CONTENT:

1. DESIGN AND USE OF THERMOMETERS

2. THERMAL PROPERTIES
3. HEAT TRANSFER
4. THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
5. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
6. MECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Nicholas Paul

MODULE THREE Arête Institute of Science

Unit one Physics

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Design and use of The steam point is the temperature at which pure
water can exist in equilibrium with its vapour at
Thermometers standard atmospheric pressure. It is used as
100oC.
The temperature of a body is its degree of
The triple point of water is that unique
hotness; thus, temperature is a measure of how
temperature at which pure ice, pure water and
hot a body is. Thermometers are used to measure
pure water vapor can exist together in
temperature and they utilize a thermometric
equilibrium. It is used as 0.01oC. The triple point
substance, whose property varies continuously
can only occur at one particular pressure,
with temperature. This physical property is
611.2Pa.
called the thermometric property of the
substance. A good thermometric property of The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K) and
matter should vary: can also be measured using degree Celsius (oC).
They are related by the Celsius scale as follows:
- Continuously with temperature
- Uniquely over the range of temperature Ɵ = T – 273.15
to be measured
- Its variation should be measurable. where T = temperature in K

Examples of thermometric properties: Ɵ = temperature in oC

Thermometric Thermometer NB.

Property
Volume expansion of Laboratory or clinical On the Celsius scale the ice point is 0oC and the
liquid thermometer steam point is 1000C.
Pressure change of a Constant – volume gas 1
fixed mass of gas thermometer An interval of kelvin is defined as being
273.16
Changes in EMF Thermocouple of the temperature of the triple point of water as
Changes in electrical Resistance measured on the thermodynamic scale of
resistance thermometer or temperature, which is given by:
thermistor
𝑝
T = 𝑝 𝑇 x 273.16
𝑇𝑟

Fixed points where

The single temperature at which it can pT is the pressure of an ideal gas at
confidently be expected that a particular temperature T
physical event always take place is referred to as
a fixed point. Three such points are: pTr is the pressure of the same volume of
gas at the triple point of water (273.16K).
1. The ice point
2. The steam point NB.
3. The triple point
The thermodynamic scale of temperature is
The ice point is the temperature at which pure totally independent of the properties of any
ice can exist in equilibrium with water at particular substance and is therefore an
standard atmospheric pressure. It is used as 0oC. absolute scale of temperature.
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Empirical scale 2. A particular resistance thermometer has

a resistance of 30Ω at the ice point,
An empirical temperature scale uses a specific 41.58Ω at the steam point and 34.59Ω
thermometric property of a thermometric when immersed in a boiling liquid.
substance. An empirical scale can be obtained Calculate the temperature at which the
for a mercury-in-glass thermometer by liquid is boiling.
measuring the length of the mercury column at
ice point ( l0 ) and at steam point ( l100 ) and then Answer [ 39.960C ]
dividing the interval between these two marks
into one hundred equal divisions. Hence the 3. A constant-volume gas thermometer
temperature ( in Celsius) 𝜃 corresponding to registers a pressure of 1.937 x 104 Pa at
length ( lƟ) is given by the triple point of water and
2.618x104Pa at the boiling point of a
𝑙𝜃 − 𝑙𝑜 liquid. What is the boiling point of the
𝜃= x 100 liquid according to this thermometer?
𝑙100 − 𝑙𝜃
Answer [ 369.2K ]

NB.

- The empirical scale assumes linearity. Internal energy

- If a resistance thermometer were used
The internal energy, U of a system is the sum of
instead then the physical property
the kinetic and potential energies of the
measured would be resistance not
molecules if the system. The internal energy of a
length, but the formula remains the
system can be increased by
same.
1. Doing work on the system and/or
2. Putting heat energy into the system
Example
Internal energy involves energy on the
1. Derive the empirical formula using the microscopic scale. For an ideal monoatomic gas,
following graph. internal energy is entirely translational kinetic
energy of the atoms, while for polyatomic gases
there is rotational and vibrational kinetic energy
as well. In liquids and solids there is potential
energy associated with intermolecular attractive
forces.
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Heat Transfer Consider a thin disc of some material of cross-

sectional area, A and thickness, Δx. Suppose
The transfer of heat from one point to a next that the hotter face is maintained at
can be done by temperature, θ and that the other face is
maintained at θ – Δθ and also that the rate of
I. Conduction flow of heat from the hotter face to the colder
II. Convection 𝑑𝑄
face is 𝑑𝑡
. It can be shown that if there are no
III. Radiation
heat loses from the sides and steady state1
conditions prevail, then

• The rate of heat flow is proportional to

Thermal conduction
it cross-sectional Area,
Conduction is the process by which heat flows
from the hotter regions of a substance to the
colder regions without there being any net and
movement of the substance itself.
• The rate of heat flow is proportional to
Mechanisms of thermal conduction Δ𝜃
its temperature gradient, that is, :
Δ𝑥
The kinetic energies of molecules in a substance
directly relate to its temperature.

In Metals, there are mobile electrons that Which becomes:

transfer energy throughout the entire lattice of
the metal. The mobile electrons, in metals, 𝑑𝑄 𝛥𝜃
move thousands of times faster that gas and
= -kA
𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝑥
liquid molecules, and as a result the thermal
conductivities of metals are much higher than
those of liquids and gases.
where:

k - is called the coefficient of thermal

Thermal Conductivity conductivity of the material and it depends
mainly on the material itself. The coefficient of
thermal conductivity of a material is the rate of
flow of heat per unit area per unit temperature
gradient when the heat flow is at right angles to
the faces of a thin parallel sided slab of material
under steady state conditions. Its SI unit is Wm-1
K-1

1
A substance is in steady state when the
temperatures at all points in it are steady.
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Temperature Gradient We would observe that temperature gradient

and thermal conductivity are inversely related.
Temperature gradient is a measure of the rate
This implies that for large values thermal
at which temperature changes the most rapidly
conductivity, temperature gradient is small.
around a particular location. If the heat is
flowing in a positive direction, high to low, then
the temperature gradient is negative. It is the
presence of a temperature gradient that causes
the flow of heat. If the temperatures on either
side of the gradient are not maintained then the
heat flow increase the temperature of the
colder side, whereby reducing the temperature
gradient.

The temperature gradient is the same at all

points along a perfectly lagged2 uniform bar,
while for an unlagged uniform bar the Composite conductors
temperature gradient decreases with distance.
Some walls are made of slabs of different
materials to deal with both the problems of
heat loss and stability.

We have seen above that

Each of the materials have different thermal
𝑑𝑄 𝛥𝜃
= -kA conductivities and as a result the temperature
𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝑥 gradients across each is different.

And if we transpose for temperature gradient, EXAMPLE

For composite slab of thermal conductivities ,

a graph of temperature VS thickness is shown

2
Lagging refers to materials that are insulated to
reduce heat loss
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So this gives:

𝑘1 𝑘2
=
These composite slabs can be converted into 𝑥1 𝑥2
slabs of one material by assuming that the rate
of heat flow through each material and their This relationship between thermal conductivity
corresponding temperature changes are the and thickness suggests that:
same. This would give us the foundation to ✓ If k1 > k2 then x1< x2
develop a relationship between two or more ✓ If k2 > k1 then x2< x1
materials of different conductivities and their
equivalent thickness. This says that more is needed of a material of
higher thermal conductivity, while less is
needed of a material of lower thermal
conductivity to be equivalent.

Example:

1 cm of 3cm of
Plastic, k1 metal, 2k1

For material 1:
If we have the above composite slab and would
𝑑𝑄 𝛥𝜃
= -𝑘1 A like to determine the length of slab with
𝑑𝑡 𝑥1 i. Plastic only:
For material 2: then we must find:

𝑑𝑄 𝛥𝜃 how much plastic is equivalent to 3cm of metal?

= -𝑘2 A
𝑑𝑡 𝑥2 𝑘1 𝑘2
Using: =
Since rate of heat flow and temperature 𝑥1 𝑥2
difference are the same, then
𝑘1 2𝑘1
𝛥𝜃 𝛥𝜃 =
𝑥 3
-𝑘1 A = -𝑘2 A
𝑥1 𝑥2 3
x = 2 cm
so the slab would be 3.5cm of plastic.
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ii. Metal only electromagnetic radiation it emits. At

temperatures below about 1000 0C the energy
𝑘1 𝑘2 is associated almost entirely with infrared
Using: = radiation and at higher temperatures visible
𝑥1 𝑥2
and ultraviolet radiation. When thermal
𝑘1 2𝑘1 radiation is incident on a body some of the
= radiation may be reflected, some transmitted
1 𝑥
and some may be absorbed and produce a
heating effect.
x = 2 cm
Stefan’s law is used to determine the amount of
so the slab would be 5cm of metal. energy emitted by a black body3. It states that
the total energy radiated per unit per unit time
per unit surface area of a black body is
Convection proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature of the body expressed in kelvins.
When heat is applied to the bottom of a beaker
containing water, the water at the bottom Thus
becomes warm and expands making it less
dense that the water above it. As a result it rises E = σT4
to the top and cooler water from above it takes Where σ is Stefan’s constant [5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4]
it place and the process is repeated. The
circulation of the water in this manner is If a black body whose temperature is T is in an
referred to as convectional currents. The enclosure at a temperature T0 , the rate at
process itself is called convection and it can which surface area A, of the black body is
occur in both liquids and gases. Convection is receiving radiation from the enclosure is σT04.
defined as the process in which heat is The net rate of heat of loss of energy by the
transferred through a fluid by movement of the black body is therefore given by Enet where
fluid itself. This can be observed in ocean
currents and winds. Enet = σA(T4 – T04)

Most fluids expand upon heating, except for

water between 00C and 40C, that contracts on
heating.

Thermal radiation

Thermal radiation can be defined solely in 3

A blackbody is a body which absorbs all the
terms of a body’s temperature as being the radiation which incident on it.
 Page |7

The Kinetic Theory of Gases which simplifies to

The Gas Laws gave experimental relationships PV = NkT

between pressure, temperature and volume for
where
gases. For a fixed mass of gas the following was
observed: k – is Boltzmann constant (1.38x10-23JK-1)

i. Pressure is inversely related to volume NB.

at constant temperature
ii. Volume is directly related to • Only an Ideal Gas obeys the gas laws
temperature at constant pressure and and PV = nRT. No such gas exist, but
iii. Pressure is directly related to nevertheless these laws provide a fairly
temperature at constant volume. accurate description of the way gases
behave when they are at low pressures
These laws were summarised by the general gas and are at temperatures which are well
law: above those at which they liquefy.
• As said earlier, the internal energy of an
𝑃𝑉
= constant ideal gas is entirely kinetic and depends
𝑇
only on its temperature.
If now, the mass of the gas was not fixed then
𝑃𝑉 Examples
would not be constant, but instead be
𝑇 1. A cylinder contains 5.5 m3 of hydrogen
dependent on the number of moles, n, or at 25oC and 2.4 x 106 Pa. Find the
number of molecules, N, of the gas. That is, number of moles of hydrogen in the
cylinder.
𝑃𝑉
= 𝑛𝑅
𝑇
2. 0.5 moles of hydrogen at 450C and
Or 4.5x106Pa is inside a container of
unknown volume. Find this volume.
PV = nRT [Ideal Gas Equation]
where
Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases
R – the universal molar gas constant
(8.31 JK-1mol-1) These assumptions were made in order to
explain the observations of the Gas laws. They
If instead of number of moles, n, we use, were:
number of molecules,N, then the ideal gas
equation becomes: i. The molecules of a particular gas are
identical.
𝑁 ii. Collisions between the molecules and
PV = RT
𝑁𝐴 with the container are perfectly elastic.
 Page |8

iii. The molecules exert no forces on each This molecule will have an initial
other except during impacts (which are momentum of mvx in the direction towards
assumed to have negligible duration wall. When the molecule collides with the
anyway) and the effect of gravity is wall, its collision is elastic and it will
ignored so that: rebound with the same speed so that its
a) between collisions the molecules move momentum will now be -mv1. Hence,
in straight lines at constant speed, and
b) the motion is random. Change in momentum = mvx – (-mvx)

= 2mvx

iv. There is sufficiently large number of The molecule has to travel a distance of 2L
molecules for statistics to be with a velocity of vx before it collides with a
meaningfully applied. wall again, therefore the time between
v. The size of the molecules is negligible collisions is given by:
compared to their separation. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
time between collisions = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
vi. The laws of Newtonian mechanics
apply. 2𝐿
=
𝑣𝑥

And by Newton’s second law:

𝟏 2
Derivation of PV =𝟑 Nm<c >
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
Force on A1 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Consider a gas enclosed in a cubic container of
2m𝑣𝑥
side, L. Let each of the N molecules have a mass = 2𝐿
𝑣𝑥
of m. Consider, initially, a single molecule with
is moving towards wall A1, and suppose that its 𝑚𝑣𝑥2
=
x-component of velocity is vx. 𝐿

Since Pressure is force acting per unit area

then

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐴1
Pressure on A1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴1

𝑚𝑣2𝑥
𝐿
=
𝐿2

𝑚𝑣𝑥2
= 𝐿3
Consider now, all N molecules in the
container with x-component of velocity, vx.
The total pressure, P on the wall A1 will be
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𝑚 2 2 2
P = 𝐿3 (𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 ) Example

If mean square velocity in x-component is 1. Using the derived equation above

1
2
𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 +⋯+𝑣𝑁𝑥 obtain: 𝑃= 𝜌 < 𝑐2 >
<𝑣𝑥2 > = 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑁3𝑥 3

2 2 2 2
then N <𝑣𝑥2 > =𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥

As a result,
𝑚
P = 𝐿3 N<𝑣𝑥2 > is in x-component only, so
to Relationship between kinetic energy and
temperature
include all three components, introduce
As stated earlier, if the temperature of gas
c = the resultant velocity of a molecule increases so too will its kinetic energy. We will
whose x, y and z components of velocity are now obtain an expression for kinetic energy, Ek
vx , vy and vz respectively, then in terms of temperature, T.
c2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 We know that
therefore 1
PV = 3 Nm <c2> and
<c2 >= < 𝑣𝑥2 > + < 𝑣𝑦2 > + < 𝑣𝑧2 >
PV = NkT
Since there is a large number of molecules
which implies that
and they are moving randomly then
1
< 𝑣𝑥2 > = < 𝑣𝑦2 > = < 𝑣𝑧2> and therefore 3
Nm <c2> = NkT [ N will cancel ] and

1
<c2> = 3 <𝑣𝑥2 > , so 3
m <c2> = kT

1 3
<𝑣𝑥2 > = 3 <c2> which can be substituted in If we multiply both sides by 2 then we get
the pressure equation above to obtain the
1 3
total pressure exerted on A1 by all N 2
m <c2> =2 kT
molecules in all three components,
The term on the left hand side is the average
𝑚 1
P = 𝐿3 N3 2
<c > translational kinetic energy of monoatomic
molecules. Hence,
Since the volume of the cube, V is L3 then
3
𝑚 1
Ek = kT
P= N3 <c2> which gives 2
𝑉
NB.
1
PV = Nm <c2> • k is Boltzmann constant or the gas
3
constant per molecule.
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• A further assumption of the kinetic ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊

theory of gases is that the average
NB.
translational kinetic energy of a
3
molecule is equal to kT.
2
• ∆U represents the change in internal
• Total kinetic energy of a monoatomic energy.
3
gas is Ek = 2 nkT • 𝑊 is the work done on the gas

This law can also be represented as:

Example
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
1. By what factor does
(a) the mean square speed, NB.
(b) the root mean square speed, of the
molecules of a gas increase when its • W is work done by the gas. This is
temperature is doubled? negative since, if work is done by the
gas, causing it to expand, then this
would reduce the internal energy of the
gas.
The First Law of • The table below gives a summary of the

Thermodynamics signs for ∆U, Q and W:

∆U, change in Q, heat W, work done

internal energy energy on gas
If temperature If heat If gas is
increases, +ve enters gas, compressed,
+ve +ve
If temperature If heat exits If gas
decreases, - ve gas, -ve expands, -ve
If temperature is If no If volume of
constant, 0 exchange gas is
of heat, 0 constant, 0
Example
If a container with gas is tightly fitted with a
piston that is free to move, then the gas can be 1. Explain what is meant by the following
allowed to expand or be compressed easily. terms:
The internal energy U, is the sum of the kinetic
energies of the molecules in the gas.

If heat energy, Q, is added to the system (the

gas) then its internal energy would increase.
Also, if work, W, is done on the system (by
compressing it) then this too would increase its
internal energy. This basically summarises the
first law of thermodynamics:
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Work Done

The diagram below can be used to derive an

equation of work done:

The area under the graph = work done

NB.

• If the volume of the gas is increasing

then the work done on the gas is
negative, but the work done by the gas
is positive
• If the volume of the gas is decreasing
We know that: then the work done on the gas is
Work done = Force x distance moved positive, but the work done by the gas
is negative.
Since • If the volume of the gas is constant,
then the work done (in both cases) is
Force = Pressure x area, then
zero since ∆𝑉 = 0 .
Work done = pressure x area x d

= pressure x change in volume

Molar Heat Capacity of a Gas
Hence
You should recall from earlier in this chapter,
W = P∆𝑉 that specific heat capacity, c, is
𝑄
And if a pressure VS volume graph was plotted c = 𝑚∆𝜃 or Q = mc∆𝜃

We now look at molar heat capacity which is

defined as; the heat required to produce unit
temperature rise in one mole of a substance. To
properly explain molar heat capacity, we must
consider two special conditions:

i. Constant volume, Cv
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The molar heat capacity of a gas at constant If we now divide throughout by n∆𝜃 then
volume is the heat required to produce unit
temperature rise in one mole of a gas when the Cp = Cv + R which also gives
volume remains constant. It can be represented
Cp – Cv = R
by:
𝑄
Cv = 𝑛∆𝜃 or Q = nCv∆𝜃
It follows that the amount of heat required to
ii. Constant pressure, Cp raise the temperature of a gas at constant
pressure is greater than that required to raise
The molar heat capacity of a gas at constant
its temperature by the same amount at
volume is the heat required to produce unit
temperature rise in one mole of a gas when the constant volume. Hence Cp > Cr .
pressure remains constant. It can be
represented by:
𝑄
Cp = or Q = nCp∆𝜃
𝑛∆𝜃

When a heat is supplied to a gas at constant

volume, no external work is done. Therefore,

Q = ∆𝑈 and

nCv∆𝜃 = ∆𝑈

When a gas is heated at constant pressure it

expands and W = P∆V. Also

∆𝑈 = Q – W and as a result Q = ∆𝑈 + W

Therefore:

nCp∆𝜃 = ∆U + 𝑃∆𝑉

If we substitute for ∆𝑈 then

nCp∆𝜃 = nCv∆𝜃 + 𝑃∆𝑉

Recall from the ideal gas equation that

P∆V = nR∆T and the above equation would

become

nCp∆𝜃 = nCv∆𝜃 + nR∆𝜃