S.

Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Chapter 8
Transient phenomena in RLC circuits
8.1 Basic notions
Analyzing time response signals in RLC elements after any changes made in linear circuit by
switches (turning on or off the source, changing value of parameter, changing the structure of
circuit) we can observe some period of time, when the character of response is different from
excitation. It represents transient period. After ending it we observe once again the steady state,
in which character of response is the same as excitation in circuit. Any change of circuit we will
be called commutation.
However, commutation process forces fulfilling some conditions, which follow from
energy conservation law. Only inductor and capacitor are able to store energy. Therefore, the
commutation conditions are defined for them.
Commutation law for capacitors
Sum of charges in the set of capacitors connected to particular node should be equal at the time of
commutation (for example at t=0). Therefore

(8.1)
In the case of single capacitor of constant capacitance value, for which qC=CuC, this law is
simplified to
uC ( 0− )=uC ( 0+ ) (8.2)
Commutation law for inductors
Sum of flux linkages of coils existing in the mesh cannot be changed abruptly at the time of
commutation (for example at t=0). Therefore

(8.3)

In the case of single inductor of constant inductance value, for which

Ψ =Li L this law is
simplified to
i L( 0− )=i L ( 0+ ) (8.4)

109
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

In future considerations we will assume commutation at t=0. The time point t=0 - represents state
of circuit at t=0 just before commutation (result of steady state before change in circuit). The
point t=0+ represents the point t=0 but directly after changes made in circuit.
−
Therefore to find initial condition of either i L (0− ) or uC (0 ) we have to solve circuit in
steady state before any changes made in circuit. In the case of AC excitation we have first form

solution i L(t ) and uC (t ) as time function, and then put t=0 and calculate

and

8.2 Description of circuit in state space

Applying Kichhoff’s laws and basic equations describing circuit elements
uR=RiR
di L
u L=L
dt
duC
iC =C
dt
we can transform circuit description to the so called state space normal form
dx1
= a11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ⋯+ a1 n x n + b11 u1+ ⋯+ b 1m um
dt
dx 2
= a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ⋯+ a2 n x n + b21 u1 + ⋯+ b 2m um
dt
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
dx n
= an 1 x 1+ an 2 x 2 + ⋯ ann x n+ b n 1 u 1+ ⋯ b nm u m
dt
(8.5)

in which x 1 , x 2 , .., x n representing currents of inductors and voltages of capacitors are

called state variables and u1, u2, …, um represent excitations (voltage and current independent
sources). This equation can be written in matrix form
dx(t )
=Ax (t )+ Bu(t )
dt (8.6)

110
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

where A is n×n state matrix of elements aij , B is the matrix of dimension n×m representing
coefficients bij, vector x is n-dimensional set of state variables xi and u is m-dimensional vector of
external excitations. Output vector y, containing circuit variables of interest, can be expressed
through state variables and excitations in the form
y (t )=Cx (t )+ Du(t ) (8.7)

The last two equations grouped together create final state description of the circuit in normal
form
dx(t )
=Ax (t )+ Bu(t )
dt
y (t )=Cx (t )+Du(t ) (8.8)
Its solution can be expressed in general form
t
A( t−t 0 ) A( t−τ )
x(t )=e x (t 0 )+∫ e Bu(τ )dτ
t0
(8.9)
where t0 is the time point of commutation (usually t0=0). The first term describes transient
following from non-zero initial conditions and the second term – transient following from
existence of external excitations applied in the circuit.
Example 8.1
dx(t )
=Ax (t )+ Bu( t )
Describe the circuit of Fig. 8.1 by state space description dt .

Fig. 8.1. Circuit structure in example 1 8.2

Solution
From Kirchhoff’s laws we have

111
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

e=Ri C +uC +u L
i=i L−iC
Taking into account
di L
u L=L
dt
and
duC
iC =C
dt
we get
diL
e=R (i L−i )+ L +uC
dt
duC
C =i L−i
dt
and
di L R 1 1 R
=− i L − uC + e+ i
dt L L L L
duC 1 1
= i L− i
dt C C
State space description can be presented in the form
di L 1 R

[ ][ ] [ ]
−R −1
dt L L iL L L
duC
=
1
0
[ ]
uC
+
0
−1 [ ei ]
dt C C

State vector
iL
x=
[] uC

Excitation vector
e
u=
[] i .
State matrices

112
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

8.3 Solution of state space equation

The first term appearing in solution (8.9) describes transient following from non-zero initial
conditions and the second term – transient following from existence of external excitations
applied in the circuit and at the same time the steady state of the circuit resulting from existence
of external excitations. Final solution can be represented now by two terms

(8.10)

The first term xn represents so called natural response and the second xs is steady state
response. The steady state can be obtained using symbolic complex calculations (no need to
solve integral in eq. 8.9). In such case the differential equation to solve is given in a simplified
form (u=0)

(8.11)

and its solution is defined now by

A ( t−t0 )
x p ( t )=e x p (t + )
0 (8.12)

Usually we assume t0+=0+. From commutation law we have

(8.13)

Therefore, we get initial condition for natural response

(8.14)

and solution

(8.15)

113
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

is described by (8.14). The next problem is to find value of e At, where A is a matrix (not
scalar.

8.3.1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of state matrix A

Eigenvalues of square matrix A are the roots of characteristic polynomial
det(s1-A)=0 (8.16)
which after expansion takes the form
s n +an−1 sn−1 +...+a 1 s+a 0=0 (8.17)
The roots s1, s2, ..., sn represent eigenvalues of matrix A. Each eigenvalue is associated with its
eigenvector xi of dimension n, which must satisfy the equation
Ax i =si x i (8.18)

Example 8.2
Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrix A

A=
[−2−1 −3−2 ]
Solution
Characteristic polynomial

det ( s 1− A )=det s 1 0 − −2 −2 =s 2+5 s+ 4=0

([ ] [ ])
0 1 −1 −3
Eigenvalues of A are the roots of polynomial s1=-4 and s2=-1. Eigenvectors fulfill the following
equations

[−2−1 −2−3 ][ xx 11

21
] [ ]
=−4
x11
x21

[−2−1 −2−3 ][ xx 12

22
] [ ]
=−1
x 12
x 22

The equations are equivalent ot the set of 4 linear equations

114
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

−2 x 11 −2 x 21=−4 x 11
−x 11−3 x 21=−4 x 21
−2 x 12 −2 x 22=−x12
−x 12−3 x 22=−x 22

Assuming for example x11=1 oraz x22=-1 we get final form of eigenvectors

1 2
x 1=
[]
1
, x2 =
[ ]−1

8.3.2 Determination od eAt

There are many methods for calculation of matrix e At. We will limit here to two of them:
Lagrange-Sylvester and Cayley-Hamilton methods.
Lagrange-Sylvester method
Matrix eAt is described by the simple explicit form (valid only for single eigenvalues)
n

n ∏ ( sl 1−A )
s r t l≠r
At
e =∑ e n
r=1
∏ ( sl −sr )
l≠r (8.19)
Cayley-Hamilton method
According to this method the matrix eAt is expanded into sum of n components (n – number of
eigenvalues of A) as follows
e At =a0 1+a1 A+...+a n−1 A n−1 (8.20)
The coefficients ai are the function of time ai=ai(t) and should be calculated. They are obtained
on the basis of Cayley-Hamilton theorem, which says that each eigenvalue satisfies the equation
(8.20). i.e.,
st n−1
e 1 =a0 +a 1 s1 +...+a n−1 s 1
st n−1
e 2 =a0 +a 1 s 2+...+a n−1 s 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
st n−1
e n =a0 +a1 sn +...+an−1 sn (8.21)

115
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

In the case of duplicated poles the same equation is satisfied by its derivative. For such pole we
have now 2 equations
s t
e k =a0 + a1 sk +...+an−1 sn−1
k
s t
de k s t n−2
=te k =a1 +2a 2 s k +...+( n−1)a n−1 sk
dsk (10.22)
and total number of equations is the same as total number of unknown coefficients ai.

Example 8.3
Let us calculate eAt of the matrix A

A=
[ −4 −2
2 0 ]
Solution
Characteristic equation of A
det (s 1−A )=s2 +4 s+ 4=0
Its eigenvalues are equal s1=s2=-2 (double eigenvalue). Applying Cayley-Hamilton method we
get
e At =a0 1+a1 A
The unknown coefficient ai are obtained from the following 2 equations
s1 t
e =a0 +a 1 s1
s t
de 1 s t
=te 1 =a1
ds1
from which we get

a 0=e−2 t +2 te−2 t
a1=te− 2 t
The matrix eAt is defined now as

( e−2t −2te− 2t ) −2te−2 t

e At =( e−2t +2te− 2t ) 1 0 +te−2 t −4 −2 =
0 1 [ ] 2 [0 ][
2te−2 t ( e−2 t +2te− 2t ) ]
116
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

8.3.3 Calculation of transient in circuits using state space approach

Application of state space approach to transient analysis will be done in the following stages.
 Determination of initial conditions for iL(0-) and uC(0-). In practice it means analysis of
circuit before commutation in steady state by using symbolic complex method and present
results as a function of time. The values iL(0-) and uC(0-) form the vector x at t=0-.
 Determination of steady state solution of circuit after commutation (also by using symbolic
complex method). The results should be converted to time function representing currents of
inductors iLu(t) and voltages of capacitors uCu(t). They form vector xu(t) in steady state after
commutation.
 Calculation of natural response of the circuit deprived of independent source ( e(t) short
circuit and i(t)) open). Such circuit without any sources should be described by state space
equation dxp/dt=Axp. Its solution is described by (8.15). However the initial conditions for
natural response iLp(0+) and uCp(0+) should be recalculated by using commutation laws

uCp (0+ )=u C (0− )−uCu (0+ )

i Lp (0+ )=i L (0− )−i Lu (0+ )
(10.23)

 Full solution in transient is now the superposition of the steady state and natural response,
i.e.,
uC (t )=u Cu (t )+uCp (t )
i L(t )=i Lu (t )+i Lp (t )
(10.24)

In matrix form it is x(t)=xu(t)+xp(t).

Example 8.4
Consider the transient response in RLC circuit presented in Fig. 8.2. Assume: R=5Ω, L=2H,
C=0,5F, e(t)=6V (DC voltage), uC(0)=0.

117
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

a) b)
Fig. 8.2 RLC circuit structure in Example 8.4: a) the original circuit, b) circuit used in natural
response calculation
Solution
Taking into account DC excitation (ω=0) the inductor represents short circuit. Therefore,
iL(t)=6/10=0,6A. Hence iL(0-)=0,6 and uC(0-)=0.
After commutation circuit represents the series connection of RLC elements. In steady
state at DC excitation (ω=0) capacitor represents the break, therefore, iLu(t)=0 and uCu(t)=6. It
means iLu(0+)=0 and uCu(0+)=6. Initial conditions for transient in natural state are calculated from
commutation laws

Hence state vector at t=0 is equal

The state space description of circuit of Fig. 8.2b is of the form

diLp
L +Ri Lp +uCp=0
dt
du
i Lp=C Cp
dt
and

118
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Hence, state space matrix A

Characteristic equation

det (s1−A )=s2 +2,5 s+1=0

Eigenvalues of A (roots of characteristic equation) are: s1=-2, s2=-0,5.

The matrix eAt will be calculated using Sylvester method

Finally, we get

Therefore solution of natural response is obtained in the form

Final response of circuit in transient is the sum of steady state after commutation and natural
response

8.4 Solved problems

Problem 8.1
Calculate initial conditions for inductor current and capacitor voltage in circuit presented in Fig.
o o
8.3. Assume: L=1H, C=0.5F, R=1, e(t)=10 √ 2sin(t+45 ) V, i(t )=2 sin(t−45 ) A.

119
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Fig. 8.3. Circuit structure in problem 8.1

Solution
Initial conditions are calculated as steady state in circuit before commutation. The symbolic
complex description of elements
o
E=10e j45
2 − j 45 o
I= e
√2
ω=1
Z L  jL  j1
Z C =− j /ωC=− j 2
Circuit equations
E=Z L I L + R ( I + I L )

4 − j135 o
U C =Z C I = e
√2

uC ( t )=4 sin(t−135o )
Initial conditions
i L( 0− )=2

uC (0− )=−2 √ 2

120
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Problem 8.2
Formulate state space description of circuit shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4. Circuit structure in problem 8.2

Solution
Fro Kirchhoff’s laws we have
du C
i( t )=i L +C
dt
di L
e ( t )=u C −L
dt
After transformation of these equation we get
duC 1
= [ i (t )−i L ]
dt C
di L 1
= [ u −e( t ) ]
dt L C
State space equations in matrix form
duC

[]dt
di L
dt
=
0
[
1/ L
−1 /C uC
0 ][ ] [
⋅
iL
+
0
−1/ L
1/C e (t )
0
⋅ ][ ]
i (t )

Problem 8.3
Formulate state space description of circuit shown in Fig. 8.5.

121
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Fig. 8.5 Circuit structure in problem 10.3

Solution
From Kirchhoff’s laws we have
e ( t )=u C +uC 2
1

di
uC = L L + Ri L
2 dt
du C duC
1 2
C1 =i L +C 2
dt dt
uC
From the first equation we calculate 1 and transform the other equations to the form

di L 1
= uC − Ri L
[ ]
dt L 2

duC 1 de( t )
dt
2
=
C 1 +C 2 [
−i L +C 1
dt ]
State space description in matrix form
di L R 1

[ ][
dt
duC 2
dt
=
−
−
L
1
C 1 +C 2
0 ][ ][]
L ¿ i L + 0 ⋅e( t )+
uC
2
0
0
C1
[ ]
C 1 +C 2
de (t )
dt

Problem 8.4
Formulate state space description of circuit shown in Fig. 8.6. Calculate eigenvalues of matrix A
at assumed values of parameters.

122
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Fig. 8.6. Circuit structure in problem 8.4

Solution
On the basis of Kirchhoff’s laws we have
e=Ri C +uC +u L
i=i L−iC
Taking into account
di L
u L=L
dt
and
duC
iC =C
dt

Kirchhoff’s equations can be written in the form

diL
e=R (i L−i )+ L +uC
dt
duC
C =i L−i
dt
from which we get
di L R 1 1 R
=− i L − uC + e+ i
dt L L L L
duC 1 1
= i L− i
dt C C
Therefore, state equations in matrix form are as follows

123
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

di L 1 R

[ ][ ] [ ]
−R −1
dt L L iL L L
duC
=
1
0
[ ]
uC
+
0
−1 [ ei ]
dt C C

State vector x
iL
x=
[]
uC

Excitation vector u
e
u= []
i .
Assuming numerical values of elements : R=2, L=1H, C=1F we get state matrix A in the form

A=
[−21 −10 ]
Characteristic equation

det ( s1−A )=det s 0 − −2 −1 =s2 +2 s+1=0

0 s ([ ] [
1 0 ])
Eigenvalues (the roots of characteristic polynomial) are equal s 1=s2=−1 .

8.5 Test problems

Test 8.1
Calculate eAt for the state matrix A equal

Hint: Apply Cayley-Hamilton method.

Answers:
Eigenvalues: λ1=: λ1=2
a0=e2t(1-2t)
a1=te2t

124
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Test 8.2
Describe the circuit presented in Fig. 8.7 by state space equations . Assume output variables as
iR1, iC and ui. Apply: R1=2Ω, R2=1Ω, L1=1H, L2=2H, M=1H, C=1F.

Fig. 8.7 Circuit structure in test 8.2.

Answers:

Test 8.3
Apply state space method to calculate transient uC(t) and iL(t) after commutation in circuit shown

in Fig. 8.8. Apply: u0(t)=15, , R=5/3Ω, R1=5/6Ω, C=1F, L=1H.

125
S. Osowski, Circuits and Systems, Electronic book

Fig. 8.8 Circuit structure in test 8.3.

Answers:

126