READING/WRITING FOR THE MAIN IDEA

Reading techniques to enhance comprehension of texts

 One misleading idea that some students have about reading is that comprehension
should happen all at once
 Good comprehension is usually a process; it is achieved gradually as you move from a
general feeling of what something means to a deeper level of understanding
 Below are some of the tips that may increase your understanding of what you read
o Techniques for recognizing and using:
 Definitions and examples
 Basic lists of items
 Headings and subheadings and relationships between them
 Emphasis words and other signal words
 Key ideas in sentences/topics and main ideas in paragraphs and short
selections

RECOGNIZING DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

 Definitions are particularly important in introductory courses, where much of your
time is spent mastering the specialised vocabulary of the subject
 Most definitions are abstract, and so they are usually followed by one or more
examples that help clarify their meaning
 Always select and mark one example that helps an abstract definition clear for you

RECOGNIZING ENUMERATIONS
 Enumerations are keys to important ideas.
 Enumerations are lists of items that may actually be numbered in the text
 More often, a list of items is signalled by such words as “first of all, second,
moreover, next, also, finally”
 Typical phrases that introduce enumerations: ‘there are three reasons why …; the two
causes of …; five characteristics of …; there are several ways to …”

RECOGNIZING HEADINGS AND

SUBHEADINGS
 Authors use headings and subheadings to signal main ideas and to indicate the
relationships among key points
 Main heads are usually in larger typeface; they may be set off by capital letters or
different colour ink
 Subheadings are usually in smaller type; they may be underlined, italicised, or set in
from the margin
 RECOGNIZING SIGNAL WORDS AND
PHRASES (DISCOURSE MARKERS)
 While sampling will help us to obtain a general idea of a text, we need to know
how the facts and ideas which compose the text are linked to understand the
meaning of the text in detail
 Signal words help you, the reader, follow the direction of a writer’s thought. They
are like signposts on the road that guide the traveller. In other words, signal words
and phrases help the reader predict what kind of information will follow
 Common signal words show emphasis, addition, change of direction, illustration,
and conclusion

Discourse marker Examples

Emphasis words: these words/phrases Indeed, especially valuable, important to note,
emphasize the information that comes before most of all, most noteworthy, a significant factor,
or after them remember that, a primary concern, a major event,
the most substantial issue, the chief outcome, the
principal item, pay particular attention to, a key
feature, the main value, the chief factor, a vital
force, above all, a central issue, a distinctive
quality, especially relevant, should be noted, in
fact

Indeed: the information that follows ‘indeed’

emphasises the information that precedes it by
being stronger, more specific, or more detailed
In fact: the phrase indicates that more specific or
more emphatic information is being added to the
immediately preceding statement(s)

Expressions with a similar meaning include

‘indeed’ and ‘as a matter of fact’

Addition words: tell you that the writer’s Examples: also, another, finally, last of all, and,
thought is going to continue in the same second, for one thing, likewise, furthermore,
direction, or he or she is going to add on more moreover, next, still another, yet another,
points or details of the same kind additionally/in addition

Change of direction words: prepare you for Examples: but, however, in contrast, yet, instead,
a change in the direction of the writer’s even though, otherwise, still, on the contrary, on
thought. They tell you that the writer will the other hand, conversely, nevertheless, rather
probably reverse or modify a previous Rather: a word of many meanings; as a signal
statement word it follows a negative sentence. A positive
restatement is then given. ‘Her name is not
Margaret. Rather it is Margot
However – the statement made before this word is
true. The sentence after ‘however’ shows an
 opposite point of view. ‘Food should be tasty. It is
more important, however, for food to be healthful
On the other hand: the phrase introduces the 2nd
item in a choice between 2 items. The 2nd item
contrasts with the 1st item
In spite of/despite: the phrase containing these
prepositions can begin or end a sentence, or it can
be inserted into the body of a sentence

These phrases carry a meaning contrary to or

opposing the meaning of the sentence to which it
is attached
Nevertheless: this word is a sentence modifier
whose position in the sentence is flexible
Nevertheless: follows a statement of fact that
logically implies a certain result. but the result that
follows ‘nevertheless’ is unexpected

Words and phrases with a similar meaning are

‘nonetheless, however, in spite of that, ... anyway,
and still’
Example: we read about the dangers and
discomforts of a cruise to the Antarctic.
Nevertheless, we decided to go.
Some ... others – these words contrast 2 or more
groups
E.g. some wastes are eaten by fish. Others
decompose in seawater

Still: this word introduces unexpected

information. Words and phrases with a similar
meaning are ‘nonetheless, ... anyway, however, in
spite of that, and nevertheless’

Illustration words: tell you that an example Examples: for example, specifically, for instance,
or illustration will be given to make an idea such as, to illustrate
clear

Concluding words: tell you to expect the Examples: therefore, finally, in conclusion, thus,
writer’s last point consequently, as a result, hence, in summary, last
of all, for this reason, accordingly, so
Therefore: this word modifies the entire sentence
in which it occurs
It can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of
a sentence

Consequence/result – these words often Examples: thus, hence, therefore, as a result,

show a result or consequence of what came consequently, as a consequence
before it
Cause and effect: phrases that introduce an A causes B. B in turn causes C
item in a chain of causes and effects Examples: in turn

Brief review of an important point : these E.g. as we have seen: as we have seen, one of the
words introduce a brief review of an major ways we pollute the seas;..as seen above;
important point that was mentioned earlier

Comparison/contrast: (like, unlike, instead): ‘like’ indicates that the following item will be
when used as signal words, ‘like’ introduces a similar in some way to another item in the
comparison, and ‘unlike’ introduces a contrast sentence
The item that follows ‘like’ is already known to
the reader or has already been explained in the text
The other item is not yet known to the reader, has
not been described, or is more difficult to
understand
An expression that has a meaning similar to that of
‘like’ is ‘similar to’
Unlike shows at least one significant difference
between two items. If the sentence with ‘unlike’
also contains ‘no, not, etc.’ the word ‘instead’
often appears a sentence or two later.
Instead means ‘in place of that’
Note: ‘instead’ often appears by itself without
other signal words such as ‘unlike’

Summarising: ‘In short’ – this phrase is used to signal a summary

or restatement of an immediately preceding
discussion or description
It is separated by commas from the rest of the
sentence

Among others these words indicate that the item being discussed
is one of a group of similar items

Clearly The idea that follows ‘clearly’ is considered to be

very easy to understand or to solve
A word with a similar meaning is ‘obviously’
Meanwhile The signal which appears between statements
about 2 events, shows that the events are
happening or have happened at the same time
A phrase with a similar meaning is ‘in the
meantime’

In other words This signal is usually used to restate an important

point more simply, so that it will be easier to
understand
It may also be used to introduce an interpretation
or an example relevant to the previous point
Other phrases with a similar meaning include ‘that
is’ and ‘that is to say’
Of course This signal may mean ‘clearly’ or ‘obviously’
Otherwise, it may introduce a well-understood
concession that seems to contradict the main idea
A word with similar meaning is ‘naturally’

In any case This signal describes whether something being

discussed happens or is true
Other signals with a similar meaning include
‘anyway, anyhow, and in any event’

it would appear This signal implies that what follows is based on

some evidence, but is nevertheless the writer’s
interpretation
Unless it is used as part of a noun clause (it would
appear that...), commas separate this signal from
the rest of the sentence

both This word can be used as a pronoun, an adjective,

or a conjunction (when it is used with ‘and’)
It suggests that a comparison is being made

also This word is used as an adverb or as part of the

correlative conjunction ‘not only ... but also’
It means ‘as well, besides, too or in addition’