday, 7 August 2012, 11:04 AM

HEMIPTERA

• Order : Hemiptera (Hemi-half;ptera-wings-half winged- 2 pairs of wings the basal pair leathery while the other is
membraneous)
• Family : Cimicidae (Cimex in latin means bug)
• Genus : Cimex
• Species : [Link], [Link], Triatoma sp.

MORPHOLOGY - BED BUGS

Cimex lectularius

Common name: Bed bugs

• 4-7 mm males smaller than the females

• Dorsoventrally flattened, oval in shape
• Yellowish brown to dark brown in colour

Head

• Compound eyes large, well separated and project characteristically at the sides of the head
• 4 segmented antenna , last three segments are long and slender
• Mouthparts are piercing and sucking type
• Labium with 3 obvious segments bearing the piercing mandibles and mandibles- reflected backwards under the head,
reaches as far back as the coxae of first leg -ophisthognathous type
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Thorax

• Prothorax is deeply notched anteriorly where the head is inserted

• Appear wingless- micropterus however, forewing being reduced to form hemelytral pads and the hind wings are absent
• Hemelytral pads are oval pads seen laterally on the mesothorax
• Ventrally on the metathorax opens the scent glands- also called the stink glands in adults

Abdomen

• 11 segmented with 2-9 segments being easily recognisable

• When the bed bug engorged the abdomen increases involume and exposes the intersegmental membranes which are
called the hunger folds- situated in the midventral lines of segments 2-5
• 7 pairs of prominent spiracles are seen.
• In females on the posterior margin of the 5th segment is present the organ of Rebaga inside which is a gland called the
Berlese gland or organ of Berlese which is the ectospermalege
• Young bugs show the presence of the stink glands in the abdominal region

LIFE CYCLE - BUGS

• Eggs are laid by the females in cracks and crevices

• Eggs are creamy white,1mm long with an operculum
• Egg hatches in 3-14 days to give rise to the nymphal stages
• Five nymphal stages which resemble the adult are produced
• Adult stage under favourable conditions is reached in 8 weeks
• The bugs are nocturnal but bite the host during day time when the host is quiet
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• They travel long distances, attack man and animals to suck blood
• They can withstand long duration of starvation

EFFECT ON THE HOST - BUGS

• All the stages bite the host and suck blood, heavy infestation can lead to anaemia
• They cause intense irritation to animals and birds, restless and the associated debility
• Disturbs the sleep of the host
• Intense irritation due to the saliva of the bug is also observed
• Bugs feed, then turns round and then defaecates on or near the bite wound which could provide a possibility for disease
transmission
• Hepatitis B antigen is seen excreted in the faeces of bugs and this can infect susceptible individuals
• Triatoma bugs are used in 'Xeno-diagnosis' technique to detect Trypnosoma cruzi in humans

CONTROL

• Organophosphorus and Organochlor compounds can be used as sprays and powders to be applied in the cracks and
crevices
• Synthetic pyrethroids are also effective

MODULE-12: ARTHROPODA - ARACHNIDA

Learning objectives

• This module deals with classification of arachnida and the difference between insects and arachnids.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS

Insects Arachnids
• Body is divided into head, thorax • Body division is not marked. It
and abdomen consist of a single large piece

• Head usually shows the presence of • Antenna may or may not be present
antenna

• Wings may be present or absent • Absent

• Adults show the presence of three • Four pairs of legs in adults and
pairs of legs nymphs and three pairs in the case
of larvae
• Metamorphosis is complete or • Metamorphosis Incomplete
incomplete

• Oviparous or larviparous • Oviparous only

MODULE-13: IXODOIDEA - ARGASIDAE AND IXODIDAE

Learning objectives
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• This module deals with hard and soft ticks, the difference between the two, morphology, lifecycle, effect on host, diagnosis
and control of fowl tick and spinose ear tick.
• The learner will also study the difference between ticks and mites, treatment and control of ticks.

TICKS

• Suborder : Ixodoidea (ticks)

Family : Argasidae –the soft ticks
Ixodidae - the hard ticks

INTRODUCTION

• Ticks are amongst the most important vectors of human and animal diseases
• They rank second to mosquitoes as vectors of life threatening or debilitating human and animal diseases
• Amongst the arthropod group they transmit greater variety of infectious diseases. and even surpass mosquitoes in the
variety of pathogenic organisms (bacteria, virus, rickettsiae, protozoa etc.) transmitted
• In addition to their vector potentiality they are important as pests-causing tick paralysis, toxicosis, irritation, bite allergies,
immune responses and economic losses due to blood loss
• They are obligate blood sucking arthropods and nearly 850 species are known worldwide
• The major families are
o Ixodidae or ‘Hard ticks’
o Argasidae or ‘Soft ticks’
• They infest every class of terrestrial vertebrate, mammals, birds, reptiles and even amphibia

MORPHOLOGY - TICKS

• Body is usually elongated, longer than wide.

• Range from 2 mm to even 30 mm in size.
• When engorged female ticks appear swollen and more rounded.

Body consist of

• Capitulum (=Gnathosoma)
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• Idiosoma
• Idiosoma is further divided into
o Podosoma which bears the legs and genital pore.
o Opisthosoma- region posterior to the legs, bears the spiracle and anal aperture.

Capitulum (View image...)

• This articulates with the idiosoma via a cavity- the emarginatum (Ixodids) or camerostome (Argarsids).
• It is connected by soft articulation membrane that allows ventral flexation of capitulum.
• Capitulum consists of
o The basis capitulum – an integumental ring which completely encircles the mouth parts.
o The paired four segmented palps.
o The paired two segmented chelicerae.
o The hypostome.
• Basis capitulum forms the posterior part of the capitulum.
o It serves as an anchor for the more flexible mouth parts associated with it.
o Female ixodid ticks bear clusters of pores on the dorsal aspect of basis capitulum- POROSE AREAS.
o The porose areas secrete antioxidants that inhibit degradation of waxy compounds in the secretions of Gene’s
organ.
• Chelicerae are located on the dorsal aspect of the basis capitulum.
o Their shafts are surrounded by spinose sheaths.
o They lie between the palps and each chelicera bears two digits distally.
o Both digits have sharp denticles.
o The chelicerae are used to cut host tissues to facilitate attachment.
• The Pedipalps consist of four distinct segments.
o In nymphs and adults of most ixodid ticks only three segments are visible since the small terminal segment is
recessed in a cavity in segment three, segment four bears sensory receptors.
• The Hypostome is a prominent ventrally located structure that bears rows of recurved teeth on its ventral surface.
o Teeth are absent in certain non-feeding males.
• In argasids
o The capitulum is similar. However, it is situated just below an anteriorly protruding body extension or hood and
is not visible dorsally in nymphs or adults.
o The four palpal segments are about equal in size.

Idiosoma

• It is the body exclusive of capitulum.

• It is divided into 2 parts - anterior PODOSOMA which bears the legs and genital opening and the
posterior OPISTHOSOMA which is the region behind the coxae bearing spiracles and oval apertures.
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Dorsal surface

• Ixodids or hard ticks have a hard cuticular plate or SCUTUM on the anterior half of the dorsal body surface.
• In males the scutum occupies almost the entire dorsal surface. View image...
• The body of the female expands enormously during feeding and so the scutum is restricted to 1/3 of the dorsal
surface. View image...
• When present a simple eye occurs along the postero –lateral margin of the scutum.
• The dorsal body surface posterior to the scutum is the ALLOSCUTUM.
• In female ticks, a paired protrusible organ – GENE’S ORGAN lies in the dorsal formen between the scutum and the
capitulum. The ends of the Gene's organ protrude during oviposition and apply wax to each egg as it is deposited.
• The argasid body is very different in appearance from that of ixodid ticks.
o The body lacks scutum.
o In most species the body is covered by tiny elevations termed mammillae.
o An important exception is the nymph of Otobius megnini where the body is covered with dense coarse spines.
o Except Argas, in all argasids the body margin is rounded.
• Other structures on the ventral aspect include genital pore in females which is a ‘u’ or ‘v’ shaped opening with prominent
marginal folds whereas in males it is covered by a movable plate.
• In addition, there are paired spiracular plates behind coxae 4 and the anal aperture located near the posterior margin.

Legs

• Are jointed and articulate with the body via the coxae.
• Larva can be easily recognized because it has 3 pairs of legs, nymphs and adults have 4 pairs.
• Leg is divided into 6 segments -coxa, trochanter, femur, patella (genu), tibia and tarsus.
• A pair of claws and a pad like pulvillus are present in most tarsus.
• Pulvillus is absent in argasid nymphs and adults.

Ventral Surface

• On the ventral surface there is the presence of the 4 pairs of legs in nymphs and adults and three pairs in larvae
• In the anterior region there is the presence of genital opening in the case of the female ticks
• Posteriorly there is the anal opening, covered with anal plates
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• In the male tick in most cases there are plates adjacent to the anal plate- the adanal, accessory adanal and sometimes even
a subanal plate
• Ventral plates may also be seen in areas corresponding to the festoons

TICK LIFE CYCLE PATTERNS

• ARGASIDS : Multi-host life cycle, involves more than 3 hosts, has several nymphal instars, each feeding on different hosts

DIFFERNCE BETWEEN SOFT AND HARD TICKS

Characteristics Argasidae Ixodidae
MORPHOLOGY
I. Capitulum
• Location • Subterminal and so • Terminal, visible from the
not visible on the dorsal aspect in all stages
dorsal aspect of
adults
• Terminal and visible
from dorsal aspect in
larval stages
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• Basis capitulum • Porose areas are • In female ticks the porose

absent areas are seen on the
dorsal aspect of basis
capitulum
• Pedipalps • Leg like, all 4 articles • Article IV recessed in a
sub equal and cavily in article III and the
flexible 1st article of the pedipalp is
rigid
• Chelicerae • Cheliceral sheath is • Cheliceral sheath is
smooth and covered with teeth/ spines
distended
II. Body
• Appearance of the • Leathery, • Smooth or superficially
surface mammillated or striated
wrinkled
• Scutum • Absent • Present, entire dorsal
surface covered in male
ticks, half the surface
covered in nymphs and
larvae while in females
only 1/3 rd of the dorsal
surface is covered by
scutum
• Festoons • Absent • Present
• Eyes ( when • Ventro-lateral on the • Dorso-lateral in position,
present ) supra coxal fold, 2 one pair is seen between
pairs, between the 1st and 2nd pair of legs
1st and 2nd and
2nd and 3rd pair of
legs
• Spiracles • Small, seen between • Seen on large spiracular
the 3rd and 4th coxae plates posterior to the
on ventral aspect 4th coxae
• Plates/grooves • Absent • Present
III. Legs
• Coxae • Unarmed • Armed, with internal and
external spurs

• Pulvilli • Rudimentary or • Present

absent
IV. Sexual dimorphism
• Not marked • Marked

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS
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• Feeding habits • Intermittent feeders, • Takes a single blood meal

rapid feeding in case over a period of days. Slow
of nymphs and feeder and hence
adults, could also be attachment to the host
slow in larval stages, becomes essential, they
cuticle expands to secrete attachment cement
accommodate the • Cuticle grows to
blood meal but does accommodate the large
not grow. They feed blood meal
for few hours on the
host and hence there
is no formation of
attachment cement
• Nymphal instars • Many • Only one

• Mating • Off the host • On the host with the

• Single sex exception ofIxodes spp
pheromone • Multiple pheromone

• Reproduction • 200-300 eggs • Following engorgement

deposited by the the mated female deposits
female after each around 10,000-20,000
feeding eggs per tick
• Several batches of • Only one batch of eggs and
eggs are laid, so following oviposition the
females feed and female tick shrivels and
oviposit repeatedly dies
• Eggs emerge from • Eggs emerge from the
opening on ventral dorsal aspect through a slit
side in between the scutum and
• Eggs are waxed by basis capitulum
the Gene's organ • Initially covered by the
secretion of the accessory
glands of the vagina
followed by the Gene's
organ
• Host seeking • Nidiculous, seen in • Non nidiculous, seen in
behavior protected areas such pastures and other areas
as the nest, cave, where the host frequents,
burrow etc of the it ambushes the host
host
• Seasonal activity • Active throughout • Active during the warmer
the year months of the year

• Habitats • Sheltered • Open environments

environments
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• Life span • Long lived, • Not so long lived. Less

infrequent blood resistant to starvation,
meals, numerous only one nymphal stage
nymphal stages and and single blood meal
high resistance to
starvation are the
causes for the
increase in life span

ARGASIDAE - SOFT TICKS

Family : Argasidae ( Soft Ticks)

Genus Argas Otobius Ornithodoros

Species A. persicus O. megnini O. savignyi
Common name Fowl Tick Spinose Ear Tick Eyeless Tampan
Last modified: Monday, 9 April 2012, 05:17 PM

FOWL TICKS

• Genus : Argas
• Species : A. persicus
• Common name : Fowl Tick
• Host : Fowl, Turkey, Pigeon, Duck, Geese, Ostrich, Wild birds
• Location: Adults in cracks and crevices of fowl house, under trees

MORPHOLOGY - FOWL TICKS

• Adult 4-10 by 2-6 mm

• Oval in shape
• Narrow anteriorly than posteriorly
• Edges of body sharp
• Engorged tick slaty brown
• Starved yellowish brown
• Small difference between male & female
• Genital opening prominent in female than in male
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LIFE CYCLE - FOWL TICKS

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• Nymph engorges once during lifecycle

• Adult feeds once a month
• Lay eggs after each meal
• Larvae can live without food for 3 months
• Nymph and Adult survive starvation for 5 years

EFFECT ON THE HOST - FOWL TICKS

• Worry bird at night. So sleep of birds get affected

• Heavy infestation lead to blood loss, resulting into anaemia
• Egg laying decreases / stops
• Can cause tick paralysis in ducks
• Act as vector for Aegyptionella pullorum and Borrelia anserina (Fowl Spirochaetosis)

DIAGNOSIS - FOWL TICKS

• Presence of parasites in cracks and crevices

CONTROL - FOWL TICKS

• Bird must be removed and placed in wooden crates. Larvae drop in 5-10 days
• Afterwards, return fowls to their quarters which must be cleaned by then
• Spray chicken house with organo -phosphates or synthetic pyrethroids

SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• Genus : Otobius
• Species : [Link]
• Common name : Spinose ear tick
• Host : Dog, Sheep, Horse, Cattle, also goats, pigs, cats, man, rabbits etc
• Location : Nymph and Larva in internal ear
• Adult in cracks of poles, under food boxes or stones

MORPHOLOGY - SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• Engorged larvae spherical

• Nymphs widest at middle, narrow posteriorly
• Skin mammilated with numerous spines
• Adult not parasitic
• Fiddle shaped body
• Hypostome without hooks
• No spines on cuticle
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LIFE CYCLE - SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• Larvae lives without food for 2-4 months

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• Adult does not feed

EFFECT ON THE HOST - SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• Large numbers may be seen on one host

• Sucks blood, causes irritation, inflammation which may be subjcted to secondary bacterial infection
• Animal dull, off feed, condition lost
• Dogs shake their headand scratch their ears.
• Waxy exudate is seen oozing from the affected ear
• In heavy infestations there might be nervous symptoms, irritability, restlessness, grinding of teeth, perforation of ear,
infection of middle ear & even death

DIAGNOSIS - SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• Probe ear for presence of ticks

• Waxy exudate examination

TREATMENT - SPINOSE EAR TICKS

• 1part HCH; 1part xylol; 17parts pine oil- kills larvae, protects for IM
• 1part 14% chlordane; 15 parts pine oil
• Amitraz- 15-20% - ear tags
• 10% Permethrin
• Infected shed should be treated by use of insecticide sprays

EYELESS TAMPAN

• Genus : Ornithodorus
• Species: [Link]
• Common Name: Eyeless tampan, Puzhuthiunni

MORPHOLOGY

• Body is flattened in unfed specimens

• strongly curvex dorsally when distended with blood
• Differs from Argas in being more globular
• Lacks sharp lateral margin and not distinctly ovoid when viewed from above
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LIFECYCLE

• Found in cracks and crannies of avian roosts, nests, rodent burrows and resting places of large mammals
• [Link] larvae hatch from the eggs but do not feed- non parasitic. 2 nymphal stages and adult feed on hosts
• The ticks may bite man too.

EFFECTS ON THE HOST CONTROL

• They can suck blood in large quantities and may kill the animal when attacking them in large numbers
• Known to be carriers of spirochaetosis
• Can transmit Anaplasma marginale

Control

• Difficult- hide in sand and hence difficult to access

• Spraying walls of huts, houses and naimal buildings with residual insecticides
• Organophosphates, synthetic pyrethroids are likely to be effective
• Applied to animals directly or by providing them with dust baths containing insecticides

HARD TICKS
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•
• Click here to view the mouthparts of Ixodid Ticks

MORPHOLOGY - HARD TICKS

Boophilus microplus - ONE HOST TICK (TROPICAL CATTLE TICK) (View image...)

• Short rostrum (brevirostrate)

• A pair of eyes present -at the margin between first and second coxae in males and at the margin of the scutum in the
region between 1st and 2nd coxae in females
• 1st coxa has hump on dorsal border and is notched ventrally
• Adanal and accessory adanal plates are present in males and these plates are having median posterior spine
• Additionally a caudal process is present in males
• Festoons are absent and the anal groove is faint
• Acts as a vector for Babesia bigemina in cattle

Boophilus annulatus - ONE HOST TICK

• Similar to B. microplus
• In males, the caudal process is absent
• Acts as vector for Babesia bigemina in cattle

Haemaphysalis bispinosa - THREE HOST TICK (View image...)

• Short rostrum
• Eyes : Absent
• The second article of the pedipalp projects laterally
• First coxa has pointed spine.
• Festoons : Present
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• Ventral plates in males : Absent

• Acts as vector of Babesia gibsoni in dogs, Babesia and Theileria of sheep

Hyalomma marginatum, [Link] - TWO HOST TICK (BONT LEGGED TICK)

• Long rostrum (longirostrate) (View image...)

• Eyes and festoons : Present.
• First coxa is deeply bifid. (View image...)
• Joints of limbs have white bands (View image...)
• Males have anal, adanal and subanal plates (View image...)
• Acts as vector for Babesia equi, Theileria annulata, Theileria mutans

Rhipicephalus sanguineus, [Link] - THREE HOST TICK (BROWN DOG TICK, KENNEL TICK)

• Brevirostrate
• Basis capitulum is hexagonal (View image...)
• Eyes and festoons : Present
• First coxa bifid (View image...)
• Male ticks show presence of adanal plates - with straight median border (View image...)
• Acts as vector of Babesia canis, Babesia gibsoni, Hepatozoon canis and Ehrlichia canis

Dermacentor variabils - THREE HOST TICK

• Ornate
• Eyes present
• Brevirostrate
• First coxa bifid
• Coxa IV in male largest
• In males plates absent
• Festoons present
• Transmit : Rocky mountain spotted fever, Q fever, tularemia, causes tick paralysis

Ixodes ricinus (CASTOR BEAN TICK)

• Anal groove surrounding anus anteriorly - prostriata

• Longirostrate
• Inornate
• Eyes absent
• Festoons absent
• Male with pregenital, median, anal, epimeral and adanal shields
• Transmits : Babesia divergens

Amblyomma maculatum

• Ornate
• Eyes present
• Longirostrate
• Second article of pedipalp longer than 1 and 2 Festoons present Males without ventral plates
• Transmits : A. hebraeum transmits heart water disease in cattle caused by Cowdria ruminatium

EFFECT ON HOST
Direct effect
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• Ticks injure animals by their direct biting process. The bite is painful and it annoys the host espceially cattle and dogs.
The effect is termed 'tick worry' and this has an adverse impact on production of infested animals
• The wounds caused by the tick bites predispose the host to blow fly strike
• Ticks suck blood and heavy infestation results in anaemia due to heavy loss of blood. In hard ticks the females are heavy
feeders and one tick can consume 0.2 to 2 ml of blood - in calves 500 ticks can kill the animal. Soft ticks such
as Ornithodorus sp. sucks 1-2 ml of blood at a time and kills the animal following an overnight infestation
• Ticks damage the hide , there is inflammation, swelling, ulceration and itching. Dermatitis results due to the tick bite
especially the longirostrate ticks. The hide is affected and becomes unfit and is treated as third quality. It is often
condemned. The marking on the leather due to the tick bite is referred to as white spot leather

Indirect effect

• Transmission of Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp.

Tick paralysis

• Caused by 46 species of ticks in 10 genera including Argasids and Ixodids

• Host: Livestock, pets and man
• It is an ascending motor paralysis induced by substances introduced into host with the saliva when ticks attach and feed
• Toxic substances
o Proteinaceous material produced by salivary gland and secreted into saliva
o Some say it produced by ovaries-Ixovotoxin
o Holocyclotoxin- Ixodes holocyclus inhibits secretion at neuromuscular junctions
• Tick
o Female
o Sometimes nymphs
• Incidence- depends on
o Number of ticks
o Period of feeding
o Area fed
• Clinical signs
o Disruption of motor co-ordination
o Brief incubation- 5-7days
o General malaise, loss of appetite, headache, vomiting
o 1st paralysis of lower extremity, flaccid paralysis (hind limbs)
o Locomotor ataxia - erratic wobby gait
o Muscular weakness
o Lack of ankle, knee, or abdominal reflexus
o Paralysis ascends affects forelimbs - upper body – neck head- collapse - death - flaccid tetraplegia
o Decreased sensory perception
o Paralysis of chest muscles leads to respiratory failure
o Patient is in co-ordinated, unable to move arms / legs, sit upright, difficulty in speaking, chewing, swallowing
o In young children, death occurs in 24-48 hrs
o Tick when removed, recovery is seen– total recovery immediate to several weeks except in Ixodes holocyclus.
o In dogs preceding all these symptoms, inflammation and conjunctivitis of eye,keratitis and cardiac
abnormalities
• Treatment
o Phenoxybenzamine HCl
o Alpha adrenergic blocking drug

Tick bite allergies

• IgE mediated immediated Hypersensitivity reaction

• Occurs early during tick attachment and feeding
• Small large local reaction (View image...)
• Systemic- shock like symptoms
• Unsual allergic reaction- nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, edema and erythema

Tick toxicosis
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• Associated with soft tick – Ornithodoros savignyi – trembling, frothy saliva, gnashing of teeth, sometimes foreleg
paralysis
• H. truncatum - sweating sickness which occurs in sheep, goat, pigs even dogs which occurs in S,G,P, even dogs
• Female while feeding increase incidence summer.
• Fever, anorexia, hyperaemia, hyperaesthesia of skin and mucous membrane, salivation, lachrymation and moist eczema
• No paralysis- cracked skin- screw worm.
• 75% mortality
• Symptoms within 4 days of tick attachment
• Immune for 4 years
• Toxin
o Unknown
o Epitheliotrophic

Anaemia

The Indirect effects include the vector potentiality of each tick which is given under each genera of ticks dealt with

METHODS OF CONTROL OF TICKS

Ticks can be controlled by,

• Ecological control
• Biological control
• Genetic control
• Chemical control
• Novel methods of control

ECOLOGICAL CONTROL

• Modification of plant cover by removal of regetation covering / sheltering ticks

• Sanitation of local habitats - using acaricide, plastering walls, concrete on floors
• Eradication of rodent host
• Other practices such as pasture rotation, pasture spelling, rotational grazing, periodical with holding of cattle and strict
quarantine control can also be used

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Predators

• Certain ants (e.g. Buphagus) and birds (e.g. Crows) are known to consume ticks - this happens naturally in mixed farming

Parasitism

• Parasitoids which are parasitic during the immature stages and destroy the host as the immature stage completes its
development
• The control of ticks by this method is very limited.
• Significant reduction in tick population was exerted by Ixodiphagus sp and Hunterellus hookeri
• Bacteria such as Bacillus thuringiensis are known to cause tick mortality
• Some Fungus eg. Aspergillus grow on tick cuticle and cause mortality
• Similarly microsporidia - Nosema act as stomach poison following ingestion by ticks

Botanical
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• A leguminous plant Stylosanthes scabra is known to cause mortality in larval and nymphal stages of Boophilus
microplus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus

GENETIC CONTROL
Sterile male technique

• Cross between B. microplus and B. annulatus results in hybrid sterility

• Irradiation of ticks also results in sterility
• Development of cattle resistant to ticks

CHEMICAL CONTROL

• Traditional method, widely employed

• The following chemicals are widely used,
• Chlorinated Hydro Carbons,
o DDT, BHC, Dieldrin, Chlordane, Lindane have been used extensively
o Disadvantages : Hazardous, gets accumulated in environment and body tissues, milk and meat are found to be
toxic
• Organophosphorus compounds (OPC),
o Malathion, Diazinon, Rafoxanide, famphur belong to this group
o Low mammalian toxicity and minimal residue in tissue is its advantage
• Carbamates,
o Carbaryl, Baygon have relatively low mammalian toxicity and broad spectrum characteristics
• Synthetic Pyrethroids,
o Fermented products of Streptomycetes avermititis with broad spectrum activity covering several ectoparasites

NOVEL METHODS OF CONTROL

Use of Pheromones

• Phenolic pheromones are used as an aid in tick control, using them as attractants to attract ticks to an insecticide treated
site or location
• Aggregation pheromone with Toxaphene has been used as a tick decoy
• These decoys are tied to the tail of the animal
• Advantage is that only a small amount of chemical is needed to control the ticks

Use of insect growth regulator

• Use of juvenile homone analogue, ecdysones in large doses contribute to tick control

Vaccines

• TICKGARD & GAVAC are available against B. microplus ticks

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TICKS AND MITES

Ticks Mites
• Larger in size (macroscopic) • Smaller in size (microscopic)
• Parasitic in nature • Free living mites are present
• Mammilated cuticle present in soft • No mammilations. Bristles, scales,
ticks setae present
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• Eyes- present or absent • Eyes- absent

• Jointed pedipalp • Not jointed pedipalp

• Chitinous extension of coxae • Epimeres present

(epimeres) - absent

• Legs end in claw • Legs end in sucker or caruncles

• Festoons present • Absent

• Ornamentations on dorsal surface of • No ornamentations

scutum

• Chitinous plate/shield (scutum) • No scutum

throughout the body divides ticks
into soft and hard ticks

• Haller's organ on dorsal aspect of • No Haller's organ

first pair of tarsus in leg for sensory
functions

• Respiration by spiracles • Respire through cuticle

• Lifecycle of ticks involve "on the • Lifecycle always in the host skin
host" and "off the host" nature

• Act as vectors (biological) for • Not as vectors for disease

protozoan disease transmission

MODULE-14: MESOSTIGMATA - DERMANYSSIDAE AND

ANALGESIDAE
Learning objectives

• In this module the learner will read about the morphology, effect on host and control of red mite and feather mite of
poultry.

RED MITE OF POULTRY

Dermanyssus gallinae

• Common name: Red mite of Poultry

• Host: Pigeon, Cage birds, wild birds etc, also Man
• Night Feeder, hides in crevices during day

MORPHOLOGY - RED MITE OF POULTRY

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Dermanyssus gallinae

• Dorsal shied does not reach the posterior end of the body
• Posterior margin of dorsal shield is truncated
• Anus on posterior half of anal plate
• Chelicerae long and whip like

LIFE CYCLE - RED MITE OF POULTRY

EFFECT ON THE HOST - RED MITE OF POULTRY

• The mite can multiply rapidly

• It causes severe irritation
• It sucks blood leading to anemia in birds
• It transmits Borrelia anserina
• Man can be attacked
• Egg productionin infested bird decreases
• It can also result in death of newly hatched chicks
• Infested chicken are unthrifty
• Increased susceptibility to diseases due to reduced vitality is also seen in affected birds

DIAGNOSIS - RED MITE OF POULTRY

• Red coloured mite when fed

TREATMENT - RED MITE OF POULTRY

• Apply Carbaryl 0.25% in cracks and crevices, repeat after 2-3 weeks
• Amitraz spray
• Litter treatment with 2% Chlordane, 2% Malathion and 0.5% Lindane
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FEATHER MITE OF POULTRY

Megninia ginglymura

• Live chiefly between barbules of feathers /rarely enter quill in down feathers and contour feathers

Morphology

• Third pair of legs exceptionally well developed in male but not used for walking. In female, all legs are equal in size
• Undivided posterior margin
• All legs end in suckers
• Scavangers-feed on feather fragments and desquamated cells of skin

Effect on host

• Extremely heavy infestation causes irritation

• Birds go off feed
• Concentrate on preening
• So drastic reduction in egg yield in layers
• Wt loss in broilers

Control

• Dip in malathion

MODULE-15: SACROPTIFORMES - SARCOPTIDAE AND

PSOROPTIDAE
Learning objectives

• This module deals with morphology, lifecycle and effect on host of Sarcoptes and Psoroptes mites.
• The learner will also read about sarcoptic mange in different species and the difference between the two mites in this
module.

SARCOPTIDAE
Suborder: Sarcoptiformes

• Few species parasitic

• Legs grouped in 2 pairs on either side of nymph and adult.
• In unfavourable conditions produce nymphs to resist adverse conditions - Hypopial Nymph or Hypopi.

Family: Sarcoptidae

SARCOPTES
Genus : Sarcoptes
Species : Sarcoptes scabiei
Condition caused : Sarcoptic mange of Sheep, Goat, Cattle, Pigs, Elephants, Foxes, Rabbits etc. Scabies in man

Mange Infestation in Animals

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• An infestation of mites is termed as Mange/Acariasis/Scabies

Types of mange

• Sarcoptic mange - by Sarcoptes spp. - Dog, Sheep, Goat, Buffalo, Pigs, Equines, Camels, Human
• Psoroptic mange - by Psoroptes spp. - Sheep, Buffalo, Goat
• Demodectic (Follicular/Red) mange - by Demodex spp. - Dog, Sheep, Goat, Cattle
• Leg mange (scaly leg) - by Cnemidocoptes mutans - Fowls, Turkeys
• Depluming mange (itch) - by Cnemidocoptes gallinae - Fowls
• Chorioptic / foot mange - by chorioptes spp. - horse, Sheep, Cattle
• Otodectic mange (otoacariasis) - by Otodectes spp. - Dog, Cat

MORPHOLOGY - SARCOPTES
• Globose
• Striac of skin interrupted by scaly spinose areas
• Legs short
• Tarsi of 1, 2, 4- male & 1, 2 - female (Bell shaped
suckers), the rest end in bristles
• Pedicels unsegmented
• Third & 4th pair of legs do not project beyond margin of
body
• Dorsal surface covered with fine grooves

LIFE CYCLE - SARCOPTES

SPREAD OF INFECTION - SARCOPTES

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• Contact with wandering larvae (most important), nymph, fertilized young female
• Mite susceptible to dryness, can’t live more than few days off the host
• Female feeds on liquid oozing out of damaged tissues

EFFECT ON THE HOST - SARCOPTES

• Pierce skin and suck lymph & feeds on young epidermal cells,
o Irritation, itching, scratching
o Condition aggravated
o Exudation, coagulation, crust formation
o Excessive keratinization and proliferation of connective tissue, skin thickened and wrinkled

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN PIGS

Site of Affection

• Ear is most common affected site

• Spreads to back, flank, abdomen
• Most harbour inapporent infection

Transmission

• Sows to piglets during sucking signs seen within 3weeks of birth

• From infection boar to gilts

Symptoms

• 1st sign papules, generalized erythema around eyes, snout & external ear, axilla, front of hocks
• Scratching – encrustations – thickened skin with crack open, leaving deep wounds

Diagnosis

• Confirmatory diagnosis by examining the wax from the ear

Treatment

• Treat Sow before farrowing

• Boars – treat at 6 monthly interval with Ivermectin at 300 µg/kg can be given

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN HORSES

• Rare, notifiable in Britain

• Weeping surface covered with thick crusts
• Emaciation, Cachexia, Death in advanced cases

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN CATTLE

• Rare but can occur in housed cattle

• “Neck & tail mange“– in USA, but can spread
• Other symptoms similar
• Loss of meat / milk production / downgrading of hide value (damaged)
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• Loss of hair
• At times severely encrusted lesion with no pruritis also occurs

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN DOG

Predilection site

• Ear, muzzle, face, elbows, inguinal / axillary region

Symptoms

• 1st sign erythema, papule formation, rupture- encrustation of lymph, scale, formation, pruritis, alopecia
• Then skin is dry & thickened with intense pruritis, results in self inflicted trauma – secondary infection (pyoderma) /self
mutilation occurs
• After primary infection, dogs get sensitized and scratch even before 1st signs are seen
• In neglected cases whole skin surface is involved, progressive weakness, emaciation and strong sour odour. They become
cachectic & even die

Diagnosis

• Scratch reflex when ears are rubbed

• Mostly intense itching is seen
• Highly contagious, so all animals in contact are affected
• Examination of deep skin scraping

Treatment

• Benzye benzoate emulsion

• Tetmosol (Tetraethylthiuram monosulphide) - 5%
• 20% Tetmosol soap as prophylaxis
• Carbaryl shampoos
• Overmectin 200µg/kg .Bwt

Control

• Supportive nutrition / Good hygiene in animal quarter / Disinfec animal houses & utensils

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN SHEEP

• Rare, affects non woolly portion of the body

• Starts near mouth and spreads slowly
• Intense itching, sheep don't graze, progressive emaciation

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN GOATS

• The condition is more chronic with nodules developing on less well haired parts of the body (even ear)

SARCOPTIC MANGE IN RABBITS

• Condition is seen on head and ear, then generalized.

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SARCOPTIC MANGE IN HUMAN

• Man picks up infection from affected animals-Dairy Man’s itch / from dogs / pigs.
• Palms, wrists, arms and chest are usually affected.
• Animal origin scabies is less severe since mite won’t burrow and multiply.
• Redness, papule, prurites for few weeks and then it disappears.
• Repeated exposure causes hypersensitivity – transient rash appears within few hours of animal contact.

NOTOEDRES CATI

• The genus is similar to Sarcoptes

• Body is globose, covered with scales or spines
• Has 2 vertical setae on dorsum of propodosoma
• Legs are short with unsegmented pedicels
• Sucker/bristle distribution similar to Sarcoptes
• Important difference from Sarcoptes is that the anus is dorsally placed while in Sarcoptes it is terminal

EFFECT ON THE HOST

• Burrowing mites causes mange like lestions

• Lesion consists of yellowish crusts inregion of ears, face or neck.
• The skin is markedly thickened and wrinkled
• Differential diagnosis from Sarcoptes is essential

HOST, LOCATION AND LIFECYCLE

• It is a minute mite
• Host: Cats occassionally rabbits
• Location: chiefly ears, back of neck, may extend to the face, foot, hindpaws or even the whole body in young cats
• Burrowing mites

TREATMENT

• Malathion 0.25 -1.25 % suspension immerse the cats for 1-2 seconds- since it is objectionable cats do not lick it.
• Tetmosol can be used as local topical medicine
• Ointment of 1-2% sulphur

PSOROPTIDAE

• Species are highly specific to their host unlike Sarcoptidae

• They cause a condition known as SCAB in animals like sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo, equines, cat, rabbit etc
• They do not burrow into skin
• They are parasitic on surface layer causing the formation of thick heavy scab rather than thickening of skin
• The following species are valid (Sweotman (1958) Can J Zool. 36: 905-929,
o Psoroptes ovis – Sheep
o Psoroptes equi – Horse
o Psoroptes natalensis – Indian water buffalo and cattle
o Psoroptes carvinus – American sheep
o Psoroptes caniculi – Rabbit, Cosmopotitan (also occur in ears of goat, sheep, horse, donkey, mule, gazelle
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PSOROPTES - MORPHOLOGY

• Body oval
• No dorsal spines
• No vertical setae on dorsum of
Propodosoma
• Legs are longer and project beyond
margin of body
• Bell shaped suckers (caruncles) on stalks
(pedicels) on the tarsi of fore or all the
legs
• The pedicels of tarsal suckers are long
and composed of 3 segments in
Psoroptes
• Aus is terminal
• Male has adanal sucker (Copulatory
discs)
• Posterior margin of abdomen of male
prolonged into lobes
• Prominent in Psoroptes and Chorioptes
• Not prominent is Otodectes

MORPHOLOGY - PSOROPTES OVIS

• Cause of Sheep scab – an important disease

• Australia – eradicated
• Britain – 20 years back eradicated, it has now re-entered
• U.S.A – Still exists in certain states

Morphology

• Male
o A pair of copulatory suckers in ventral side
o A pair of large terminal tubercles bearing several hairs
• Female
o Possess suckers with jointed pedicels on 1st, 2nd and 4th pair of legs
o PUBESCENT female also provided with a pair of posterior copulatory tubercles which are absent in ovigerous
females
o Ovigerous female will have a genital aperture on the anterior aspect of ventral side

LIFE CYCLE - Psoroptes ovis

• Eggs laid on skin at the edge of lesion

• Hatch in 2-3 days
• Larvae feed for 2 – 3 days
• Moult to Nymphal stage – last 12 has is a state of lethargy
• Nyphal stage lasts 3-4 days – Before moult -lethargic period -36 hrs
• Smaller nymphs will become adult
• Pubescent female appear before males on the 5th day and the males on the 6th day- copulation takes place
• Pubescent females molt to become ovigerous
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• Life cycle from egg to egg- 12 days

• Adult female live 30-40 days and each lay 90-100 eggs

PATHOGENESIS - Psoroptes ovis

• Puncture epidermis – suck lymph

• Serum excudes on to surface, coagulate and form crusts
• Wool gets loose, fall out or pulled by sheep by biting and scratching
• Bare, crusty patch unsuitable for mite to multiply
• They migrate to margin
• Wool get matted in serum that oozes out

TREATMENT - Psoroptes ovis

• Dipping is best
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons prohibited because of insecticide residues
• Organophosphorous compounds can be used
o Malathion/Sumithion - 50 EC
▪ 20 ml of 50 EC m/s is 1 lit.H2O = 1.0 %
▪ 20 ml of 50 EC m/s in 2 lit.H2O = 0.5 %
o Zolone
▪ 35 EC – 5 ml is 345 ml H2O = 5%
▪ 20 EC – 5 ml is 195 ml H2O = 5%
• Deltamethrin (Synthetic pyrethroid) – Butox- 4 ml is 1 lit H2O = 1% solution, Residual effect- 15 days

PSOROPTES CUNICULI

• Ear canal of horse, donkey, rabbit etc

• Head shaking
• Otacariases
• Ear cankar
• If not checked, heavy infestation to other parts of body
• Loss of balance occur
• Septic meningitis may ensue

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SARCOPTES AND PSOROPTES

SARCOPTES PSOROPTES
• Sarcoptes, causes scabies of man • Psoroptes causes psoroptic mange of
and sarcoptic mange of sheep, sheep, goats, cattle, equines and
goats, cattle, pigs, equines, dogs, horses
foxes, rabbit and other animals • Otodectes, causes otodectic mange of
• Notoedres, causes notoedretic dogs, foxes, cats and ferrets
mange of cats, rabbits and rats • Chorioptes causes chorioptic mange of
• Cnemidocoptes affects fowls equines and cattle

Morphological features
• Body globose • Body oval
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• Integument covered with scales and • No dorsal spines

spines (presence of 6 dorsal conical
spines)

• Legs are short • Legs are longer and project beyond

the margin of the body

• Bell shaped suckers (caruncles) on • same

stalks (pedicels) on the tarsi of
some or all legs

• Pedicels of the tarsal suckers not • Pedicels long and composed of three
segmented segments in Psoroptes, short and not
segmented in Otodectes and
Chorioptes

• Legs 3 and 4 of the females alone • Legs 3 of females only bear terminal
end in bristles instead of suckers bristles and not suckers, while legs 4
of both Psoroptes and Chorioptes
bears suckers. Leg 4 of female of
Otodectes is feebly developed and
without suckers, leg 4 of all the males
shorter than leg 3
• Anus terminal • Anus terminal

• No adanal suckers (copulatory • Males with adanal suckers on the

discs) in males posterior end of abdomen

• Posterior margin of the abdomen of • Posterior margin of the abdomen of

male is not bi lobed the male is produced into two lobes
which are prominent in Psoroptes and
Chorioptes but not so in Otodectes

CHORIOPTES

• Named after their hosts

• [Link] – Fetlock of horse
• C caprae – Goats
• [Link] – Ears of rabbit
• [Link], C. equi, C. ovis - All belong to the species of C. bovis
• In horse -foot mange, itchy leg on pastern
• Otodectes cynotis - Ear of dog, cat, fox

MODULE-16: THROMBIDIFORMES - DEMODICIDAE

Learning objectives
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• This module teaches about red mange of dogs, follicular mite of cat, cattle and goat.

THROMBIDIFORMES
Sub Order : Thrombidiformes

• They have one pair of stigmata located on the gnathosome at the base of chelicerae
• Some have no stigmata or trachea eg. Demodicidae breathe through body surface
• Well developed pedipalps
• Chelicerae adapted for piercing

DEMODICIDAE
Super Family : Demodicoidea

Family : Demodicidae

Host : Dogs, Cattle, Goat, Sheep, Swine, Wild animals, Rabbits, Hamsters, Rats,Mice etc., Uncommon in cats and horses.

• Highly specialized skin parasites

• Live in hair follicles and associated glands
• Very host specific
• Seen in hair follicle/ dermal glands-sebaceous glands modified sebaceous glands, e.g. meibomian, caudal, preputial and
vulval glands
• Also seen in modified sweat glands, submaxillary skin papillae and mixed sebaceous and sweat glands eg: perianal glands
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Morphology

• 0.25 mm
• Female longer,
elongate
• Cylindrical
• Body divided
into head,
thorax, and
abdomen

Head

• Has three
jointed
pedipalp
• One pair
chelicerae
• Single
hypostome

Thorax

• Ventral side
with four pairs
of stumpy legs
• Each leg is
three jointed,
vulva in
female on
ventral side
• On the dorsal
side in males
there is a
longitudinal slit
which is the
genital opening

Abdomen

• Transversely
striated

RED MANGE OF DOGS

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Demodex canis - "Red Mange" in dogs

• In other animals, disease caused is termed "Follicular mange" or "Demodectic mange"

Etiology

• D. caprae, [Link], D. phylloides (pigs), D. bovis [Link] (man)

• Click here for Life cycle, Effect on the host and Clinical Signs.

LIFE CYCLE - [Link]

• Completed in 3-4 weeks in dogs. 3 nymphal stages

EFFECT ON THE HOST - D. CANIS

• Injury to host occurs when mites puncture with their stylet like chelicerae the epithelial cells lining the hair follicles and
glands to feed on the cell contents
• The host response in most cases leads to thrombosis of internal infestations
• Pustules initially seen on abdomen, neck, legs, also feet, face and thigh regions
• Dogs have repulsive mousy odour / rancid odour
• Itching is less
• In dogs both forms are seen
• Clinical signs evident in dogs less than 1 year old- presumably immuno deficient
• 1st appear as mildly erythematous patch above eyes and corners of mouth, associated typically with hair loss- then spreads
to forelegs, trunk
• Most resolve without treatment
• Death occurs in severely infected animals
• In generally predisposed or immuno depressed animals and in case of secondary infection, it develops into chronically
severe, moist, purulent dermatitis - "Pustular Demodicosis” - unpleasant odour - rancid/mousy
• If generalized, there is intense redness, tenderness of skin which easily bleeds-Death occurs in heavily infested animals
• Mild and moderate hypertrophy of the affected epithelia
• In some cases marked hypertrophy and cell destruction occurs
• Opening of hair follicle and ducts of glands are blocked
• Dermal papule formation and nodules
• Hair loss-secondary bacterial infection-inflammation, pruritus and pustule formation (Staphylococcus)
• Lesions occur on face and head and then spread-if untreated, death due to emaciation and toxaemia occurs

CLINICAL SIGNS - [Link]

Two major clinical forms

Scaly or Squamous demodicosis Papulonodular demodicosis

• “Red mange” of dogs • Obstruction of hair follicles, gland
• Most common ducts
• Dry, scaly dermatitis • Leads to palpable cyst
• Itching, thickening and wrinkling like/nodular swellings in the skin -
of skin traps mites within. Common form
• Loss of hair, reddening of skin in Cattle, Goats & Pigs
• Sec infection-rupture of follicular • Lesions enlarge as the mites
cells, inflammation, purulent multiply along with cellular debris
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exudates and glandular secretions

• Localized or Generalized • Eventually rupture -leads to
• Repulsive mousy odour secondary infections and
• Red skin-bluish green- coppery abscesses
reddish colour • Can rupture internally- introduce
• Skin is tender, easily bleeds mites into lymphatics
CAT FOLLICULAR MITE
Demodex cati

Etiology

D. cati or [Link]

• Squamous form
• Associated with underlying immuno suppressive diseases

CATTLE FOLLICULAR MITE

Demodex bovis

Condition : Papulonodular form

• Population of 100s to 1000s mite/follicle results in dilated follicle-leads to dermal papules or cysts
• As they enlarge they can be felt beneath skin
• Lesion concentrate in anterior part of cows, notably neck, shoulders , axillary region, udder
• Papular cysts enlarge to form granulomatous nodules-when follicular opening gets blocked by mites, keratin and other
debris
• Usually seen in cows stressed by pregnancy/ lactation
• Dilated nodules vary in size from a pin head to a chicken egg
• Larger modules rupture to produce suppurative sores
• The pus like exudate (consistency of tooth paste) when examined will reveal the presence of large numbers of D. bovis

Economic Loss

• Skin damage-defects in leather

• Tanning industry loss- due to diminished quality of processed cow hide
• [Link] -another species recorded in Czechoslovakia

GOAT FOLLICULAR MITE

Demodex caprae

• Dermal papules and nodes

• Common in young animals, pregnant and dairy goats
• Papules on face, neck, axillary region, udder
• These later enlarge to become nodules-suppurate
• mites are transferred via exudates
• Nodule rupturing internally results in granulomas wherein phagocytic cells try to destroy mites
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MODULE-17: ECTOPARASITICIDE

Learning objectives

• In this module the learner will read about the ectoparasiticide and its groups.

ECTOPARASITICIDE

• Research and development costs for discovery of new chemical entities to control parasites has increased significantly
• Traditionally the Ectoparasiticide market has been satisfied primarily by reformulation of compounds developed
and tested for crop protection
• Only in recent years there has been an introduction of a few new products with novel mode of action exclusively for
animals eg. Insect growth regulators
• The methods of application has also improved – to make it easier to use / prolong period of drug action / increased
spectrum of chemical activity.

ECTOPARASITICIDE GROUPS

• Virtually all are neurotoxins exerting effect through nervous system.

o Amidines (Formamidines)
o Macrocyclic Lactones
o Carbamates
o Nitroguanidines
o Organochlorines
o Organophosphates
o Phenylpyrazoles
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o Pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids

o Miscellaneous
o New category of insect control agents

AMIDINES
Amidines (Formamidines) : Amitraz

• Acts at octopamine receptor sites causing neuronal hyperexcitability and death

• Used as spray / dip / pour ons
• Effective against lice, tick, mites (mange in pigs)
• In Dip stabilize using calcium hydroxide
• Small Animals: treatment of Demodex, Sarcoptes etc
• Tick collar in dogs
• Contraindicated in horses, pregnant and nursing bitches and cats (decreased formulation can be used for cat
demodicosis)

MACROCYCLIC LACTONES
Avermectins / Milbemycins

• Macrocyclic fermentation products of Streptomyces avermilitis(Avermectins) and Streptomyces

cyanogriseus (Milbimycins)
• Avermectins: Abamectin, Doramectin, eprinomectin, moxidectin and milbemycin oxime, selamectin are available
• Since these are active against nematodes and arthropods they are referred to as endectocides
• Available as Oral / parentral/[Link]/pour - ons
• Wide safety margin – but some breeds of dogs (collies) are sensitive to ivermectins
• Both are lipophilic – stored in fat tissue and released slowly, metabolized and excreted. A temporary depot occurs in
fat and liver and there is slow release.
• Prolonged half life of these compounds also determines levels of residues in meat and milk . Hence, there is a compulsory
withdrawal period following treatments in food producing animals
• With exception of eprinomectin which has zeromilk withdrawal period, this class of compounds cannot be given to
lactating cows (or) during the last 2 months of pregnancy

Mode of Action

• Acts on γ amino butyric acid (GABA) neuro transmission at 2 or more sites blocking interneuronal stimulation of
excitatory motor neurons – leading to flaccid paralysis – achieves this probably by stimulating the release of GABA from
nerve endings & enhancing the binding of GABA to its receptor on the post synaptic membrane of an excitatory motor
neuron
• The enhanced GABA results in an increase flow of cl- ions into cell leading to hyperpolarization

CARBAMATES

• Closely related to organo phosphates and are anticholinesterase but unlike organo phosphates appear to cause a
spontaneously reversible block on enzyme acetylcholinesterase (Ach E) with out changing it
• Examples: Carbaryl , propoxur , Fenoxycarb
• Carbaryl and propoxur have low mammalian toxicity,Carcinogenic?
• Fenoxycarb acts as IGR, prevents emrbryonic development in flea egg, larval development and adult emergence

NITROGUANIDINES
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• Imidacloprid-chloronicotinyl insecticide - a synthesized chlorinated derivative of

nicotine,. It specifically binds to nicotinic acetyl choline receptors in the insects
CNS leading to inhibition of cholinergic transmission resulting in paralysis and
death [ nicotine has similar mode of action]
• Favorable toxicity of imidocloprid is because it seems to bind to Ach receptors of
insects and has no effect on these receptors in mammals. Used as spot on
for dogs and cats to protect against fleas

ORGANO CHLORINES

• Environmental and persistence concern has resulted in declined use of organochlorines

Three groups

• Cholrinated ethane derivatives, DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl Trichlorethane),DDE (Dichlorodiphenyldichlorethane) and

DDD(diclofol, methoxychlor)
• Cyclodines - chlordane, alderin, dielderin, hepatochlor, endrin and toxaphene(other than DDT)
• Hexachlorhexanes(HCH) like BHC and which includes γ isomer and lindane

Mode of Action

• Chlorinated ethanes causes inhibition of Na conductance along sensory and motor nerve fibres by holding sodium
channels open - delayed repolarization of axonal membrane - so the nerve becomes vulnerable to repetitive discharge from
small stimuli that would normally cause an action potential in fully repolarized neuron
• Cyclodines 2 modes of action-
o Inhibition of γ amino butyric acid (GABA) stimulated Cl- flux & interference with Ca + flux
o The resultant inhibitory post synaptic potential leads to a state of partial depolarization of the post synaptic
membrane and vulnerability to repeated discharge
o Same modeof action for lendane which binds picrotoxin side of GABA receptor inhibits- GABA dependent Cl
flux into the neuron

ORGANO PHOSPHATES

• Organo phosphates are neutral esters of phosphoric acid or its analogue. They act by inhibiting the action of acetylcholine
esterase (AchE) at cholinergic synapses and at muscle end plates
• Organophosphosphates mimics the structure of Ach and when it binds AchE causes transphosphorylation of enzyme,
this transphosphorylated AchE is unable to break down and accumulates as Ach at post synaptic membrane leading to
neuromuscular paralysis
• Degree of transphosphorylation of enzyme helps to determine activity of Organo phosphates – it is not reversible - AchE
is metabolized by oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes eventually

PHENYL PYRAZOLES
Fipronil

• Blocks transmission of signals by the inhibitory neuro transmitter GABA - the compounds binds within the Cl channel
and consequently inhibits the flux of Cl- ions into the nerve cell resulting in hyperexcitation of insect nervous system
• Fipronil is lipophilic, diffuses into the sebaceous glands of hair follicles and acts as a reservoir – It has long residual
activity
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• Sunlight/baths etc., do not affect this spray spot-on, it is safe for pups and kittens and has knockdown effects on
fleas/ticks

PYRETHRINS AND SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS

• Lipophilic/ rapidly absorbed, distributed and excreted - excellent for knock down effect, has poor residual
activity(instability) hence, is of low mammalian toxicity
• Pyrethrin I is most active ingredient for killing insects and Pyrethrin II for rapid insect knock down
• Pyrethrins acts on insect’s CNS by exciting the cell membranes resulting in extended depolarization
• Prolongation of activity can occur when the compound is microcapsulated or stabilized
• Certain pyrethrin preparation contain piperonyl butoxide which acts as synergist by helping to prevent pyrethrin break
down by microsomal function oxidase(MFO) system in insects
• Synthetic pyrethroids are more stable with higher potency. It can be combined with synergists like piperonyl butoxide
• Common pyrethroids include bioallethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, fenvalerate, flumethrin, lambdacyhalothrin,
phenothrin and permethrin

Mode of action

• Interference with Na channels of the parasite nerve axons resulting in delayed repolarization and repetitive discharge of
the nerve

Type II

• Also act on Na+ gate but without causing repetitive discharge lethal activity of pyrethroids involves both peripheral and
central neurons while the knock down effect is produced by peripheral neuronal effects only
• Pour ons, spot on, spray, dip, topical powder, spray, ear tags etc

MISCELLANEOUS

• Piperonyl butoxide(PBO) is a methylnediox phenyl compound used as synergistic additive in the control of arthropod
pests. It is used as a synergistic with pyrethroids
• Effect of IGR also enhanced with this
• PBO inhibits the microsomal enzymes system of arthropods. It has low mammalian toxicity and rapid degradates in
environment
• Compounds include pyrethrins, jasmolines, citronella, indalone, garlic oil, DEET(N,N-diethyl-M-toluamide) and DMP(Di
Methyl Pthalate)

INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS

• New category of insect control agents

• Constitute a chemical group which do not kill a target but interfere with growth and development, act mainly on immature
stages and not used in adult control

Based on mode of action

• Chitin synthesis inhibitors(BPU)

• Chitin inhibitors(Thiazine/ pyrimidine derivatives)
• Juvenile hormone analogue(JHA)

Benzoylphenyl urea (BPU)

• During each moult chitin is newly formed by polymerization of individual sugar molecules, this with proteins are
assembled into chains which in turn are assembled into microfibrils
• Exact mode of action is not understood, it may be by interference with assembly of chitin chains into microfibrils
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• Immature insect stages exposed to there (BPUs) cannot complete ecdysis and die during moulting process
• BPU also show a transovarial effect- exposed adult’s produce eggs in which the compound is incorporated into the egg
nutrient
• Egg development is normal but newly hatched larvae are incapable of hatching
• BPU is effective against insects but not against ticks the exception being Fluazuraon which is active against ticks and
mites
• BPU is lipophilic, build up in body fat, released into blood stream, excreted unchanged
• Diflubenzuron (Dimilin) is lipophilic and renders12-14 weeks protection
• Lufenuron(Program) - given orally, it accumulates in fat and is slowly released, flea takes it with blood and transfers it to
eggs which are non viable within 24 hours of administration
• Formation of larval chitin structure is blocked thus inhibiting development of the larvae
• Flufenoxyuron is a Chitin synthesis inhibitor used against blow flies
• Triflumuron is used against lice / fleas

Chitin inhibitors(Thiazine/ pyrimidine derivatives)

• Differs from BPU in chemical structure and mode of action -it alters deposition of chitin into cuticles
• Cyromazine-larvadex-trazine derivative
• Effective against blow flies, house flies and mosquitoes
• Larval moults to second and third instars affected when L1 comes into contact
• Pour on preparation is effective for 13 weeks after single pour on, dips/shower effect lasts longer
• Dicyclanil is a pyrimidine derivative- when used on diptean larvae as pour on formulation it gave 20 weeks protection.
Used in blow fly control

Juvenile hormone analogue(JHA)

• Mimics activity of natural juvenile hormone and prevents metamorphosis to adults

• Once the larvae is fully developed enzymes within the insect's circulating system, destroy the endogenous insect hormone
permitting development to adult stage
• The juvenile hormone analogue binds to the JH receptor site but because they are structured different, they are not
destroyed by the insect estrases.
• Hence metamorphosis and development to adult stage is impaired
• Methoprene (altocid)- a terpenoid compound with low mammalian toxicity its sensitive to light and will not persist out
doors
• Used in indoor enviroinment as collars, shampoo, spray, dip and even feed as larvicide’s for horn fly control
• Pyriproxyfen is used against fleas
• Carbamate, fenoxycarb also acts as JHA