UAP Center for Career Development

I4QQULE4: AcousTlcs
1. The psycho-physics of acoustics and lighting
2, Ar:oustical ireatment and urnections

Architectural acoustics encompasses two types of sound control:

(1) the acoustical environment within a room: positioning sound sources with respect to the iisteners,
and arranging appropriate absorptivity or reflectivity levels for all interior surfaces
(2) isolation of unwanted sounds: inr;ulating building occupants from intrusive noise. ln some spaces, a
continuous low background noise leuel is desirable for masking distracting sounds.

Acoustics is the branch of physics ooncerned with sound.

Noise - Any sound that is objectionable or not desired
Conversations of congregating people create unacceptably high noise levels nearby
Reverberant school corridors create annoying sound intrusions in adjacent classrooms
Mechanical and electrical equipment can be a soure of noise,
Architectural Acoustics - The effect of building design on the control of sound in buildings;
appreciation of the nature of sound and the principles of acoustics to create a satisfactory acoustical
environment
Responsibillities:
1. Engineer - keep the sound from mechanical equipment at an acceptable level
2. Manufrcturer - designing rnachinery for quiet operation
3. Architectural Consultant - can point out possible solutions to provide satisfactory noise control
4. Architect - rectgnize a potential noise problem in a proposed building and take steps to solve
it. Acoustical defect that appears in the completed building cannot be readily corrected,
resulting in inadequate acoustical quality. Utilizing the advice of architecturalconsultant, the
architect coordinate what acoustical solution can be most integrated with the solutions to the
other demands made on the buildings.

Three aspercts of acoustical design of buildings (1) planning to keep noise sources as far as possible
from quiet areas, (2) the internal acoustics of rooms, and (3) structural precautions to reduce noise
penetration.

Design Considerations for the acoustical aspects of a design:

'/ Detailed analysis of the deslgn purpose of the structure (planned usage of all individual spaces
should be investigated befcrre an acoustical plan is established)
'/ Visualize the overall building design and function in terms of acoustical qualities
'/ Compare costs and coordinate the work of all trades to come up with the most cost-effective
cc,mbination of modified sound sourcee and acousticaltreatments
'/ Any decision affecting both moustics and other architectural requirements must be made by
thra architect

Basic Acorustics

-\'{tni iii.-liiliii:l l,l".a

Sound is produred by vibrating oh,jeats and reaches the listener's ears as waves in the air or other
media. When an object vibrates, it r;auses slight changes in air pressure. These air pressure changes
travel as waves through the air and produce sound. To illustrate, imagine shiking a drum surface with a
stick. The clrum surface vibrates back and forth. As it moves forward, it pushes the air in contact with the
surface, This creates a positive (higher) pressure by compressing the air. When the surface moves in
the opposile direction, it creates a negative (lower) pressure by decompressing the air, Thus, as the
drum surface vihrates, it creates ailernating regions of higher and lower air pressure. These pressure
variations travel through the air as sound waves.

MODULE 4:AC0USTICS IAUGUST Z}tr) L

 UAP Center for Career Frevelopment

ili*1,1;rr: *
[Link]: ln $,tr frr;r;n tlt*:
fr:li; rr,:rr

Following lable lists the approxinrate velocity of sound in air and other media. ln gases, the higher the
velocity of sound, the higher the pitch will be.
Approximate Speed of Sound in Common Materials
Medium Sound Velocity ffUs) m/s
Air, dry (0C and 0.76 mm Hg) 1,100 330
Wood (soft - along the fibre) 11,100 3400
Water (15C) 4,704 1400
Concrete 10,200 31m
Steel 16,000 5000
Lead 3,700 12AA
Glass 18,500 5500
Hydrogen i[OC and 0.76 m) 4,100 1260

The hearing mechanism of the ear s;enses the sound waves and converts them into information and
relays it to the brain. The brain interprets the information as sound. The hearing mechanism in the ear is
sensitive enough to detect even smiall pressure waves. lt is also very delicate: this is why loud sound
may damage hearing.
How small and rapid are the changes of air pressure which cause sound? When the rapid variations in
pressure o,ccu r between about 20 and 20,000 times per second (frequency between 2AHz and 20k{z)
sound is potentially audible even though the pressure variation can sometimes be as low as only a few
millionths cf a Pascal. Movements c,f the ear drurn as emall as the diameter of a hydrogen atorncan be
audible. Louder sounds are caused by greater variation in pressure - 1 Pascal, will sound quite loud,
provided that most of the acoustic energy is in the mid-frequencies (1kHz - 4kHz) where the ear is most
sensitive.

]Jliid "|ti.,rqiu i:illlffa:[Link]

Sound is transmitted via the movement of the particles in a medium, such as air or water, Energy is
transferrecl from one region to another via a series of compression and tension cycles: the motion of the
particles is parallel to the propagation direction. The rcoustb disturbance can be represented as a
wave, with ihe x-axis representing time, and the y-axis the displacement of a given particle in the
medium from its rest position.
lncreasing the strength of the sound souroe extends the displaoement of the particle, and so the
acoustic pressure will also increase, This is heard as an increase in loudness.
Fxciting the sound more rapidly increases the frequency of the sound, and produces more cycles in a
given period, This is heard as an increase in pitch.

MODULE 4:ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 201r) 2

 UAP Center for Career Development

Two basic quantities that can describe the naturre of a sound are frequency and amplitude (of
displacement or amustic pressure) Sounds can be formed by a simple harmonic mixture of frequencies
(as produced by a guitar string), an intentional mixture of frequencies and amplitude (music) or a
seemingly random mixture of frequencies and amplitudes (noise).

.:i
Ji
,;..i ::i
l:' :i
lt, :
..t,
t.
rirr
J::nrq
I iltt\
:i i
l' i

Sound wav'e lncreased valume tound t*ave lncreased frequerrcy sound wave

$::$ :i'il'-i :j r,!:-;t*

I :ii., !1i,i.:,i-t,il",'
-

Frequency is the rate at which the source produces sound waves, i.e. complete cycles of high and low
pressure regions. ln other rarords, frtquenry is the number of times per second that a vibrating body
completes one cycle of motion, The unit forfrequency is the hertz (Hz = 'l cycle per second). Low
pitched or bass sounds have low frequencies. High-pitched or treble sounds have high frequencies. A
healthy, young person can hear sounds with frequencies from roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz. The upper
frequency limit decrease with age, ilnd so the older a person gets, the less well they can hearhigh
notes. Als<t, the mde hearing range decreases more quickly than the female, and so women can
generally hear higher pitch notes thian men of similar age, The sound of human speech is mainly in the
range 300 to 3,000 Hz,

l:.,'.:,,1i.r ',..,rt' ,:li i .[Link] il ,l ri:::rtl i t, ",111'1: -.; ;1,;'; i

.

::...ll' : i. lii't t,r;:ijlri.i ' rl :.] ?i.' ".,'il .r.,1: I i t;

1 5.;.1r,,1
ll: I ;.,ilt:^.rl.i :. ..rii :t

h
's
K
!&
R
!3

'{a
\4.
L/

All sound WEVQS 8r€ travelling at about flrc same sp eed - the speed of sound.
So wayes with a longer wavelen$h
don't anive (at your ear, for exanple) as ofen (frequently) as fhe shorfer wayes. /Flr-s
aspecf of a s"ou nd - how
often a wav'e peak goes by, is cdted fnquenry by sclentrsfs and engneers. They measure it
in heth, which is
how many wave peaks go hy in one seoond
The word that musjoans use for frequatcy is pitch. The shorter the wavelengfh, the higher the
frequency, and
the higher the ritch, af the sound. shod' waves sou nd high; long warcs sourd !o*.

Pitch is determined by how many tinres a sound wave repeats itself within one second of
time.
. Eiach repetition of a wavefcrrm is called a cycle.
. The number of repetitions lhat occur per second is calld the frequency.
. Frcquency is measured 3s cp$ ; cycles per second or in Hz called hertz. "Hz, is from
the name of Heinrich HerE, a German scientist who pioneered work in electromagnetic
waves during the 'l9th century.

M0DULE 4:ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2011) 3

 UAP Center for Career Development

i.4.J
'I d-- v.'ET*lEnnth
"r---".4 I

'f
' I
Ilr arnptitude
[F':r'rerl
'I
* .* . ** *- , - t *"---*J.q,e & I

Bne i}*r':illati'3n
ffrequen':y ia nuffihl?r 'ff
6$sillEtirin# per sssqnd j
The closu the peaks are togdher. the higher the pitch .

'&:li-','ii11+

.::l:
-,,
) ., ,t .., :, '

When a frequercy is daubled, we get an oclave

ffiffi W ffi#F trffi *f;$

1.
j,':i
', 1 1

j
I
:'i "
;"*-F",".";"-.j--i.
w
#
H

,3t ". {.

i tq.* H,&. ;;,irlqu $ $.

s 4dtq:. q '$*'l;-*'i g.: ${xq- I L';*r-'r.:

*.l* nl3.l ntqj,r' t*t*- : $-g s";i..,$'4 #a;!^S&. ii'

{ffiM1'Lqff
MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2O1"L) 4
 UAF eenter for Career Development

lt i::;ri, iii.::ri *Lii iJ l;J="fi I Lill

The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale applicable to any parameter. ln the measurement of sound, we
are concerned with the amplitude ollthe acoustic pressure, measured in pascals (Pa). The range of
acoustic pressures that the human r3ar can detect is very wide - from the lower limit of hearing at around
20 micro Pa {2 x 10-5 Pa) to the thr,eshokl of pain at around 20 Pa. This very wide range of values is
unwieldy, so it is converted into a logarithmic scale. This changes the range of values to the more
manageab,le range of 0 dB to '140 dB. Thus 0 dB is roughly the lowest level a normal person can hear,
but it is not the lowest level possible:,
Acousticiarns use the dB scale for the following reason$:
1) Quantities of interest often exhibit such huge ranges of variation that a dB scale is more convenient
than a linear scale.
2) The hurnan ear interprets loudness on a scale much closer to a logarithmic scale than a linear scale,

$#*prw Lrpxrffi $s Ys* Lq*ils$?

'l:'i.r, ;;tirr. ;J ,, ,,r, ,,
'.:r]' .:.: :: 'r,:i::u. I f:: :'1i ,.;:;].tlii.l1
,: t'...: : \.!1,r,-i, -:[t]- i',,i,..,,-t, .' ,.;:,-r.:.1'
.i:,/.i...i1i., lllir ;:i. i:.,,t,1 :.:. ,jl':l :; ':; rt", [Link], I'i ii
' 1t: 'r, r.

r, ' :,itl :' r rr.,

rj t.

,W
;r'

[Link]]
itt

r'.:,[Link], .[Link] l{[.:'i,ii{ |L, lli:,; .i:tiif:rrii .i,.;i;r,r- tj!,il1|!xi

tilrir,:'.; ili,l !,:rl:,r: ii;i i" ,t:{,,ri,r[,,i ;?; jr'"il lr;f, fti,:tt. iili:dtrr,[Link]

i::1;L;lit$nL::1j.i:,i *r.i:;,i
The measurement of sound determines how loud something is, whether it is too noisy, or even whether
it is safe to be near. A sound level nieter is the principal instrument for general noise measurement.
The
indication on a sound level meter (aside from rirreighting considerationsf indicates the sound pressure, p,
as a level referenced to 0,00002 Pa.

Sound Pressure Level = 20.x lg {p/0.00002) Db

Peak levels are occasionally quoted. During any given time interval peak levels will be numerically
greaier, and oflen much greater than the (rms) sound pressure level.

:iiit"t J. ,tii*l-fl,i;:*"i -i;:

-i;;]fi *:i,*,rti...11.,:,:i*_i
The sensitlvity of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound. people hear
some frequencies better than others;, lf a person hears two sounds of the same sound pressure but
different frequencies, one sound mery appear louCer than the other. This occurs because people hear
high frequency noise much better than low frequency noise.
Noise measurement readings can be acijusted to eorrespond to this peculiarity of human hearing. An A-
weighting filter which is built into the insirument de-emphasizes low frequencies or pitches. Decibels
measured using this filter are A-weighted and are called dB(A)" Legislation on workplace noise normally
gives exposure limits in dB(A).
A-weighting serves two important purBoses:

]. Oives a single number measure of noise level by integrating sound levels at all frequencies
2. gives a scale for noise level as experienced or perceiverl by the human ear

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2011) s

UAP Center for Career Development

Typical Noise Levels

Noise Source dB{A)
pneumatio,chipper at 1 metre 115
hand-held circular sal at 1 nnetre 115
textile room 103
newspaper press 95
pourer lawn mower at 1 metre 92
diesel truck 50 km per hour at 20 rnetres 85
passenger car 60 km per hour at 20 metres 65
conversation at 1 metre AE

quiet roorr 40

ln addition to frequency weighting, sound pressure can be weighted in time with fast, slow or impulse
response. Measurements of sound pressure level with A-weighting and fast response are also known as
the "souncllevel".
$ome sound level meters can mea$ure the average sound level of a noise over a given time, lt is called
the equivalent continuous sound level (L sub eq) and is A-weighted but not time weighted.

.1 '
ll , :.; ,. r'1i;:.;
: .ri I t-,.,-!i ii

il';11.,1r I i:l ii l

fl ri]'1f i r"!:,:l ;l'i :a; r:'l :! t'Ll :iir'; ,l

i , I ! l.l ,

',rt
r'iii:.: ,11';:t,.il. .1,, i, j:ti't
:,1,',i' lr' I ::!l " 1l:'iii -, rl! lt ,.1

r: !:r::':'6:: "l l"l l.j, t.: !.. l'rl -;:i! 1

.: , f. i., ". ,! -.
t,: , ,. - ] , if:...

!-i;ii .r:ii!'i !i:'.:r- .l !' t-' :i'ri,: ;

I .f:,t: ir I ,r "r

,..':::' .. ::ir'rl t;r;:.::i.-1"1.1:i. :i;

r:r;gr:l:l---il"1;l':,l"ii:i*;s:.iiiii .i.
Sound pressure levels in decihls (cJB) orA-weighted decibels [dB(A)]are based on a logarithmic scale.
They cannot be added or subtracted in the usual arithmetical way. lf one machine emits a sound level of
90 dB, and a second identical machine is placed beside the first, the combined sound level is 93 dB, not
180 dB.

MODUtEi4: ACOIISTICS (AUGUST 20rr) 6

 UAP Cernter for Career Development

lf there are h,,tCI sound sources in a room - for example a radio producing an average sound level of 62.0
dB, and a television producing a sound level of 73,0 dE - then the total sound level is a logarithmic sum

Combined sound level = 10 x lg ( 10^(62/10) * 10 (73/10) ) = 73.3 dB

Note: fortwo different soud$ the comtined level cannd, be mwethan 3 dB abovethe higher of thetwo sound
Ievels. However, if lhe sounds are phas'e relded there can be up to a 6dB increasein SPL A simple way to add
nase /evels.
Addition of Decibels
Numerical difference befureen trvcr noise Amount to be added to the higher of the two noise
levels [dBliA)] levels [dB on dB(A]l
0 3.0
0.1 - 0,9 2.5
1.0 -2,4 ?.0
2,4 - 4.A 1E
t.\,
4.1 - 6.0 1.0
6.1 - 10 0.5
10 0.0
Step 1: De>termine the difference batween the lwa /evels and find the cwresponding row in the left
hand colunn.
Sfep 2; Fittd the number [dB ar d$(A)] eorrespanding to this difference in the right hand cotumn of the
table.
Step 3: Ad'C this number to the higher of the two decibel levels,
For instanoe, using the example of two machines each emitting a noise level of g0 dB:
.
Step 1: The numerical difference between the two levels is 0 dB (90-90= 0), using the first row.
.
Step 2: The number coresponding to this difference ol0, taken from the right hand column, is 3.
.
Step 3: Add 3 to the highest level, in this case 90. Therefore, he resulting noise level is g3 dB.
When the difference between two noise levels is 10 dB(A) or more, the amount to be added to the
higher noise level is zero. ln such cases, no adjustment factor is needed because adding in the
contributiorr of the lower in the total noise level makes no perceptible difference in what people can hear
or measure. lf your workplace noise level is 95 dB(A) and you add another machine that produces B0
dB(A) noise, the workplace noise levet witl still be gSdB(A).

iilij::*:;,ti'li *iii:is;I.*::t*,i-,il-;r.i:.i:,,fiii;:.:.liii;:,"":lii:i-,"
The decibed [dB, and also dB(A)] is ar logarithrnic scale. For mathematical calculaiions using dB units,
we must use logarithmic mathematics. The use of dB unit makes it easy to dealwith the workplace
noise level data prwided \te use a setof simple rules as summarized in the following table.
Decibel (d13) basics
Change in dB Chang,e in sound energy
3 dB increase Sound energy doubled
3 dB decrease Sound,energV halved
10 dB increase Sound energy increased by factor of 10
10 dB decrease Sound energy decreased by factor of 10
20 dB increase $ound energy increasd by factor of 100
20 dB decrr:ase Sound energy decreased by factor of 100

l"ii:iir.-r:.,-* :[Link];i-r,,i.*tili-i
The eardrum is connected by three srmdl jointed bones in the air-filled middle ear to the oval window of
the inner ear or cochlea, a fluid- filled spiral coil about one and a half inches in length. Over 10,000 hair
cells on the basilar membrane along the cochlea convert minuscule movements to nerve impulses,
which are transmitted by the auditory nerve to the hearing center of the brain.

MODULE 4:ACOUSTICS (AU6UST 201"1) 7

 UAP Center for Career Drevelopment

The basilar membrane is wider at its apex than at its base, near the ovalwindow, whereas the cochlea
tapers towards its apex. Different groups of the delicate hair sensors on the membrane, which varies in
stiffness along its length, respond to different frequencies transmitted down the coil. The hair sensors
are one of the few cell types in the Lrody which do not regenerate. They may therefore become
irreparably damaged by large noise doses.
t:l)

t
i
i,l

..t;li'

il. ., ,lat!' ,,'1,

,.

iii,,! ,,

iii:,"Jil!iLl::r\lrl:i-iil,liit-li*ii:f.l,ui:ir;til;.:tlLiiiti.i:iii.l
Avoid any unprotected exposure to sound pressure levels above 100d8{A). Use hearing protection
when exposed to levels above 85dE(A), especially if prolonged exposure is expected, Damage to
hearing from loud noise is cumulatle and is inreversible. Exposure to high noise levels is also one of the
main causes of tinnitus.

F" FliiSr*&r*Blrpgi*;nF fl4.*l$g,rel+r*a:$ tffi W:,.ir.i{i#re Sr:Hffifl lnfielxrs{tlcl*

F5yr,iroihrgirl;1l 8c-:rJi**rr: IJ,:clhrifl Se aln Haa*rg:llr:r,

Tlrrrtlrrrlrl ,rf it,v*rr... [Link], lqD '

. .ri {r;urfrrlly ir.,lld i

*-+* [tt*r k l'lri.! *r I { Fr
!:\'r.
:l I
i':iiJ -_. t. , i,.lr. ;.aX,"1srgri i:rr .l{tflf fr "

i:,
trtolrp,*irrt.'rg'l*l3l **i*- ${ir'q:'irir\i:r'}rs1"'[Link]':
t: i ,l
,.. ''*it'
:t',rtl !{rt *-.1.* *;,rtrnuu,y 1rs:ir 3r is fi
v{"tt' r 'r! 3n"rt r'l hlirlp;atil F;rli^;
,,r1,. t:',., ;:0.**oiiu,,r*" rie*rwu;5c: ;
' , l! :, liir. tt} lr*rlrlkrgl
4
t?xrit:i
:. .r. ,:tr, fiS -.-.-i..,-- Flrridr', ;irir:rl'slr:lrhii* :.rt t-6 itp*l
' ,il
F;r* *+r* 'r.,i,{{lr rr 5S lr
I
,'1., r ll:,r , -i-- tlu,*,. r*sr,iilg?nt .:ftlijr.l.l r*i;iifi,,tjl;li;i-,j1i

Jrrqi rlu*Jrihl*. dl1 *..{-*- 4Frri*r nfllc'*r

,r i ilir,rt.t
;1t ..--j.---- ,*+fu;u*err s*{ i f{.

-;. r{,,'r,.' :',r;,,"..[Link]:

'':;1;t: .... .:..
"T[!*irqhcl,{r.;] r',ir $ruari*g fl} . "-..1.."*.
f-ir-rir" 5
'tl
i t ril: trrq .:r:l rfi F :!:is/-i(i

. ,j". ': :. .,

This is the rate of sound energy transmitted in a specifled direction per unit area normal to the direction,
With good hearing the range is from about 0^000000000001 Watt per square meter to about 1 Watt per
sguare meler (12 orders of magnitucle greater). The sound intensity tevel is found from intensity I
(Wm^2)by':
$ound lntensity Level = 10 x lE fl/1,ClE-12) dB

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2011) B

UAP Cernter for Career Development

Note: 1 0E-12 W/m^2 normally corrcsponds lo a soundpress ure of abaut [Link]-5 Pascals which is used as fhe
datum acottstic pressure in dr.
Sound intensity mders are becoming ircreasingly papular far detenniningthe quanttty and lacation of sound
energy emission.

f${}*"J ru ffi $ f\jT,il ruffi $TV rtilV*$: L S ,ui.?

! 1r l ,
ll r r:ii.r
I j,.:,1
:..
I

I'
I !,i .'.

''lt, r.' .
t:

':'tll-'l'l

l'.,i .;r i i ti j.'.i::ir: j'",

j ri , ,r'"'

/ri l l.l i r,.'1:,:i i t.)':.

I ;L;ri i: r.

lJttyfi Jl'#;lirr:r.! il'i I,i,:ii:tr,.:{.*iiii iii:,iiiii lli*

The way sr)und changes with distance from the source is dependent on the size and shape of the
souroe and also the surrounding environment and prevaiiing air currents" lt is relatively simple to
calculate provided ihe source is smiall anci outdoors, but indoor calculations (in a reverberant field) are
rather more complex.
if the noiser source is outdmrs and its dirnen$ions are small cornpared with the distance to the
monitoring position (ideally a point source), then as the sound energy is radiated it will spread over an
area which is proportional to the square of the distance.
This is an 'inverse square lavf where the sound ievel will decline by 6dB for each doubling of distance,
Line noise sources such as a long line of rnoving traffic will radiate noise in cylindrical pattern, so that
the area covered by the sound energy spread is directly proportional to the distance and the sound will
decline by 3dB per doubling of distance.
Close to a source {the near field) the change in SPL will not follow the above laws because the spread
of energy is less, and smaller changps of sound levelwith distance should be expected
ln addition it is always necessary to take into account attenuation due to the absorption of sound by the
air, which may be substantial at higherfrequencies. For ultrasound, air absorption may well be the
dominant factor in the reduction.

:.;t.!l t,'*'rr,: i;t1'$ "'

;'iirl,:
,
::;:.ilr i!. tj j"r""itii|"ti 4
t.. t: :

MODULE 4: ACOUS'I'trCS (AUGUSI'2A11) I

 UAP Center for Gareer Development

l+iiL.*Lil,,jj'l,jjli!i.."i:.iihi[:LiIli,.?
The amount of air pressure fluctuatir:n a noise source creates" We "hear" or perceive sound pressure as
loudness.
Sound prerssure also depends on th,e environment in whhh the source is located and the listene/s
distance frr:m the souree. The sounri produced by the drum is louder two meters from the drum if it is in
a small bathroom, than if it is struck in the middle of a footbatf fbld, Generally, the farther one moves
from the drum, the quieter it sounds, Also if there are hard surfaces that can reflect the sound (walls in a
room), the sound will feel louder than if you heard the sarne sound, from the same distance, in a wide-
open field.
Sound prerssure is usually expressed in units called pascals (Pa). A healthy, young person can hear
sound pressures as low as 0.00m2 Pa. A normal oonversation produces a sound pressure of 0.02 Pa.
A gasoline-pouered lawn mower produces about 1 Pa. The sound is painfully loud at levels around 20
Pa. Thus the common sounds we hear have sound pressure over a wide range (0.00002 Pa - 20 Pa).
It is difficult to work with such a broad range of sound pressures, To overcome this difficulty u€ use
decibel (dEt, or tenth [deciJ of a Bel). The decibel is named afterAlexander Graham Bell, the Canadian
pioneer of the telephone who took great personal interest in the problems of deaf people.

Y i*l,;li:ii:":ii*.f iri*ii;:r,=liir;."-;::i;;..":
Sound prerisure converted to the decibel scale is called sound pressure level (Lp). The zero of the
decibel scale (0 dB) is the sound pressure of 0.00002 Pa. This means that 0.00002 Pa is the reference
sound presrsure to which all other scrunfl p;6**ures are compared on the cJB scale. This is the reason
the decibels of sound are often indicated as dB re 0.00002 Pa,

Etl'ttnd Nit'*,ggitrn Nurgui. tl!9 :it,.lnr.i Frers sttrEl. P ;l

il1,l
[''[Link],t;11p; efl];r'j,::i :.:i I ;'i _
rr, t i"}
:ii';ra * ,il*ll Sl}n#
T*gtlig Lilr:m l)
1ffn ? .linrqtr,r [. *r..*n lJlt;,tr,ir.,f
i{ur:;,.4r*p*:r lrrntv I {a'i,*p*[Link]'* r:;lr;
${i
rllun*l [riirk lil lti
Slt nrgll {al
$fi
f? trt'iillinq t+tar:hinE
ti;irh;1,;r,rur..1rirr,.r! r;ri
i;li.t itJ
li lli
:{ {
i'iir:;*fii1$i fi;l i{x rtilrh i;ti g.i3 tli
i* ,,a
,, '-,
l,tii!:iittllt ffulnrr
ir'u'r 4!l frtirrtlili+niu*
f;[n$citg;t!rin i;)t ,] {:rt fi[}
i\Ejr{rlu:i Untf*l l'i fi;
{r.{-1i
1'tl
[Link].
{tiri*[ Hnnl;i *n [Link]')"j
tl ^rtt]1
:r,t11
fi,{it}{}k
[Link]]:{
[Link] I
i;J"$€1ff{!5
*.4jilrl.J:l

.l,.":-:i"i'..l1 :-i, ::,:[Link]:,;r:l;, ry

The sound energy transferred per second from the noise source to the air. A noise source, such as a
compressor or drum, has a given, constant sound pounr that does not change if the source is plaed in
a different environment.
Power is expressed in units called watts (W).An average whisper generates a sound power of
0.0000001 watts (0.1 microwatt (psl)), a truck horn 0.1 w, and a turbo jet enEine 100,000 w,
Like sound pressure, sound power (in W) ls usually expressed as sound power levels in dB.

tlljti:i,n i![Link]-lj!,tjli*ii.L"ri1*,r,:.
$ound power level, Lw, is often quoled on machinery to indicate the total sound energy radiated per
second. The reference power is takern as 1pW. A lawn mowerwith sound power level 88dB(A) will
produce a sound level of about 60dtl(A) at a distance of 10 meters. lf the sound power level was
TBdB(A) then the lawn mower sounti level would be only 50dB(A) at the same distance.

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2A11J n

UAP eenter for Career Development

:il,tit':i.i:ii:ttit;th[r;$..1:,ilt*:;giliiitilii:l ilir,.r:::*tio::;riLl,:ili',,t itt,,r,,'ri,i

Because the sound power of a nois,e source is constant and specific, it can be used to calculate the
expected :;ound pressure.
The calculation requires detailed information about the noise source's environnrent" Usually a noise
source witlh a lower sourid power ge:nerates less sound pressure. The nranufacturer can often provide
[Link] power of equipment. A number of international standards are available for labeling machines
and equipment with their noise emission levels. From the sound power of a compressor, one can
calculate the expected sound pressure and sound pres$ure level at a certain location and distance.

1,,*:ti.1'i,:*:iil,1,i:-i.:i:ii-ii ii i:ii,.! :*1,.i :i:i-i. i

:

The speed of sound in air at a temperahrre of 0 oC and 50% relative hunriCity is 331.6 m/s. The speed is
proportional to the square root of ahrsolute temperature and it is therefore about 12 m1s greater at 20 oC.
The speed is nearly independent of frequency and atmospheric pressure but the resultant sound
velocity may be substantially altered by wind velocity.
The speed of sound in water is approxirnately 1500 mls. lt is possible to measure changes in ocean
temperatune by observing the resultant change in speed of sound over long distances.

F-18 breakinE the sound barrier

Gl*firn
r+,[Link]]!5
'{.iitil,$' Mss& ffwm$sr R*earerdr
esffi*r

-d F,Jat*&r :+ li.4)
ffi, ..".?i*
"".ffiiitam* F.{a'rlr }'t",rt

Evla*h * ,l.(11

(1r{:!t{1 -E"t{
{

MODULE 4: ACOTJS'ItrCS IAUCUST 2A1n n

 UAP Center for Career D,evelopment

basis than simple energy summation, and this can lead to discrepancy belween the loudness of certain
repetitive sounds and their sound level.
A 1OdB sound level increase is conr;idered to be about hlice as loud in many cases. The sone is a unit
of mmparative loudness with 0.5 sone=3O phons, 1 sone=40 phons, 2 sones=S0 phons, 4 sones = 60
phons etc, The sone is inappropriahl at very lowand high sound hvels where subjmtive perception
does not follow the 1OdB rule,
Loudness level calculations take m,:ount of "masking" - the process by which the audibility of one
sound is rerduced due to the presence of another at a close frequency.

Vibration

js \dJ i :[Link]!.ii{1:
"itftpi
When something oscillates about a static position it is said to vibrate. The vibration of a speaker
diaphragm produces sound, but usirally vibration is undesirable. Common examples of unwanted
vibration ane the movement of a building near a railway line when a train passes, or the vibration of the
floor causcd by a washing maehine or spin dryer" Floor vibration can be reduced with vibration isolators,

l-il'.::f ;Lt'Lir,'il:l,li.;.r"?.i:i:,lih*|
Vibration isi monitored with an accellrometer, a device that is securely attached by some means to the
surface un,Cer investbation. The aocelerometer produces a tiny electrical charge output, proportional to
the surface acceleration, which is then amplified by a charge amplifier and recorded or observed with a
meter. The frequencies of interest are lower than sound, and range from below 1 Hz to about 1 kHz.

::{ii:. liii :liiJ"lf ..: i:;ii.:::i-r,U *":"i,it l, l;:ii.i .

"lj,:l
Vibration problems are solved by considering the system as a number of springs and masses with
damping. l1l is sometimes possible to reduce the problem to a single mass supported by a spring and a
damper. lf the vibration is produced by a motor inside a rnachine, it is usually desirable to ensure that
the frequency of motor oscillations (the forcing frequency) is well above the frequency of the natural
resonanm of the machine on its suprport" This is aohieved by altering the rnass or stiffness of the
system as appropriate.

Architecturral & Building Acoustics

What is REIVERBERATION?-

ln an enclosed space, when a sounclsource stops ernitting energy, it takes some time for
the sound to
become inaudible. This prolongation of the sound in the room caused by continued multiple reflectbns
is called rerrerberation,

il{ l# :i; i*lr*'r*,r,i:i;l *i*ss*

Work on room acoustics was pioneered hy Wallace Clement Sabine 1868-1919. The reverberation time,
T, is defined as the time taken ior sound energy to clecay in a roonr by a factor of one million (by 60 dB),
It is dependent on the roonn volurne and lts total ahsorption.
ln metric units
0.161 x room Volume
J;
--------*-,-
sum of Surface areas x absorption coefficients

MODU[,E 4: ACOUSTtrCS IAU0UST 2011) L2

 UAP Center for Career Development

Reverberation time plays a crucial role in the quallty of music and the ability to understand speech in a
given space. When room surfrces are higLrly reflective, sound continues to reflect or reverberate. The
effect of this condition is described as a live space with a long reverberation time. A high reverberation
time will cause a build-up of the noise level in a space. The effects of reverberation time on a given
space are,crucial to musicalconditions and understanding spech. It is difficult to choose an optimum
reverberation time in a multi-function space, as different uses require different reverberation times. A
reverberation time that is optimum for a music program could be disastrous to the intelligibility of the
spoken word. Conversely, a reverberration time that is excellent for speech can caffie music to sound
dry and fla1t.

Sscrn.l-nffl*r
/ REftF ti{rir

Gie{l i}dth

"t!

First-oder
He{lsrtitrr

ti{ Yi: ir;{[Link]\1 :.rfq

"l ,.r .q l

irli i ;

. lrr:..ilrr: t:;;!,:,:j
t:
r:!i*
"';,: :;;+ * .+. i i :-l

Reflected sound strikes a surface or several surfaces before reaching the receiver. These reflections
can have unwanted or even disastrous consequences. Although reverberation is due to continued
rnultiple reflections, controlling the Reverberatflon Time in a spane doos not ensure the space will be
free from problems from reflections.

MODULE 4: ACOUSTtrCS IAUGUST 201.r) L3

UAP Center for Career Development

Reflective corners or peaked ceilings can create a "rnegaphone' effect potentially causing annoying
ref{ectionsr and loud spaces. Reflective parallel surfaces lend themselves to a unique acoustical problem
called standing waves, creating a'fluttering" of sound between the two surfaces. Reflections can be
attributed to the shape of the spam as well as the material on the surfaces.
Domes anrd concave surfaces cause reflections to be focused rather than dispersed which can cause
annoying sound reflections. Absorptive surface treatments can help to eliminate both reverberation and
reflection problems.

5l;*mr3$r;uri:l: iiirr! , i

{irrq,ti {*li+r!
l'
|.l.{.rl"{I '.r!

),1
i

MODULI;4: ACOUSTICS {AUGUS']'201r) 14

UAP Cernter for Career Development

Farabnla

:.1.: :-.- ]'".']-.].,.'}

[Link]

..' : l i.:.]::+.']'nl :' 1'.r.}il

Fo*used refrxfions

What is nc,ise reduction coefficient (NlfiC)?

The Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) is a single-number index for rating how absorptive a particular
material 's. lt is simply the average of flre mid{requency sound absorption coefficients (250, 500, 1000
and 2000 F{ertz rounded to the nearest 5%), The NRC gives no information as to how absorptive a
material is in the low and high frequencies, nor does it have anything to do with the material's barrier
effect (STC).

What is sound transmission class?

The Sound Transmissbn Class (STC) is a singlenumber rating of a material's or assembly's barrier
effect, Higiher STC values are more efficient for reducing sound transmission. For example, loud speech
can be understood faidy well through an STC 30 wall but should not be audible through an STC 60 wall.
The rating assesses the ahborne sound transmbsion performance at a range of frequencies from 125
Hertz to 4ffi0 Hertz. This range is consistent with the frequency range of speech, The STC rating does
not assessr the low frequency souncl transfer. Special consideration must be given to spaces where the
noise transfer concern is other than speech, such as mechanical equipment or music.
Even with a high STC rating, any grnetration, air-gap, or "flanking" path can seriously degrade the
isolation quality of a wall. Flanking paths are the means for sound to transfer from one space to another
other than through the wall. Sound can ffank over, under, or around a wall. Sound can also travel
through common ductwork, plumbing or conidors.

Sound-dwpcning tik *v*r mlrirutr

€pr;od I

. .:il r,.-t r r"f ia:

,. .'r:rlJ

-..1 {[Link].:ie'r}:r::,t
il f if{ !+ tir4..

i:

MODULEI4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2011J 1s

UAP Cernter for Career Development

. .,. ..ii,.:j : .-:..1 ; .1i:":, : :,:i:. i,] _:.

']1.....
.; l'.:;, ..;', -::,:_l: . -,,....': .

A d*ars abilily t* rsduce *aise i* +eiled iis s+und iransi*issi*+ i*ss {TL} efi*ctiven*$s. TL i* a vaii:e
give* in d*cibeis, wi'lich :s d*terilrined by [Link]*g seunrl pressurc levels at a certa!;r Fequency i*
the source and receiv'ing rooms. The caiculaiian aisa factors in ihe area cf the pa*iti*n shared by trre
hivo rooms, and adiusts for the receiving r*cm's acoustic "live*ess" (ieverberation time). The adjusted
difiersnce between the two levels is the TL of the dosr. Tha higher ihe TL, ihe bett*r the result.
i:,r il iiij l' iei:r:t iis eitit'l: j
ry: I i.:, ii j :

TL measurernenls far a dsor are taire* arrsss a fa$ge +f Fequ*:rcies, wirich maks$ it Crffi**ii i*
compai* lne effeciiveness sf ciiffsff:ni dacrs. $cunr ira*smissi*n class {$TC} ratings soi,rs lhat
prcbiem b'f givi** a sinEie vah,re ts acc';eiical perforrnance fcr e door. The highar the $Til uaiu*, ihe
better the rating and the better the performance as shown in f$ure below

:.r
'll

i:,
lii ' I
lil t | ':
i:i.
i
rii
'a,l:*_aii

.' .:
'.i .i
::
ir :ii
lil
i.
Sctrrce Floom ',.. i Hcceiviri$ Flocrrr,
'.i:
' ::
1,:

$TC 33 Door

..:,...,, , ... ... - .".4\1..."

' ''' '' i " :. .:t-" .

STC Performance Description

50-60 Excellent Loud sounds heard fainily or noi at all

40-50 Very C;ood Loud speech heard faintly

TruStile Ooors with Conect 35-40 Good Loud speech heard but hardly intelligible
Gasketingy
30-35 Fair Loud speech understood fairly well

25-30 Poor Normalspeech understood easily and

distinctly

Typical Hallow
20-25 Very Poor Lowspeech audible
Core Door

il::+r.,::i:i;;.i i3 :,:;:.t-, ;i t::.

The effectiven*ss ag scuild coctr*l rjsors v*ries s*t* diSerci:i cai"chjna*o*s cf fi:aierjsls. *Jith s* rnany
variables, hcwcan *re deterE::ine h*vsw,#l a pa*ic*iarCcorwiilbi**k saund? Tha doods sCIilnd iai";ng
is only as goad as the gasketing and perimeter seal that you incoryorate into the opening.
Gasketing's imporlanm derivss fi"om a fundamental propertv of sound; $ound waves travel through
any opening with very iiiile l*ss. While the *rnount of air flowing through a gap increases in proporiicn
with ihe slre *f tl'!e gap, ti..e size of the gap in a souflld barrier d*es not r*a€er. A ti,'rg hcle tiansmits
ajmssi as much $*L:ilci as a mi.!*h !*rg*r g*p.

Allt sl$tr,, AIH florv

MODULIi4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2A11J L6

UAP Center for Career Delvelopment

TT
FSUN.T trygvf$
T
S$Uft,lD Wi4ViE{

I
Eecause ol't!':is phenorns*cn, mny u:rs**,led gaps a*d *iearances *: dccr *ssexbiies effectivoly
cancei ollt lihe *cise r*ducii*n benrJite of s*;*'id- d**rs. F*r ac*usti*ai gaske!:ng t* i:e eff*ctii'e at
blocking *aund, tiie seais arcund th* head, jamb and sill rirust bs co*rpF*ic, *ninterrupt*d and air tlght
ihroughout the selice iife of the ris*r. For uninlenupted mntact, ihe gasketi*g must be insialied eli orr
ihe sanre side of ihe dsor and frame"

,r;n;iri ..!ji.r^:,:t ! ,: .;r: ii,:

[Link] :,:r:i'i,a.r1 t.*; lr,i i'!,1:n iJ

*i
l]b{ .ti' I ir..i:if I 1iiI}t,i
,i:

t::'li::
,:.;lE
.'. 1 ;.'t..
. , :::r.i::

,i .r.-.

Sau'nd Tra r:rsnr isslon {las;

{sTC)
51

MODULE 4:ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 20LL) 17

UAP Center for Career Development

Sorrnd lramrnission Ctass fSIC) Ratiogs

Srund Tranw!*ion Ch$ (or STCI is 4 ideg6 rdirq olhw xeX a Mdirg pallbn dt6rud6 aittrm $ud lt is wilely sr€d to rde iidin pdtriors, ceihgdiffi, dMs, wido$
ad extcriq ffil cs$gurdions.

::i.|,{ _iii;!. il:j:i:j: niii:F;inj.i*[Link]{c

r
:itr li1:Vr n:r:itr:r."i

i
,". I

i,:tr!iii
',ri,"
Tj!:fi:! :it
! :;,..ti, :,i,

)-a -f Ji'

.-de.

r{,

Spray foam insnlatton

MODULE 4: ACO{ISTtrCS IAUGUST 2011J 18

UAP Center for Career Development

What is the sound absorption coeffi:ierit?

The fraciion of ihe randomly incident sound pourcr which is absorbed, or otherwise not reflecied. lt can
be determlned in two main ways, and there ane often variations in the results depending upon the
method of measurement chosen. lt is standard practice to measure the ooefficient at the preferred
octave frequencies over the range of at least 125H2 - AkHz.

0sl{ fr*m Hsll, Znd. Ed, T*b.l* 1 5.1

\&{hat is tfur rjj{erenge belween in$utqtio-S & abggrption?

There is oiten confusion between sound insulation and sound absorptbn. Sound insulation is required
in order to eliminate the sound path from a source to a receiver such as between apartments in a
building, or to reduce unwanted exbrnal noise inskle a concert hall. Heavy materials like concrete tend
to be the best materials for sound insulation - doubling the mass per unit area of a wall will improve its
insulation try about 6dB, lt is possible to achieve good insulation with much less mass by instead using
a double le,af partition (two separated independentwalls)^
Sound absorption omurs when some or all of the incident sound energy is either converted into heat or
passes thncugh the absorber. For this reason good sound absorbens do not of themselves make good
sound insulators. Although insulationr and absorptbn are different concepts, there are many instances
where the use of sound absorbers vrill improve insulation. However absorption should not be the
primary means of achieving good sound insulation.

Jrr ..-..'".'

t"..i
i
i-.'i!":ri!
1

\'. '---*
t:1-
.. HJ

-' '';:.:',:.
# il'{lj l$S
I

'[Link]*l,
l"--
r--"*-?
\. l

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST zAn) Le

UAP Center for Career Developrnent

How is sound insulation measured?,

The measurement metfrod depends;on the particular situation. There are standards forthe
measurennent of the insulation of materials in the laboratory, and for a number of differentfield
circumstances, Usually the procedures involve generating a loud sound of a specified type and
monitoring the transmitted noise.

How do I improve the noise insulation of my hsuseldwelling?

Consider whether better insulation is really essential. Sound insulation is most often asked to keep out
unwanted noise and used for minimizing disturbance to others. When the noise is from an external
source such as a main rod, screen with a noise barrier.
The weak point for sound transmissbn to and from a building is through the windows, Double glazing
will be a bedter protection than single glazing. ln areas of high externd noise it is preferable to hare
double windows with a large air gap and amustic absorbent materid in the reveals. The fitting of new
windows may reduce the level of airventilation, and itwill be vital to cornpensate for this, if necessary
with a noise attenuating system. Consider noise penetratbn through the roof, floors, ceilings and walls.
Noise through party walls can be reduced by the ddition of a false wall. This is constructed from a layer
of sound insulating material (plasterboard) separated from the party wall by a large void containing
acoustic quilting. The false wail musrt not be connmted to the party wall because that would allow sound
transmisskln paths. The qualig of construction is an important mnsideration if optimal levels of
attenuation are desired.

Noise

What is heagns?
Audible sounds enable mmmunication, and they can tell us what and where things are. They certainly
have a significant effect on howwe feel. The human ear is an organ of complex design and function.
The ear foms the receiver and transmissbn line to the brain, which then processes this information and
mnverts the received signal into something that v,re can understand. The sound is then perceived as
loud or sofl as a high or a low note, or on a more general level, perhaps as noise, or as music.

Whalis ncise?
Noise is a lbrm of pollution caused hy unwanted sound. At low levels noise can be a nuisance, but
exposure to sustained high levels (in a noisy unrkplace) can cause hearing loss. lmpulsive noise
(pneumatic;tool) or tonal noise (whirre of a machine) can be particularly irritating. What some people
consider a:s noise, others can tolerate, or may even lke (the study of noise has to recognize these
diffe re nt sublective responses).

What is ihq differenc$ betseq|t sq{rd and nojge?

Sound is what we hear, Noise is unwanted sound. The difference betvleen sound and noise depends
upon the listener and the circumstarrces. Rock music can be plemurable sound to one person and an
annoying noise to another. ln either case, it can be hazardous to a person's hearing if the sound is loud
and if he or she 's exposed long ancl often enough.
liow Nois* is.....?
Noise
Source dB
Plane 125 dB
Pneumatic Drill 105 dB
Heavy TralTic 90 dB
Business Clffice 65 dB
Library 35 dB
Quiet Forest t5 dB
Threshold iof Hearing 0dB

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2Ar1] 20

UAP Center for Career Development

[Link] !sj$e a-workniace hszard?

Noise is one of the most common orxupational health hazards, ln heavy industrial and manufacturing
environments, farms, cafeterias, pemanent hearing loss is the main health concern. Annoyance, stress
and interference with speech cornmunicatbn is the main concern in noisy offices, schools and computer
rooms.
To prevent adverse outcomes of noise exposure, noise levels should be reduced to mceptable levels,
The best nrethod of noise reduction is to use engineering modlficat'rons to the noise source itself, or to
the workplace environment. Where technology cannot adequately control the problem, personal hearing
protection {such as ear muffs orplugs) can be used.

How*an I teli if mv $m*olace is ios loLd?

lf you answer yes to any cf the follorrving questions, the workplace may have a noise problem.
. Do people have to raise tfulirvobes?
. Do people who work in noirsy environments haie ringing in their ears at the end of a shift?
. Do they find when they rehtm homefrom rnork that they have to increase the volume on their
car radio higher than they did when they went to work?
. Does a person who has wrrrked in a noisy wo*place for years have problems understanding
conversations at parties or restaurants or in crou'ds wlrere there are many voices and
"competing" noises?
lf there is a noise problem in a worl<place, then a noise assessment or survey should be undertaken to
determine the sources of noise, the amountof noise, who is exposed and for how long.

*That a$ same prspedies cf noisf; that can be neasured?

The properties of noise in the workplace are:

i 1!ff,,;,:"t
o sound p0H,er
r time distlibution

WhAlkinds oi ncise are ihere?

Noise can lce continuous, variable, intermittentor impulsive depending on how it changes over time,
Continuousi noise is noise wtrich remains constant and stable over a given time priod. The noise of
boilers in a power house is relatively mnstant and can therefore be classified as continuous.
Most manufacturing noise is variabkl or intermittent, Different operations or dffierent noise sources
cause the sound changes over time. Noise is intermittent if there is a mix of relatlvely quiet periods and
noisy, lmpulse or impact noise is a very shorl burst of loud noise which lasis for less than one second.
Gun fire or the noise produced by punch presses is examples of such noise,

AUDIENCE: SEATING
' Sound level outdoors falls off with distance (as sound spreads outward it loses energv
according to the inverse-square lavrr) and from audience attenuatbn (as sound grazes the
serated audience it is scattered and absorbed).
' When steeolv sloped seatirq is used, the sound level outdoors falls off primarily with distance.
An overhead soundreflecting panelorceilirq, can provide reflected sound to rein: force the
direct sound.
' lnstalling a hard. sound-reflectinq endosure outdoors near the sound source can greatly
improve listening mnditioru by reflecting sound energy toward the audience and by shblding
thre au6i*nce trcm noise sources located behind the enclosure.

MODUTE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 201L] 27

UAP Center for Career D,evelopment

L*vel $t,rtirg Surd+srs

-$Sf,E ff}. -. [Link] f4 i E;ri
t 'tL'. o. 9; :r. rg :r t-, t 9c:l rlt
j .,f*,t$ I -l:it Stif.s,rt,-r' ;
T

S{ssptv Sloprd $*sting Outdo*rr+

f;s**di r,ert$ gsf;- '<.5i i:;*

F|"[Link] ttdd t $?'" ''n*r
ilt$f
.**- *ei !t[* {ri ii;? ll,.Fttrlt,,Sn i

lavef S*nting Jndoor*

?.F jri gs., 1-7gi 27-2.-6 tI.,,r,g
,' . i- .l"lr ie -ig-J "e- atiri
*tr,ri{ in,rrrd *ld;grgg,. r*.:tilinf
.i,drltt 3': i:t.?.. -

:* {Ei,*.-:l*
I 5a;rd pxtx

: ?irgs? s*in* *r?h

SIGHT LINIE BASICS

' Unobstructed sight lines (i"e., strafiht lines drarn from eyes of seated occupants to st4e
arca) frcm all seats to the lront of the forestage altow full vieur of performers and unobstructed
propagation of the direct sound.
' Slight lines are normally [Link] to converge at a point on stage called the arrival point of sight
AFS. Audiences should be able to hear and to see cleady and comfortably to fully perceive the
intended effects of per{ormances.
. Liiterally stagqered seating layouts can achbve satisfac{ory every-other-rowvision for back-
to-back seat dimension B of ffi in for continental seating and 36 in for radial and parallel aisle
seating,
' Non-staggered seating layouts cannot mhieve satisfrctory conditions for every-other-row
vision

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 20LL) 22

UAP Center for Career Dievelopment

at{t frxr'1,
l4!' F ,itc j.
t--i--=; f
I
l
.'' i {.lt ,a:6i:
I rF{e r:rJ.'j

*,

I
Trlt4 ,;6.'i1 ei a'f!
Awr{qr S$d*na Slt$rrlims

!lJ";! !iria"i;
trprt li riar

{6r', .t- <\

'.*-t",-.1
+-fj.- {L{
ftil*' \'

)-\-
f+ffy ll{|lf, ll$is FvF *tis-ff{* 1':a&fr

Average Seatr?g Dmensio',s, Eveayfow Vision; Every-Olhq-Row Vbim; Note: To aclrbve lveress wit,in a reasonable r@m varume, the
back-tebrck seat dirensbn E and center-to+anter seat direns-nn W should be as smatl as p6s,b/e cons istent with the rquirements for
comfort and lile satdy.

SIGHT LITIE LAYOUTS

. For proscenium theaters, lateral s[ht lines normally should be within a preferred "view angle"
of 300. View angle is measured frcm the perpendicular at the end of the prosoenium opening,
. lrr multi-purpose auditoriums, the proscenium line may vary frorn full width for ballet and
svmphonic orchestra {ofien located downst4e to provide orchestra enclosure of shallow
drapth) to smaller wiCths for drama and music performance by soloists,

.i: .!t:.: :. rr!

a- '""
'::r:o :" * .[Link]*
\:!,
', t+
i*r 4S-i[i! ;':iF]1".r4
lti
I?: .i 'l

i.+.r *r . - ;f * .:."ir.:
ij- .E-4rtt .f_ rtj:
.^'Jrii '- -
'1ri:lili*
il1'1,'
:i,+: ri
'lii - ji,"i r --
.:', r{ai ':$ .ir' ii} ll
-. I

Plan via,v
;
.';t i t... i r iili'ir.i,:t.'3,S
'..+ i.:'.r :!'
. -la-at...- :- r; ; E.:? .t
S? [Link] i: itl e}.p4
-+
*ttil* [Link]*

tr*f'r.1'6r-t i11 +-* +h Y,.t- ra'g , '.

1'! t'ilic -'tn "d' Js5.e '.s-5*
}i r [Link] l r9* g
.**4

Detail at dage

MODUIEI 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGLTST 20L1) 23

UAP Center for Career Development

Floor and balmny slopes should have unobstructed vbwof entire performing area, performers,
and scenery.
V:rtical sight lines shown hrelow illustrate acceptable viewing conditions and preferred layout of
seating in the front of auditrrrium where an unintenupted view of entire stage floor is essential
for ballet. Balconies should not have excessive floor slope (, 26'), and the top balcony should
not be more than 65 ft above the stage to avoirj vertigo,
A balcr:ny view of the first few rows of main floor seating also may be desirable to achieve a
sense of congregation with audience below and the proscenium arch should not obstruct the
view of bottom 7 ft of the biackstage wall.

4![Link]. glfpt tto *rr;d

(g | 6 : r,i 4t !rni-, t itrlidrtt
Frr! bc ts. tit:p)

CHECKLI€iT FOR LECTURE ROOi\dS

Auditoriums for speech (e"9., theaters, conference rooms, dassrooms) - high intelligibility of spoken
words throughout the room
To achieve' high signal-to-noise rati'crs (> 15 dB)
./ shape rooms to direct sound from the speakeds lrcation toward the audience
./ avoid echoes and "hot' (or'bright")spots
./ plan to have low background noise levels
Acoustioal parameters affecting the perception of speech in lecture rooms:
1. For satisfactory loudness - provkJe compact room shape with relatively low rmm volume (Volume per
seat ratio should be 80 to 150 ft per person)
2, Reverberation times
. For theaters - less than 1.2 s from 250 to 4000 Flz
. For classrooms - less than 0.8 s
. Long reverberation times nduce the intelligibility of speech the same way noise masks speech
sil3nals
. Sr:lect sound-absorbing finishes for absorption to be constant within the frequency range for
spreech, Place absorplion on side walls rather than on ceilings.
. For small rooms - use sound-absorbing panels with air space behind to prevent "boominess" at
lo,w frequencies
3. Short distance between speaker and rear of the audienre arca for suffichnt loudness to be sufficient
throughout the room and audienoe to see the person talking
. Fordrama - expressions of performers beyond 40 ft; gestures beyond 65 ft,; large body
movements beyond 1& ft.
. For fan-shaped rooms, seating within 14S angle measured at the location of the speaker
4, Ceiiing or overhead sound-reflecting surfmes provile short-detayed sound reflections directly to the
audience (path differences be&een direct and reflected sound should be less than 34 ft).
5. Seating - slope greater than 70 for good sight lines and reduce audienoe attenuation
Without electronic speech reinforcement 1000 seats - upper limit for drama using a proscenium stage;
700 seats using an open or thrust stage; 400 seats using an arena stage
. Background noise levels frrrm the mechanical system not to exceed 34 dBA or noise criterion
NC-25. Enclosing constructions to reduce intruding noise to avoid interference with desired
sounds and prevent distraertions
. Consider lower limits for rooms used by children, older adults, or hearing-impaired persons

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2011) 24

UAP Center for Career Development

7, $eating capacity exceeding 500 - sound-reinforcing system to augment the natural sound from
source to listener
" $maller lecture rooms, courtrooms, conference rooms require a sound-reinforcing system to
assist weak-vobed speakers and to project recorded material evenly

REFLECTION, DIFFUSION, AND DIFFRACTION

Reflection{x>4i)
. if the surface dlmension x is larger than about 2 to 4 times the wavelength (i) of the impinging
sound wave, the angle of incidence angle I willequal the angle of reflection angle r
. 1000H2=wavelengthofl,l;asurfmedimension(lengthorwidth)ofabout4,\=4X1,1=4
llZflwill reflect sound en€rrgy wavelengths of 1000 Hz and above
. Array of suspended panels direct reflected sound energy towsrd the audience, the individual
panels should be of varying sizes to prevent a "rasping" sound

:.-i1,f? 9s*i4j -[Link] r.g rtrt:

--. "\t"t.t,:.:.* ir;E! tt;:"t

Diffusion {x = tr)
' Scattering or random redisrtribution of a sound wave from a surface; occurs when the surface
depths of hard-surfaced materials are comparable to the wavelengths of the sound,
' Dtiflusion does not "break up" or absorb sound; the direction of the incdent sound wave is
changed as it strikes a sound-diffusing material
' Extremely important for ror)ms used for musioal performances {listeners wifl have the sensation
of sound coming from all directbns at equal levels)

? ian*laf *t?t- i trrriai {aSir

i+.; * :l^ ].';iCC ..j {d,rf, s' I ,'.f
l:;Ii,9,gg SII l* iiif l,t!: r1"',{4.* *ii.{!i*t 'ir}
J* r.",rJ *t: Et *t' *ir i.a {rl -i

Diffraction (x < l)
. Bending or "flowing" of a s,ound wave around an objed or through an opening
' A truck located behind a building is heard because sound warres bend around the mrners
' ln auditoriums, impinging:iound waves will readily diffract around panels that are smaller than
their wavelength - suspentled panels must be large enough {length and widih) to effectively
reflect the desired wavehngths of sound
I ;!it"rr: i,ied
te*ii{ +1i *,'.

{
! iir.1;1"6:r ,Ftt,, .:,8 . t*:i' i*t$ 1
*1. ,r8! ll i :?t i, ! l ,Ifri t :'. iii .

irr,li:eg:

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 201.t) 25

 UAP Center for Career Developrnent

WAVELENIGTH AND FREQUENCY FOR SOUND IN AIR

The scale shows the relationship of wavelength and frequency for sound in air under normal conditions
of temperarture and atmospheric pressure
,r+t,[Link].1J.?.r;$:i
{ *.
,i zt] :g F b"l;

,FY
r , Ll [,

,
Frt+,.*a{..i i,Fr} i:i

Sltt Itjr*t t{.d,ir,ier*Er*,,* tj+_.6, :.*Alt {4Lt**

PATTERN OF REFLECTED SOUND

ln increasing effectiveness fordistributing sound are concave, flat and convex sound-reflecting
surfaces. ll-he shading indicates the dishibution pattern of reflected sound energy from equivalent
lengths of reflector.

Concave Fleflector
' Concave sound-reflecting riurfmes (banel-vaulted cellings in churches and curved rear walls in
auditoriums)focus sound, causing hot spots and echoes in the audience seating area
' Poor distributors of sound rsnergy - should be avoided where sound-reflecting surfaces are
dr:sired (near stage, lectern, or other source locations in rooms).

Fpc'.rrtd r-e$lactad
Sound

Flai Reflector
Flat, hard-surfaced building elemenls {large enough and orbnted properly} effectively distribute
reflected sound, The reflector is tilted slightly to [Link] sound [Link] the reaiof an
auditorium.
-.f- J. AnS.g ri t. .g

':]wE2&
.c; €ilec gGrrr{

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS
IAUGUST 2011) 26
UAP Center for Career Development

Convex Reflector
. Large convex, hard-surfaced building elements are the most effective sound-distributing forms,
. The reflected sound energy frorn convex sudmes diverges, enhances diffusion, desirable for
music.
. Reflected sound from con\/ex surfaces is more evenly distr'rbuted mross a wide range of
frequencies.

.:.ilt ..''
Widg'u gFread or
i{$[Link] r.e$i*ctae sound
d

RAY DIAGRAMS
. The angle of incidence an1;le i of an impinging sound wave equals the angle of reflection
angle r, with angles measured from the perpendicular to the surface
. Ray diagrams is an import;antdesign tool in establishing optimum room shape
. Used to study the effect of room shape on the diskibution of sound
. lclentify surfarys v*rich may produce ectroes

frr;t;{?ir;r ,L} *
.Iji

&'**rl*t *
is! irl lt *i.
l*iri *[ r r

$,i$*.d sJirlfi

'* f-Ci *,rXlt qtrs

N|'jiard Table; Mlnor

MODUIE|4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2AL1) 27

UAP Cernter for Career Development

Limitations of raydiagram sludies:

1. Sound reflects as indicated by ray diagrams only when surface dimensions are large relative to the
wavelength X of sound being evaluated (>4X).
2. The source of speech or music udll not radiate from a fixed position. Optimum room shape depends
on a balance of the best sound distribution from several source positions to the listening area
3. A detailed evaluation of diffusion of sound by room surfaces is not possible with ray diagrams.

The table is a design guide used with ray-diqram analyses tc evaluate general listening conditions.
The difference in length between the reflected sound path and the direct sound path at any listening
position is directly related to the time differenm which the eardetects
. l1'a reflected sound wave is heard 1117s ar later after it was first heard as a direct sound, the
refiected sound wave can be peroeived as a discrete eEbq (echoes from cllffs in mountain
rrlgions where reflected sounds are heard as distinct repetitbns of the direct [or original]
sound.
. J he sound path difference in feet from a sound delayed by 't117s (about 0.06 s) can be found
as follows: Distance = velocitY X time = 1 130 X 0,06 = 68ft

Sound Peth Difference (ft) Time Delay Gap (ms) ls#ening Candltions
<23 <20 Excellent for speech and music

23 to 34 20 to 30 Good for speech, fair for music

34 to 50 30 to 45 Marginal (bluned)

50 to 68 45 to 60 Ureatisfactory

>68 >60 Poor (echo if strong onough)

RAY-DIAGRAM GRAPHICS
An inexpensive protractor to measLlre angles, a pencil, scale, and paper are all the equipment required
for ray-diagram calculatbns. Below is an auditorium section with sound path differences calculated to
front and rniddle-rear audience losrtions from a typbatsource location.
Path difference = reflected path - direct path

_\" '>,*---,., t. , i

{af,eir!4 5c,rc Ft;n

[Link] Ray-Di*r" *"X'or*[Link] f&stances nu'rni*n ,n oarenfheses on abovedrawing)

Front locaiion no. 1:

Path difference = (11 + 18) - t12) = 17 X
Excellent {br speech and music bec:ause path difference is less than 23 ft,
Middle location no. 2:
Path difference = (16 *26) - (33) = 9ft
Excellentlor speech and music because path difference is less than 23ft

MODULE|4: ACOUSTtrCS IAUGUST ZALD 28

UAP Center for Career Development

SOUND PATHS IN AUDITORIUMS

The initial-time-delay gap - time interval betwren the arrivalof the direct sound and the first reflected
sound of sufficient loudness {shoulcl be less than about 30 ms [path difference < 34 ft]) is good for
listening condifions because sor:nds within tlris time interval can coalesce as one impression in a
listener's brain.
. Early-arriving reflected sound energy is importantfor darity and definition of music.
. "Early" sound - the direct and reflected sound arrlving within the first 80 ms,
. Clarity - the ratio of early sr:und energy to late or reverberant sound energy,
. Auditoriums with nanowshapes supportdirect and early-reflected sound because the initial-
time-delay gaps is short
. lntimacy - the initial-time-dr:lay gap influencing a listene/s perception of the size of the
auditorium
. The listener in the auditorium below will hear the direct sound first and then, after the initial-
tirne-delay gap, reflections from the walls (path 1 on the drawing), ceiling (path 2), stage
enclosure (path 3), and so on. These arrivaltimes and sound levels are indicated by the bars
on the sound levelvs. time graph shown below.

Sound Paths frun Stqe in Auditoium

,'- - il.r"rlli" *r;nri
I i. lFd!;efi st Sdrrcrlti g'!t€4,i?[Link] )
tai 6a1a, ir{^Ct i, gniA8rn
d^P aiitcti'iunal tCr?rreo si n,,r; c)
I
I
I re
i t
i I "L
6i --'* btr rtigr+ }
*i
1CI il hr,f
i"eiicit*C pti,r1 ,f
l)t 1t
*i"r! :ng si Aird'it"iont
3i
-t
iai?:li "t'FA-
tigj*l drF
it
il
il
\rl
ci
JJ iI
\n .i

'i,rng Ir'.sJ

Soun,C Leyel ys. Time Graph for Auditwium

CEILINGS
. Hard, sound-reflecting flat miling provides useful sound reflections covering the entire seating
area in a lecture roorn
' Sound reflections for spec;h come frorn the same direction as the source and are delayed by
less than 30 ms
. Useful ceiling reflections can be increased so that the middle-rear seats actually receive
reflections from both ceiling planes

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST zAtD 2e

UAP Cernter for Career Developrnent

' The average ceiting heighl, H in auditorlums wlth upholstered seats and absorptive rear walls is
approximately related to the mid-frequency reverberation time T as follows:
rr20T
where H = ceiling height {ft)
f = mid-frequency reverberation time {s)
';1"? ,"r
:r .ll,i;, 4" :l':: f
Flrr C*rlinq I I

Flat and Sloped Cdling

' Frlr concert hallsl fong reverberatbn, high ceilings, sound-reflec{ing walls are preferred;
u:ilings that are diffusing can innprove audibility of lateral sound by diminishing the strength of
ceiling reflections

ECHOES
' The distinct repelition of thre original sound and is sufficien$y loud to be clearly heard above the
gt;neral reverberatbn and background noise in a space.
" For speech signals, echoes can be perceived wtren the time intelals between the direct and
rerflected sounds are greater than 60 ms (about 1117s)
' ln auditoriums, sound-reflecting flat or ooncave rear walls and high or vaulted ceilings are
potential echo producers.

The graph shoraa the amount in decibels an echo is above or below the direct speech for time delays
(ms) in rooms with a reverberation tfime of about 1 s at miC-frequencies. An mho that falls in the shaded
area on the upper right of the graph will be annoying to most listernrs
{> 50 percent disturbed).

du*r{ r*& ;i,[Link].r*. [-=;

.:'tr: 5r-.: eti : cl;
I
;

J J} 2:}
Ti-e *e;i* ;- :-r s ]

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2011J 30

UAP Center for Career Development

ECHO CONTROL PRINCTPLES

. F,otential echo-producing surfms should be treated with efficient sound- absorbing materials
or shaped as shown.
. The front portion of the reiling is lovvered to reduce the delayed reflections from overhead and
rr:oriented to provide useful reiect'tons toward the rear of the auditorium.
Prtrr:tnt Erhe-Pzn*reifig $urln*s*

itjj{;.it.,j crt,,4,};
'r:il rb4ii" .E;;.!.;a ,li-6{
;.t,, c6 r" f {tr tr*,i

r
11r 6'.53.e;-1y6g-g, 1g
'at- +* --.t*[Link]:
-!".* tt':*:c ei:la+!.l

Paterlial Echo-Producing Surfacer.; Revised Cdling Prafrle (To prevmf echoes and didribute sound evenly)

:--i_ra J-a :_ri:ri: tI" it ;a-2,

arr ".ei i tii- ; :i !9;l:"rit!
r::
rj6 ii t':.t4.
"retlatf.a

Sound-Abs'orbing Wdl Treatments" 'DW'tredmart can be prouidd by dtha thick sound-absohing mateids or
thin sound-absohing nateials instdlad with drspace betrind

REA R-WA,LL ECHO CONTROL [Link]

. A flat sound-reflecting rearwallcan produce echres or unwalted, long- delayed reflections in
rnedium to large auditoriurns.
. Three solutions to control "slap" echoes (i.e., sharp return of sound) from a rear wall are shown
below
. Perforated facings, wlrich are highly transparent to sound waves, can be used to conceal
sound-absorbing treatment.

SIDE WAL"LS
Side walts lateral reflections create a favoraHe auditory spatial impressbn (or intimrcy), essential for
the satisfactory perception of music performances, Early sound reflections from side walls add strength
to the direct sound.
. The initial-timedelay gap flTDG] can be found by subtrmting the direct sound path D from the
refiected sound path R. futh paths are measured to a listener seated near the centerline of the
hall, halfway between the tpnductor and the first balcony fme (or rear wall). ITDG in
nrilliseconds equals the path difference {R - D) in feet times 0.9.
. For concert halls, ITDG should be less han 20 ms.

MODIILF:4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2ALr31

UAP Center for Career D,evelopnnent

ll/ide fan shapes and semicircular floor plans do not provide strong, early lateral reflections
becsus€ the side walls are looated tco far apart (music will sound distant and lack fullness of
tone)
.reverse"
The fan shape (riooms with decreasing width toward rear) can provide strongest
lerteral reflections and spatial impression for music.
rr:,-n:', :!n*ii:;;r,
I':l; f.;l*f*
;l:;*;tt ^-€t ;' 'ii;1't:s!';i Er*3r'
"

-' -;ai,9tJ *i,_,-, j 3i; ,*

-'ir: rl04ii.-i -tlt' *i:l
i 41;.r gr n&I i$ qi 4!': ;

-< r{ra YJ . J
, 1r4:J: ,* t, {i/.,d'
i:t!'q :" ''\'r' r' 1.
'
:rd;l "-- '- " i ,'A $".:
€;+,n{ t .i

Fan shape (for lecture room)

t-A-;L - E'-A *, ..,' " I i -

i ,, "i.11{ .*.,--}._:";

.Ieir {.'.,, i: - d f ;i. 5 .7$'

{!:r" it'

^-."qelr- €,rjti: .-_l g19f G';r'.i:i,;

nei-a' : t=r .-'- J' ',J-'.:J
..'1..!:::3

ga +l i €".af {11Lg-"..'---*
,*?
prrtlici'*J i-€rierline Jl
rJdiio':,* .i io titi'i!
*[Link]{: "'aiiE:i';rtrt':
farq. rj{ }!,,rfe{
1".iE .r: ttj.tr1..

Rectangular Shape (Dashed lin* indiicde prdurd orientations fu a ldure roam); Sfepped Sfiape {Alternate
eliements af side wdls are paralld to provide lateral refldions towud audience for music hall)

MODUTE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2OL1)32

UAP Center for Career Development

,Reyerse Fm Shape (Side wafs at rear refl&. swndtawwd audierrce fw ddtifron of music)

'r
;i,

:, f:

i; i.i:: .l . ".:j

::. ;! I

:iI";.r-- . -. a. ;,?: .'.,q"',g411",..-.',!

(clrekwlse, from tap ldt) Echo-Prukrcing RearWall (Echo d ceilingwall reentrant angle); Sound-Ahsohing
Treatment (Extwd deep treatmeft frun seded head /evd); Surtrce Moduldrons or "Rumples' (Use cylinders with
differeft radii for optimun dffusion); Splryd Wdt {To produce usdulshort-delapd refledions)

PATTERNS OF REVERBERANT DECAY

Sound deoay in large and small rooms are shown below, A nolse source (broadband noise from a
loudspeaker, a bursting fulty inffatetl bdloon, or the "blasf of a blank fired from a starteds revolver) are
used to de'termine the time it takes the sound to fall off, or decay, by 60 dB. Because the noise source is
abruptly slopped or impulsive, its decay can be remrded and displayed on a graph of sound level vs,
time. This graphical information canr provide the designer with a grealer understanding of the acoustical
quality of rooms. Spikes on the decay curyes shown below indicate echoes. Double-sloped decay
curves could indicate room resonarrces or reyerberance from coupled spaces such as large stage
houses or kansepts,

M0DULli4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 2411) 33

UAP Cernter for Career Development

fier*cmt diEEy st llcuild tn txgr H{ffi

1-c : +z:.

Reverberafi Dnay of Sound in Large Room; Echo nay bedueto rear wall or other remote sound-reflding
surtace

'- r'.1 ,7;-:" ;

Rer,efuaaft D*ay of Sund in Small Room

ARTTCUU\TION I NDEX (At)

. The subjective measure of speech intelligibility.
' lt can be calculated from the soores of a group of experienced listeners with normal hearing
r,rrho write sentences, !torcls, or syllables read to them from selected lists.

The graph relates Al to the percentiage intelligibility of clearly spoken sentences or words that skilled
listeners hear correctly. lf a speaker calls out 100 urords and a listener correctly hears 90, the Al would
be greater than 0.7, indicating \ery gmd" intelligibili$ mrditions. Al for symphonic music should be 0.4
to 0,5; for organ music, less than 0.2; and for drama, greater than 0.7 {very high intelligibility conditions).

l?.' * JE'.1 :tE5

;ir_r $r!: -r'-at-?.t-::i.. /
.-'----*tL--*

,7i

l,F::cri:t:s i.-3Ex i +: !

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 20LL)34

UAP Celnter for Career Development

The plan view of the lecture room below has superlmposed on it a plot of seat locations hadng equal
Al's in decimal percent (called Al contours)" The contours shown indicate "very good" speech listening
conditionsr (Al > 0,70) near the source located at the left end of the st4e platform. Note also that the Ai
drops off uvith distance from the source. Reshaping of the ceiling and control of echoes off the rear wall
could raisre the Al at these remote locations. . .. &r .", ,,

Equal Al Contows in Ldure Room

An objective evaluation test methor!, called ihe rapid speech transmission index (RASTI), has been
developed to electronically measure spmch intelligibility in rooms. The methd uses a modulated test
signal spectrum to simulate speech at 500 tlz and 20@ Hz.
Note: For c:anmurication requkements {e.9., speech, drana, musical mndy) high Als are essentid for optimum
listering cc>nditians. Conversely, fo rclCeyesaf/sfrdrary spe*h pivrcy, abw Alis daked. An N of 0.A5b 0.15,
or 4 to 14 percent of the wods heard rcndly, usudly indicdx sdisfrciory spexh pivacy conitrtians.

FLUTTER ECHO
. F{epetitive inter-reflection r:f sound energy betrrreen opposing parallel or concave sound-
r,eflecting surfaces heard as a high-frequency ringing or buzzing
" lb preventflutter echo, avoid parallel surfaces, provirCe deep sound-absorbing treatment, or
break up smooth surfaces with splayed or 'scalloped" elements. A 1:10 sptay (or > 50 tilt) of
crne of the parallel walls will normally prevent flutter echo in small r@ms.
. f\rlost noticeable in sma][ rooms at specifin locatians of noise source and listener

B. r:.r-.

9iil z
V a+$-
€f J*C
*lti1t
i *r'r, d tr

5f:* i .o{ t ,r' iy..l :tirr.$! g-

.i,r:l_.|-i.

Oonidar; Sndl roon with concavewall

Pitched-R,cof Fiutter Echo
The echo phenomenon below (calkd pitched-roof flutter) occur in rooms with nonparallel walls.

F1'.rtt e r
ECho aoucd patnS

MODUtli 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 201lJ 35

UAP Cernter for Career Developnrent

SMALL ROOMS
. A,udible resonance is the ermphasis of sound energy at particularfrequencies occurring in small
rooms entirely finished witlh sund-reflecting materials when the dimensional ratios are whole
numbers (cube) phenomeinon is referred as [Link] tenof effect
. F'referred ralios of room dimensions may prevent resonanm (hoominess') by even distribution
of low-frequency sound energy
' As most rooms contain ab,sorptive materials (car,pets, curtains, and furnishings) the provision
of preferred dimensional ratios is unimportant.

Sound- Absubing Surfaces frposd'e Sound-Rellec{lng Surfaces

. ln the small music practice rooms, the amountof sound reflecting between hard, sound-
reflecting surfaces can be minimized by installing sound-absorbing materials on adjacent walls
or at two opposite corners,,
' Effective treatment finishes can be sound- absorbirq panels furrd outfrom the backup wall or
heavy fabric curtains hung 1 00 percent full (2 ft of curtain to 1 ft of surfme width).
. To enhance low-frequency absorption, put deep airspace between the sound- absorbing
treatment and the backup surface,

&**nE - rAFisc,trn$
rutiiE

\uF f

Adjacent-Wall Trsaansnt

$oirnd - fr?s*rvingl
P9rie i 5 '

Airspace ( *,s increa*e

lour-fre+uenLq 6bsorpLion
grrcj r€dr;cg'n6ort,nggS' )

Csrn*gr Tr,eatrn*nt
Adj acent-W dl Treatmerrt; Comer Tredment

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST TALD 36

UAP Cernter for Career Developrnent

N o np ar alle I -W all Surfaces Sound-Diffu sing Wall ldodu I ations

(sound-absorbing eiling or fu{ly carpeted floor ([Link] cylindrbal, trian g ular, or other
normally vrrillbe required if walls are hard-surfaced) surfrce irregularities can be used to provide
diffrrsion)

:'*1*'lr'f rrl'$. s":,re-

: re-i -!i: {S r;,8'i,tii
: ";j -.i. f;94f, 'g; i

I 5o 6s: rn

r"-*-,'i4E. lr tt.F{*
-r- gr-" ,; ;tflit
,i'r"tr* .,;,e,1;-*si

CONCAVE: SURFACES
' Concave wall and ceiling surfaces require treatment to prevent annoying sound reflections
which reduce intell(gibility of direct sound.
' Concave shapes (circle, ellipse, parabola) cause reflected sound to converge at a focal point
' Sound energy may be concentrated in certain areas icalled focusing) or reflected along
smooth ooncave surfaces (called creep echo, orthe'lvhispering gallery effecfl' because low
voice levels can be heard iatconsiderable distances away).

Betow are problem stfuafions and conesryding condivemeenures" Ndethdfocusing can be mare noliceabie
for lowlrequancy sound wergy because mmt f'nsi rndsfals are less &sorplive d low frquencis

Problem Solufon

Focused sound Surf*e undulatiions; Large-scale, random-sized surface undulations can provide diffusion
to minimize focureing of reflected sound energy (convex brick surfaces)

Creep soundabsorbin,g teatment Acoustical$ fansprent materid (spaced wood slats or open
metal gritle) conrceals rctualenclosure, which can be teated with deep sound-absorbing
material to redum rsflected sotnd energy and creep echoes.

.-'-;rrrd
,i [Link]
!$orcd-
?[Link]"ti
ircing
514nd-ib*rr;rig
'".c71nLi )

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 20tr) 37

 UAP Center for Career Developrnent

An examfle ot the whisping gdlay dfecI ocvurs in the lJrion Taminat Building, Cincinndi, Otrio (see strefcfr
below). Sound enagy is refl*ted dong he dond cdling surface allouing percons at opposite elis of the
ratunda (> 180 ft qat) to exily conve,rse d wlispavcice lanels; however, persons only a few fed away from the
speakers cannot hear the canvssdion^ ffiier exanptes wherc simitar dfer;b wur include the dome oi St. Paut's
cathedral, London, Engand, and the old sende chanber d fie u.s. captd, washingan, D.c.

3 ,1:gr-
<[Link].o"
-
i ,*:. '5i;5i*:;'ns f ',a;.* .+*, {:T;"5
qti,;,* r,t'eei 5fi+t"i - ',; rl :ii g.$'i"t.$ j
Crep Echofrom Dome
Note:Domd planetaiums can be dxigned to arcid focusing by rcing a sund- transparent liner an which the sky
images are proi*ted. The plenum abovethe perfordedlirrercanbtreatdwith dther deep sound *sorplion or
sa und4i ffu si ng el sn ents.

Below are examples of poor distribution of sound in domed auditoriums. ln the auditorium shown at the
left, the extent of seating affected by focusing will be far greater than indicated because $ource
looatbns c,n the stqe willvary.

T''*--'-
- ,*.,o-f-,-,..ti-\.=-\
Y
i
"': jr,r,.r',
;

' t:'"" ,!,r/.)v{-, .'.*',,='-..-=

r !''-** i

rr:*-i--l_^_ __--=..::Lj:J
Auditoiunt (Facused refledions from cur;ane+hqed ceiling); Mdion Pidure Iheafer (Use/ess reflecttons from
dome)

SOUND REFLECTORS
'
An effective sound reflector has a hard surface (thid< plaster, doubleJayered gypsum board,
sealed wood, or mrylic plastic) and is significanfly larpr than the waveiength of sound it is
designed to reflect..
'
The sound-reflecting pulpit canopy below can provide useful reinforcement of the direct sound
as well as prevent long-delayed reflections and potential echo conditions from the high ceiling.
lni the church below, the organ and oonsole are located within the sanctuary, not in
Jgallery or
other deep recess.
:j-rF..i';r,ei- -:j.0Fs i- rl,1'.,.i
n - ni:t
;-
\\ iootse)ei6te. rb, n6
\ ;[Link]-
\ euP'r i

LtrEan [Link];r jssatgd

to6?ihe. !rr-" ,l^# oa.9'g;-"
as [Link](e'a1.04

Sect-on Viwt of Churclt

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2071) 3B

UAP Center for Career Development

Note: ln churchx, m inteiu of thin wtnd panding applidtafuning can fu an uniftended, effalive vibrding
panel sound absorber. The absorplion bythe pad adiwt cat rdrce low-frequency reverberation considerably,
giving an unpleasar*'shillf *tarrdraisfc to musc. lf wod is dsked, vibrating-panel effats can be avcided by
adheing the wood drxtly to a igid backup wall or by using closely sprced funing supporfs {< 1 ft apart).

,g.{it,'\
t9 .

.{&$igcte.c *s;ild
p5?t [Link]
{54gar&{di;sr1

f,.r,84a gr;nd

Pulpit Canopy Ddails

CHECKLI{JT FOR WORSHIP SPACES

. The need for acoustical properties to support intelligible speech and sufficient reverberance for
music: provide a long reverberation time for music (about 2 s at mid-frequencies) and an
electron ic, sound-reinforcing system for speech articulation
. 's
lf organ music is importanl, a long reverberatbn time (>2 s) required for enhancement of
tcrne and blending. (Nofed; mffiy orga, buildqs sesn to anphasize revehsanceto the exclusion af
other equally impqtart acauslicd propalia for musyc, such €s eyen distibtlion of sound enagy,
sufficierrt Heral refldions, and tond bdancej
. Reverberance help the congregation avoid the feeling of 'singing alone" during hymns or sung
responses or "speaking alone' during prayer or responsive readings.
. The volume, finishes, and shape of a worship spam affect the articulation of speech and
quality of music,

Guidelines to help designers achieve conditions for good hearing in unrship spaces
1, Music is best supported in churches with relatively narrow plans (provlCing short initial-time-delay
gaps) and high room volume,
. Wide plans, which wrap the congregationalseating around the pulpiUchoir area, do not provide
sufficient lateral sound, lts absence contributes to an impression of distant sound, lacking
fullness of tone.
. For planning purposes, volume per seat ratio shoutd be 180 to 300 ft 3 per person for
churches where speech is the most important part of the serurce; 200 to 400 ft 3 per person for
clrurches where music is the most important part. Avoid deeply recessed seating areas which
shield listeners from reverberant sound.
2, Elevate pulpit or lectern and loca'te dose to the walls. ln spaces with high ceilings, use a pulpit
canopy (with upward tilt)to enhan*r direotsound and prevent long-delayed reflections from the ceiling.
3, Avoid domes, barrel vaults, and other ooncave shapes which fmus sound energy, To mitigate
focusing elTects, concave ceilings cian be 'flattened in the center or treated with sounddiffusing
elements siuch as unequal facets. lf the focal point is far above the seating (> 1/2 floor-t+ceiling he\ght),
reflected sound will be weaker than it vtould be if the oelling wereflat.

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST zArD 3e

UAP Center for Career Development
r ltr'g I :ceS _nej ,rcvi6u
.,.'' u;ei. r-e; eF-T,,,*;'
t; S-: ,E r,e*l
.tl J' F{r*i

P',tipi;--/' *P-r!&i, 4a'nidte r;tir {i-rw: } ? ,i

DomedCeiW
4. Lay out seating to achieve good sight lines and minlmum pewt+pulpitdistances to enhance speech
perception. Pew cushions and carpeting used in the seating areas can provide constant sound
absorption (reverberance does notvary greatly with the numberof occupants present). Where carpet is
used primarily to controlfootfall impact and shuffling noises, use carpet having low pile weight and low
pile height, installed without a pad undemeath. Do not use carpet in the chancel or choir areas, or in
pew areas if active participation of congregation is desired.
5. Wall and ceiling surfaces should be sound-reflecting (mncrete, thbk plaster, or double layer of thick
gypsum board or thick wood supported by dosely sprced studs) with large-scale irregularities, splays,
or bumps such as deep coffers to contribute to desired reverberance, diffusion, and lateral reflections
(to surrourrd listeners with sound), livoirl materials which selectively absorb sound energy at low
frequencies (single layerof thin wocd orgypsum board)
6, Under-balconies may need speci;al treatment such as sloped soffits and depths restricted to less than
the openinE heights. Shape balcony fmes and rear walls with large splays or convex elements to aroid
long-delayed refleotions and echoes (or carefully treat with limited amount of sound-absorbing finishes).
7. Locate ohoir, organ, and organ cxlnsole close together (<40ft apart) to achieve balance between
organ tone and choral music. Surround both with sound-refiecting surfaces shaped to blend and project
sound toward the congregation. Ceiling heightabove the choirshould not be too low (< 20 ft), The choir
must clearly hear the organ for proper support and rhythmic guirlance. lf the organist is also the choir
director, orient the organ console so the choir can see the hands of the organist Avoid using carpet and
pew cushions in the choir areas bec,ause the absence of sound-&sorbing materials at these critical
locations have an overwhelming influence on loudness and pattern of early sound energy distribution.
Choir areas should be somewhat elevated with direct line of sight to the congregation (not located in
deep recesses).
B. Organ pipes should be located in the open wlrere they will be *oustbally connected or coupled to
the sanctuary (not in deep recess or hansept) wfth direc{ line of sight to the congregation. Provide space
(> 1.5-ft clearance) at sides and rear of organ to allow servicing. Organs can have freestanding pipes or
pipes in a lrcod panel casework (to blend sound and help develop harmonics). All ranks of the organ
must be clearly heard. lf the organ is to be visualty hidden, place pipes in a shallow recess (> 125 ft for
each stop r:r set of pipes) finished irr hard, sound-reflecting materials. Use sound- transparent grille with
framing members less than 2 in wide and deep, with spacing beh,rcen to provide more than 75 percent
unobstructed open area,

Chesf ofOrgan Ptpes

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 20t1) 40

UAP Cernter for Career Development

9. To prevent interference with mditation, prayer, and appreciation of rrcrship services, background
noise levels from the mechanical system should notexceed noise criterion NC-25 for large spaces, or
NG30 for smaller spaces. Endosing mnstructions must reduce intruding noise to levels below these
criteria. ln small sanctuaries, be caleful to control the noise produced by air outlets and return grilles
because occupants will be seated closer to these terminal devices than they ranuld be in large spaces.
lsolate noise and vibrations of the organ blouer.
10. To achieve intelligible speech in reverberant spaces, use the higidy directional, central electronic
sound-reinforcing system to concerrtrate amplified speech over the congregational seating area and
allow the sound to come from the direction of the pulpit location. As an alternative to the preferred
central system, use a distributed system such as a dense array of cone loudspeakers located overhead
or a pew-Lrack system with signal-d,elay fuatures. ln churches with flexible seating, overhead distributed
systems can be designed to switch off loudspeakers located above the unoocupied areas

*ctd6*g3kgr -"
i,gria tg. t i
I

/
LLo,{E9gg 4gr
as."]€, ,a0, 3
Zones for Overhead Astibtled Sysfaa

CHECKLI$T FOR MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIUMS

lmportant acoustical parameters aflecting the design of mutrtipurpose school auditoriums with seating
capacities in the range of 10ffi to 2000.
1. Site: Select a quiet exposure far aray from h'qhways, flight paths, or noisy industries.
2. Space [Link]: Multipurpose uses indude lectures, dramas, instrumental recitals, and symphonic music.
Consequenlly, a full-frequencT-regnnse sound-reinforcing system will be required.
3, lnterior llocation: Use conidorg storage roomq and [Link] spaces to isolate the auditorium
from noise. Avoid locations adjacent to music rehearsal roomsr mechanicalequipment rooms (do not
locate HVAC equipment under the stage), ffirpenW shops, and other noisy spaces, Doors to the
auditorium should be solid, heavy, and gasketed around their entire perimeters to be airtiqht when
closed. Treat conidors and lobbies with generous amounts of sound-absorbing materials to control
noise builclup. Dead spaces tend to induce occupants to speak at lower voice levels,
4. Volume: Volume per seat ratio should be 200 to 240 fi 3 per person, whbh oan be mhieved with a
room volume less than 500,ffi fi 31. The preliminary shape can be baed on visual or seating
considerations alone. To emphasize lateral refiections, plans that are rectangular, roughly square, or
only slightly fanned are preferred.
5. Reverberation: Use the $abine equatbn to determine the reverberation times at125,500, and 4000
Hz. This is' the formula generally used by acoustical testing laboratorbs. Be sure to include air
absorption, which may be significar,rtat high frequencies in large spass. The reverberatbn time T
should be 1 ,4 to 1 .9 s at mkl-frequencies (i.e., a/er+le of reverberatisn at 500 and 1000 Hz), 1.3T at
125H2, and 0.8Tat 4ffi0 Hz. At high frequencies, too much reverberation usually means nharsh" or
'rasping" listening conditions. At lornrfrequencies, too much revefueration usually sounds "boomy,"
v*rereas too little sounds "shrill,"

MODULI|4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST 2oL1) 41

UAP Center for Career Development

"ggJi,*r :lgr€ {ta i{rls*'[ *.c,igrrum

ircra E,r,fp ffri$ m3[,ri3;r-rig*l rcar ]
i
i r-Lcldinf

{a rS**irg
.$.Eegsh.o-{ig ? r {:v,Ft

l{g{tnlt{s:
g*iA
f00rn
A,.rd if,sri',*m
ls-l;':**rr*

Ltbbu { +nrr buS*er l*dit*ri*m

#'r?
Srqm nei+a)

Layout Using Etffer Spaces

6. Use ray-diagram analyses to properly orient the oeiling and side walls, especially near the
prosceniurn. Ceiling and wall sudaes should provide useful sound reflections (i.e., early reflections with
< 28 ft path differene from direct sound) and diffusbn. AvoiC vaults, domes, and other con oave
surface shapes.
7. Backgrcrund Noise: Background noise should be low so it will not cover up or mask performances,
The HVAC system should be designed so its noise will not exceed the prefened noise criteria. Control
air velocitirx at room registers and grilles, and use intemal sourd-absofuing duct linings and/or mufflers
to prevent duct-borne noise transmissian in both the supply and return air-distribution systems.
8. Stage Enclosure and Orchestra Flit Shape to provide good distributbn of strong early reflections and
diffnsion, l-he reverberation time of the st4e house should be approximately equal to that of the
auditorium. Reverbration will be lornger vvhen surfaces surrounding the stage are shaped to inter-reflect
or scafter r;ound rather than to refler:t sound toward the absorptive audience.
The orchestra pit, sized at about 14 to 15 ft 2 per musician, should have a removable sound-absorbing
curtain (or panels) along its rear wall to dlow the conductor to control loudness in the pit.

Low Shell (Slde panefs> 50 ft apaft); Preferred High Shell fSfage eeiling > 30 ft h'tgh, side walls < 5A ft
apart, and shell <34ft deep)

MODUTE;4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 20rL) 42

UAP Crenter for Career tlevelofment

9. Balcony: Use balconies to reduce the distarw to the farthest nowof seds andlorto increase seating
capmity. Keep the overhang shallow (i.e., depth less than twice the opening height), slope the soffit,
and treat the frce with sound-diffrrrsing elernents (or sound-absorbing material) to prevent echoes,

; _t"*ZG*,ss*T.{:j
rl
lJ.-"'.*+-..-.--J '

iii: {"
"-_rr__, ,
| ,
il"t
;l i ii
iL*--.0,1
i !-;- J
& --1,:-i ,l

".\i
F i.:
Auditoiwnwith Bdconv: (iglt] Audtoium wittout Balconv
10. Sound-Reinforcing System: Pnrvide a central space just above and slightly in front of the
proscenium opening to accommodate a cluster of loudspeakers. Be sure the audience has line of sight
to the high-frequency horns of the cluster, Locate the control console for the sound system at a central
location in the audbnce seating area.

The foltowing general gukielines can be used to select finbh materials and furnishings,
Ceiling: sound-reflecting materials (concrete, thick wood, or thick gypsum board); if required to control
reverberation, the perimeter along both sides and rear can h sound-absorbing (about one-third to one-
half of the ceiling area covered in a horseshse pattern) or use a checkerboard pattern consisting of
alternate areas of sound-absorbing and reflecting materials.
Side Walls: sound+eflecting and diffusing surfaceswith many irregularities (sunken panels, splays, and
undulations). For variable sound albsorption, harg large amounts of fabric curtains or banners along the
rear porti'rn of side walls or in cubic volume above suspended sound-reflecting panels,
Rear Wall: diffusing surface with lange-scale inegularities; treat with deep sound-absorbing finish to
control echoes.
Floor: Carpet all aisles, except in frunt of the stage, to aid in footfall impact noise control. Do not use
carpet in seating areas.
Seating: {Jse fabric-upholstered seats. Absorptive seating provide "stabld reverberation conditions, so
the reverberation willh neariy the same when the auditorium is full as when it is partially ocupied. Use
seating tirat does not selectively atlsorb sound at low frequencies. Continental seating layouts have
greater spacing behrcen rolls than conventbnd seating with center aisles.

VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBERS

When the reverberation time must be varied to satisff the requirenents of different activities in a room,
the sound-absorbing treaknentcarr be desQnd to be djustable. For rnst situations, listeners can
detect a change in reverberation greater than or equal to 0.1 s. ln rooms for music, avoid placing
absorption near the sources of sound where it can adversely affect early sound energy,
Retactahle Sound-Absorbing Curllains
Curtains can be adjusted to vary ttre amount of absorptbn and, when stored in a recess, to expose a
sound-reflecting backup surface. For music perception needs, curtainsshould be stored in a high
transmission loss enclosure so they will contribute almost no absorptbn.

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 201L) 43

UAP Center for Career Developrnent

Note: Avi:;ually opque, soundlranspueftscren {cd}dtrmsondent} car be d*edinfrontof cufteinsto dlow

changes in cuftdn extansion withof trfi*ling Wpedffice. Tfis preverrts the dfu*nern of the cuftdns far visual,
not amuslical, reasons. Be carcful whse music percqlion is importat because the drep drsprce behind the
sound4ransparent screen could ilso# foo nuch lowlrequarcy sannd anugy by rcling as a vdume resonatar.

Sliding Facings
Two panels of perforaied material rlan be used tovary absorption by sliding one panel in frontof the
other. The holes are lined up for maximum absorption and are st4gered (or offset) for maximum
reflection, The latter allgnment blorJ<s the path to the sound-absorbing treatment installed behind the
panels. Holes lined up to provide maximum absorptbn,

i; -- : . ^r,-.e;1 . aia: .s
.:r,iia..;,i .ri l;* ii-g $; il,,*.t$n*c
i- re ;,i,r.{ irr :,! s+:-r,;rj,j,,p}i-.g, t; i

Hinged Panels
Sound-aLrsorbing material installecl on back of sound-reflectirig panel oan be swung into position to vary
conditions from hard to soft.

il tEEFi FESI
h

Ff
'-..:, . --*'"- r.-.,,*
,5$f,t

Rotatable, Elements
The details below are rotatable pri$m elements which have three sides: reflecting, absorbing, and
diffusing.

', ,if.".,.ri; .:r;:,:i-- :.: :: :1 Ji,' .1. ,,..,.1,.'i .:i ,:',;

..J
, .. :,,'- .-\at ..; -.*'t ,:l- :-i, ", '.:" : J: i ;' t ' ,',
Note: VadaHe ahsorption a/so can be usedto dlustlhe revehsdiut duing wch*tra reheasals in music halls
so rehearstal conditions match pafomtingmnditions, whenthe adiqtcaispresent

Ti"?rt *rF*.rqa -7"

';'ttrt'a !t g '":t ItfJ ',,. 1.;'",f j gi;;i:r5r
'l; !:'. j',* l.;+ ' [ , "6 ,

{ f,r
n
4:'il r,g

i' e!-i:gil, g$ 9, i
Fl'at Ceiling: Elevated pipfr,sfoped soffi

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS (AUGUST zjn) 44

UAP Center for Career Development

HOW TCICOMPUTE CUBIC VOLUME

Reverberation time is direc$y proprorthnd to the size of a room. lt is extremely important that cubic
volume be correctly computed. lf cubic voJume is x percent in enor, predicted reverberation time would
be a corresponding x percent in error. For most situat'xrns, a change of i0 percent or more in
reverberatbn can be detected by listeners, Volume of rmms that are cubic or rectangular solid in shape
can be redily compirted by multiplying length tines width times hebht. $hown below are volume
formulas for severd regular and inegular shaped rooms. ln many designs, it is best to subdivide room
volurne into smaller volumes, such as in an auditorium: main hall, orchestra pit, under balcony, above
balcony, and so on. The resufting totat should be far more mcurde than an estimate based on average
overall dimensions of length, width, and height.

ia

g'-r' * ;!f .tf .i{ fi r,:5r.$1p.r*

Anii.: l-lt [Link]-tJ 5*ir'-d l:r trI *l"x C-ytrn.:l+t

\\
]"
f
*{ i "f

tn. tF
tf
'1
2J

-"--"'. lJ
tr
u.*,*S,,,t',1 f,r:,+.tr'f**.,ff1 +
rErts+:f V,*u{t !ftturg I -11.,,;;ig,i,?t,t .::t -....i
Rx:tangular Solid ar Cube; Cylinda; Banel Vauft; Dome (Sqmai of sphere)

acp0828l 1

MODULE 4: ACOUSTICS IAUGUST 201r) 45