2.
1 Fundamental Physical Quantities of a
Flowing Gas
These quantities describe the state and motion of air, which is the foundation of aerodynamics.
(a) Pressure (p)
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by gas molecules due to their
random motion.
In gases, pressure arises from molecular collisions with a surface.
It is a scalar quantity (has magnitude only).
Important textbook relation:
p=FAp = \frac{F}{A}p=AF
Key understanding:
Pressure acts equally in all directions at a point in a fluid.
Aerodynamic forces (lift, drag) are caused mainly by pressure distribution over
surfaces.
(b) Density (ρ)
Density is the mass per unit volume of a gas.
ρ=mV\rho = \frac{m}{V}ρ=Vm
Key points:
Density decreases with altitude in the atmosphere.
Density strongly affects:
o Lift
o Drag
o Aircraft performance
Higher density → more lift
Lower density → less lift
(c) Temperature (T)
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of gas molecules.
In aerodynamics, temperature must be expressed in an absolute scale.
Absolute temperature scales:
Kelvin (K)
Rankine (°R)
Importance:
Temperature affects density, pressure, and speed of sound.
High-speed flight causes temperature rise due to compression.
(d) Flow Velocity (V)
Flow velocity is the speed of the gas relative to an object.
It is a vector quantity (magnitude + direction).
Importance:
Aerodynamic forces depend on velocity squared.
Lift, Drag∝V2\text{Lift, Drag} \propto V^2Lift, Drag∝V2
Different points in the flow can have different velocities.
(e) Streamlines
A streamline is an imaginary line such that:
o The velocity vector is tangent to it at every point.
Key rules:
Streamlines never cross.
They show the direction of flow.
Flow pattern around bodies is visualized using streamlines.
2.2 The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces
This is a very important conceptual section.
Core idea (from the textbook):
All aerodynamic forces arise from pressure and shear stress distributions over a surface.
Two sources of aerodynamic force:
1. Pressure forces
Act normal (perpendicular) to the surface.
Major contributor to lift.
2. Shear stress (skin friction)
Acts tangential to the surface.
Caused by viscosity.
Contributes mainly to drag.
Resultant force:
Combination of pressure + shear stress over entire surface
Resolves into:
o Lift
o Drag
2.3 Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
Air is treated as a perfect (ideal) gas in most aerodynamic analyses.
Equation of state:
p=ρRTp = \rho R Tp=ρRT
Where:
ppp = pressure
ρ\rhoρ = density
RRR = specific gas constant
TTT = absolute temperature
Importance:
Relates pressure, density, and temperature.
Used in:
o Compressible flow
o High-speed aerodynamics
o Atmospheric calculations
2.4 Discussion of Units
Aerodynamics uses consistent systems of units.
Two main systems:
SI (Metric) System
Length: meter (m)
Mass: kilogram (kg)
Time: second (s)
Force: Newton (N)
Pressure: Pascal (Pa)
English (Imperial) System
Length: foot (ft)
Mass: slug
Force: pound-force (lbf)
Pressure: lbf/ft²
Important rule:
Never mix unit systems in calculations.
2.5 Specific Volume (ν)
Specific volume is the volume per unit mass.
ν=1ρ\nu = \frac{1}{\rho}ν=ρ1
Key points:
It is the inverse of density.
Used in thermodynamics and gas relations.
For gases:
o High density → low specific volume
o Low density → high specific volume
2.6 Anatomy of the Airplane
An airplane is divided into major components, each serving a specific aerodynamic purpose.
Main components:
Fuselage – carries payload, crew, passengers
Wing – produces lift
Empennage (tail assembly):
o Horizontal stabilizer → pitch stability
o Vertical stabilizer → yaw stability
Landing gear – supports aircraft on ground
Power plant – provides thrust
Key idea:
Stability and control are achieved through proper arrangement of these components.
2.7 Anatomy of a Space Vehicle
Space vehicles are designed for operation outside Earth’s atmosphere.
(a) Launch Vehicles
Used to carry payloads into space.
Consist of:
o Multiple stages
o Rocket engines
Operate based on Newton’s third law (action–reaction).
(b) Uncrewed Spacecraft
No human onboard.
Examples:
o Satellites
o Space probes
Designed for:
o Long-duration missions
o Minimal mass
o High reliability
2.8 Historical Note: The NACA and NASA
NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics)
Established in 1915.
Responsible for major advances in:
o Airfoil theory
o Wind tunnel testing
o Aerodynamic data
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
Established in 1958, replacing NACA.
Expanded focus to:
o Space exploration
o High-speed flight
o Space vehicles
Key contribution:
Modern aerodynamics is built on research conducted by NACA and NASA.