Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns (c.
600 BCE – 600 CE)
his chapter explores how Indian society evolved after the Harappan Civilization—howearly
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kingdoms,empires,towns, andagriculturedeveloped,howkingshipchanged, and how we
know about all this throughinscriptions,coins, andtexts.
Themes and Introduction
fter theHarappan civilisation, over 1,500 years,Indian society saw big changes. The
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Rigvedawas composed along the Indus. Settlementsspread innorth India, theDeccan, and
Karnataka. People started farming and raising animals.
In the south,megalithic burials—huge stone structures—wereused to bury the dead withiron
tools and weapons, showing changes in burial customs.
From around6th century BCE, we seeearly kingdoms,empires,towns, and new farming
methods.
To study these changes, historians use:
● Inscriptions(writings carved in stone/metal)
● Texts(like the Vedas or Sangam poetry)
● Coins
● Visual material(sculptures, carvings)
But no single source tells the full story—we piece it together.
1. Prinsep and Piyadassi
pigraphyis the study of inscriptions—carvings onhard surfaces likestone, metal, or pottery.
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These are usuallypermanent recordsof what kingsdid (wars, laws, donations), and they help
historians date events.
In the 1830s,James Prinsep, a British scholar, crackedtheBrahmiandKharosthi
scripts—the oldest writing systems in India.
He found inscriptions talking about a king calledPiyadassi(meaning “pleasant to behold”).
Later, he realised Piyadassi was actuallyAsoka, thefamous Mauryan emperor.
his breakthrough allowed scholars to build thepoliticalhistoryof early India. Later, historians
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also studied thesocial and economic changesbehindpolitical events.
2. The Earliest States
2.1 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas
y the6th century BCE, there were16 powerful statescalledmahajanapadas, like
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Magadha, Vajji, Kuru, Panchala, GandharaandAvanti.
ome were monarchies ruled bykings. Others wereoligarchies(calledganaorsangha)
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wherepower was sharedby a group of rajas.
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Example: Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to ganas.
ach mahajanapada had acapital city, often withfortificationwallsfor protection. Maintaining
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armies and collectingtaxes from farmers, traders,and artisansbecame necessary.
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Box:
● Janapada: land where a group (jana) settles
● Oligarchy: rule by a few men (like in ancient Rome)
● Epigraphy: study of inscriptions
2.2 First Amongst the Sixteen: Magadha
Magadha, in present-day Bihar, rose to power by the4th century BCE. Why?
● Fertile land for agriculture
● Iron minesnearby for tools and weapons
● Access toelephantsfor war
● Riversfor transport and trade
Important rulerslikeBimbisara, Ajatasattu, MahapadmaNandaused smart policies to
strengthen Magadha.
he first capital wasRajagaha(Rajgir), surroundedby hills. Later, the capital moved to
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Pataliputra(Patna), better for controlling riverroutes.
3. An Early Empire
3.1 The Mauryan Empire
handragupta Mauryafounded the Mauryan Empire (~321BCE). It became the first empire to
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control much ofnorthwest India, even parts ofAfghanistan.
is grandson,Asoka, became famous forconqueringKalinga(Odisha). But the violence
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made him repent—he promoteddhamma(moral living),respect, non-violence, and religious
tolerance.
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Asoka’sinscriptions, carved onrocks and pillars,are our most valuable sources about
him.
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Box:
● Most inscriptions are inPrakrit(common language),inBrahmi script
● Some inGreek, Aramaic, Kharosthi(in the northwest)
● Thelion capitalof Sarnath is now ournational emblem
3.2 Administering the Empire
Major centresof the empire were:
● Capital:Pataliputra
● Provinces:Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri
ven though Asoka’sedictsare found across India,it’s unlikely he hadequal control
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everywhere. Strongest control was near big cities.
To spread dhamma, Asoka appointed officers calleddhamma mahamattas.
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Megasthenes(Greek ambassador) wrote that Mauryans had a big administration with
committees for:
● Navy
● Transport
● Foot soldiers
● Horses
● Chariots
● Elephants
3.3 How Important Was the Empire?
he Mauryan Empire lasted around150 years—not verylong. After it declined, new kingdoms
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emerged.
ut it became asymbol of unityfor modern Indiannationalists. Asoka’s ideas, unlike grand
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titles of later kings, werehumble and moral, whichpeople admired.
4. New Notions of Kingship
4.1 Chiefs and Kings in the South
Insouth India, kingdoms likeChola, Chera, and Pandyagrew rich and stable.
They were first ruled bychiefs—not full kings. Chiefs:
● Were powerful but needed kin support
● Receivedgifts, not taxes
● Had no permanent armies or officials
amilSangam poemsdescribevellalar(rich landowners),uzhavar(ploughmen), andadimai
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(slaves).
Some, like theSatavahanas, grew rich fromlong-distancetrade.
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Arthashastra: Elephants were captured using clevertricks and trained for the army.
4.2 Divine Kings
heKushanas(1st BCE–1st CE) ruled a vast regionfromCentral Asia to India. They claimed
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to bedevaputras—sons of gods.
Theirstatues(e.g. in Mathura) showed them asgodlikefigures.
heGuptas(from 4th century CE) usedsamantas(locallords) to maintain order. Samantas
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could later becomekings themselves.
Poems (Prashastis)like thePrayaga Prashastipraisedkings as divine and generous.
5. A Changing Countryside
5.1 What People Thought of Kings
rdinary people didn’t write history, but we know their opinions fromJataka storiesand the
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Panchatantra.
ne tale—Gandatindu Jataka—shows people running awayfrom a wicked king due tohigh
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taxes and robberies.
5.2 Improving Farming
rom the 6th century BCE,iron-tipped ploughswere used inGanga and Kaveri valleys. In
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some areas, people transplanted rice seedlings, which gavebetter yields.
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Transplantation: Growing rice in nurseries, thenplanting saplings in waterlogged fields.
Irrigationwas key—wells, tanks, canals were built.
E.g.Sudarshana lakewas made in Mauryan times, repairedby the Shakas and Guptas.
5.3 Rural Inequality
Not all farmers were equal:
● Landless labourers
● Small peasants
● Big landowners (gahapati)who owned land and animals
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Gahapati: Also used for elite merchants in towns.
Sangam textsand legal books talk about village headsand social roles.
anusmritisuggested usingstones, bones, dungtosecretly markvillage boundariesin
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case of disputes.
5.4 Land Grants and Elites
rom early CE, kings gaveland grantstoBrahmanasand temples. These were often
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tax-free.
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Example:Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Gupta rulerChandragupta II, granted the village
Dangunato a teacher. The charter listed exemptions—nosoldiers, no taxes, etc.
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Agrahara: Tax-exempt land granted to Brahmanas.
But some scholars say these grants meant kings werelosing controland had to buy loyalty.
6. Towns and Trade
6.1 Rise of New Cities
By 6th BCE, towns likeMathura, Ujjayini, Pataliputrabecame political and trade hubs.
6.2 People in Cities
rtefacts includepottery, ornaments, tools, coins.
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Inscriptionsshow people from many jobs: weavers,goldsmiths, potters, scribes, etc.
Guilds (shrenis)managed crafts and trade.
6.3 Trade Networks
Traders went by land and sea—toAfrica, West Asia,Southeast Asia, China.
Wealthy merchants were calledmasattuvan(Tamil) orsetthi/satthavaha(Prakrit).
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Periplus of the Erythraean Sea(Roman account)lists imports (coins, glass) and exports
(pepper, pearls, silk).
6.4 Coins and Economy
Coins were crucial for trade:
● Punch-markedsilver/copper coins from 6th BCE
● Indo-Greekcoins had ruler names
● Kushanagold coins matched Roman standards
● Yaudheyas(a republic) issued copper coins
● Guptacoins were pure gold, perfect for trade
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Numismatics: Study of coins to learn about tradeand power.
7. How Inscriptions Were Deciphered
7.1 Brahmi Script
ost Indian scripts evolved fromBrahmi(used by Asoka).
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In 1838,Prinsepcracked Brahmi by comparing it withmodern scripts.
7.2 Kharosthi Script
Kharosthiwas deciphered usingbilingual coins(Greek+ Kharosthi) of Indo-Greek kings.
7.3 What Inscriptions Reveal
ome inscriptions usedtitlesinstead of names (e.g.,Devanampiya= Asoka). Scholars match
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writing styles and content to link them.
Some inscriptions reflectruler’s view only—not whatpeople actually did.
.g.,Kalinga inscription: Asoka regrets war, butthis edict ismissing in Kalinga, the region it’s
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about.
8. Limits of Inscriptions
● Technical problems: faded, broken, unclear
● Survival bias: most lost or undeciphered
● One-sided: Only what rulers/patrons wanted to say
● Today, scholars usenew methodsto understandsocialand economic histories
Timelines
Political Timeline (600 BCE – 712 CE)
Includes Mahajanapadas, Mauryas, Indo-Greeks, Guptas, Chalukyas, Harsha, Arab invasion.
Epigraphy Timeline
FromAsiatic Society (1784)toPrinsep (1838)tomodernpublications(Sircar, 1960s)
Key Words Recap
● Epigraphy: study of inscriptions
● Janapada: land where people settle
● Oligarchy: rule by a few (gana/sangha)
● Chiefdom: pre-kingdom, kin-based rule
● Gahapati: rich householder/landowner
● Agrahara: tax-free Brahmin land
● Transplantation: rice farming method
● Numismatics: study of coins
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1. Evidence of Craft Production in Early Historic Cities vs Harappan Cities
● Excavations are limited in historic towns as they are inhabited, unlike Harappan sites.
● Still, many artefacts were found:
1. F
ine glossy pottery—Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)—usedby the
rich.
2. O
bjects made ofgold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory,glass, shell, terracotta
(tools, weapons, ornaments).
3. D
onor inscriptionsreveal town professionals: washermen, weavers, scribes,
carpenters, goldsmiths, etc.
4. Artisans formedguildsto buy materials, produce, and market collectively.
● Harappan cities lacked evidence of iron use, unlike early historic ones.
2. Salient Features of Mahajanapadas
● Major mahajanapadas:Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti.
● Most hadmonarchical rule; some wereganas/sanghas(oligarchies).
● In sanghas (e.g., Vajji),rajas shared powerand resources.
● Each had acapital, oftenfortified.
● D
harmasutrasexpected rulers to beKshatriyas, collectingtaxes from cultivators,
traders, artisans.
● Raidswere a legitimate way of gaining wealth.
● Some states hadstanding armies, others relied onmilitia.
3. Reconstructing Lives of Ordinary People
● Ordinary people left little written evidence.
● Historians use:
1. Houses and pottery remains
2. Inscriptions/textsmentioning taxes, rulers-subjectsrelations
3. Craft and farming tools
4. Folklores(oral traditions) to understand everydaylife
4. Compare Gifts to Pandya Chief vs Danguna Village
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andya chiefreceived: ivory, honey, fragrant wood, sandalwood, pepper, birds, animals,
flowers.
● Dangunaproduced: grass, hides, flowers, salt, minerals.
● Common item: flowers.
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ifference: Pandya list includes luxury and exotic goods; Danguna’s are local and
practical.
5. Problems Faced by Epigraphists
1. Faint inscriptionsmake reading difficult.
2. Damaged/missing letterscause confusion.
3. Some words areregion/time-specific, making meaningunclear.
4. Thousands of inscriptions exist, butmany not deciphered,published, or translated.
5. Many ancient inscriptions have beenlost over time.
6. Inscriptions rarely mentioneveryday life or agriculture—theyfocus on what patrons
found important.
6. Features of Mauryan Administration & Asokan Inscriptions
● Five major centres:Pataliputra (capital), Taxila,Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri.
● Land and river routesensured communication.
● Travel requiredprovisions and protection.
● Large army organized viasix subcommittees:
1. Navy
2. Transport/provisions
3. Foot soldiers
4. Horses
5. Chariots
6. Elephants
● Asoka’s inscriptionsmention all five major centres.
7. “No aspect of Indian life not reflected in inscriptions” – D.C. Sircar
Inscriptions give wide-ranging info:
1. State boundaries: tell about territorial control.
2. Names and titles of kings: e.g., Asoka.
3. Historical events: e.g., Kalinga war and Asoka’s conversionto dhamma.
4. King’s conduct: Asoka's concern for people known throughedicts.
5. Administration: e.g., appointment of viceroys.
6. Land and tax policies: land grants and taxation arerecorded.
Inscriptions coverpolitical, cultural, social, andeconomicaspects.
8. Notions of Kingship in Post-Mauryan Period
● Kushanas:
○ Called themselvesDevaputra(sons of God).
○ Built statues of themselves in temples.
● Guptas:
○ Ruled large states with help ofSamantas(feudal lords).
○ Samantas could gain power or overthrow weak rulers.
● Sources:literature, coins, inscriptions.
○ Poets likeHarisenapraised rulers likeSamudraguptainprashastis.
9. Agricultural Transformations
● Demand for taxes led to changes in farming:
1. P
lough use: Became common inGanga and Cauverybasins;iron-tipped
ploughs boosted rice yield.
2. Spade use: Used in hard soil areas.
3. Artificial irrigation: Wells, ponds, canals built—oftencollectively.
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esult: Higher production, creation of social classes—small/bigfarmers,village heads
(often hereditary).
● Buddhist and Tamil textsrefer toGrihapatis(householders/landowners).