UNIT II TRANSDUCERS FOR BIO-MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION 9

Basic transducer principles Types – source of bioelectric potentials – resistive, inductive, capacitive,
fiber-optic, photoelectric and chemical transducers – their description and feature applicable for
biomedical instrumentation – Bio & Nano sensors & application.

Transducers
The transducer may be defined as any device that convert the energy from
one form to another, Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy in to
mechanical displacement and convert some non electrical physical quantities like
temperature, Light, Pressure , Force , Sound etc to an electrical signals. In an
electronics instrument system the function of transducers is of two types.
1. To detect or sense the pressure, magnitude and change in physical quantity
being measured.
2. To produce a proportional electrical signal.

Classification of Transducers
The Classification of Transducers is done in many ways. Some of the
criteria for the classification are based on their area of application, Method of
energy conversion, Nature of output signal, According to Electrical principles
involved, Electrical parameter used, principle of operation, & Typical applications.
The transducers can be classified broadly
• On the basis of transduction form used
• P r i m a r y and secondary transducers
• Active and passive transducers
• Transducers and inverse transducers.

Primary and Secondary Transducers:

Transducers, on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into
primary and secondary transducers. When the input signal is directly sensed by
the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into the electrical form
directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.
 For example, consider a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature
fall in this category. The thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes the
change in resistance with the change in temperature. When the input signal is
sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some form
other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into
electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary
transducers.
For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary
sensor which converts pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement
is converted into an output voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary
transducer.

Active and Passive Transducers

Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be

classified into active and passive transducers.
Self-generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their
output the form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are
called the active transducers. Such transducers draw energy from the system under
measurement. Normal such transducers give very small output and, therefore, use
of amplifier becomes essential.
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or
capacitance changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive
transducers. These transducers require external power source for energy
conversion. In such transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or
capacitance causes a change in voltages current or frequency of the external power
source. These transducers may draw sour energy from the system under
measurement. Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducer falls in this
category.
Transducers and Inverse Transducers

Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-electrical

quantity into an electrical quantity. Normally a transducer and associated circuit
have a non-electrical input and an electrical output, for example a thermo- couple,
photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc.
An inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity. It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a
low-power non-electrical output.
For examples a piezoelectric crystal and transnational and angular moving-
coil elements can be employed as inverse transducers. Many data- indicating and
recording devices are basically inverse transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter
converts electric current into mechanical movement and the characteristics of such
an instrument placed at the output of a measuring system are important. A most
useful application of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.
On The Basis Of Transduction Form
Used
Capacitance transducers
1. Variable capacitance pressure gage -
Principle of operation: Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an
externally applied force
Applications: Measurement of Displacement, pressure
2. Capacitor microphone
Principle of operation: Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a
fixed plate and a movable diaphragm.
 Applications: Speech, music, noise
3. Dielectric gage
Principle of operation: Variation in capacitance by changes in
the dielectric. Applications: Liquid level, thickness
Inductance transducers
1. Magnetic circuit transducer
Principle of operation: Self inductance or mutual inductance of
ac-excited coil is varied by changes in the magnetic circuit.
Applications: Pressure, displacement
2. Reluctance pickup
Principle of operation: Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by
changing the position of the iron core of a coil.
Applications: Pressure, displacement, vibration, position
3. Differential transformer
Principle of operation: The differential voltage of two secondary
windings of a transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core
through an externally applied force.
Applications: Pressure, force,
displacement, position
4. Eddy current gage
Principle of operation: Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of
an eddy current plate.
Applications: Displacement,
thickness
5. Magnetostriction gage
Principle of operation: Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and
stress.
Applications: Force, pressure, sound
 Voltage and current transducers
1. Hall effect pickup
Principle of operation: A potential difference is generated across a
semiconductor plate (germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an
applied current.
Applications: Magnetic flux,
Current
2. Ionization chamber
Principle of operation: Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due
to radioactive radiation.
Applications: Particle counting, radiation
3. Photoemissive cell
Principle of operation: Electron emission due to incident radiation on
photoemissive surface.
Applications: Light and radiation
4. Photomultiplier tube
Principle of o p e r a t io n : Secondary e lect ro n e mis s i o n due to
i n c i d e nt ra d ia t io n on photosensitive cathode.
Applications: Light and radiation, photo-sensitive relays

In addition to the above, Transducers, on the basis of nature of output

signal, may be classified into analog and digital transducers. Analog transducer
converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function of time such
as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.
Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form
of pulse e.g. it gives discrete output. These transducers are becoming more and
more popular now-a-days because of advantages associated with digital measuring
instruments and also due to the effect that digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude
variation and phase shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC
(analog-digital convertor) is called a digital transducer.

Basic Requirements of a Transducer

In a measurement system the transducer is the input element with the
critical function of transforming some physical quantity to a proportional
electrical signal. The following is the summary of the factors influencing the
choice of a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity:
1. Operating principle
2. Sensitivity
3. Operating Range
4. Accuracy
5. Cross Sensitivity
Situations where the actual quantity is measured in one plane and the
transducer is subjected lo variations in another plane. More than one promising
transducer design has had to be abandoned because the sensitivity to variations of
the measured quantity in a plane perpendicular to the required plane has been such
as to give completely erroneous results when the transducer has been used in
practice.
6. Errors
The transducer should maintain the expected input-out relationship as
described by its transfer function so as to avoid errors.
7. Transient and Frequency Response
The transducer should meet desired time domain specifications like peak
overshoot, rise time, settling time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have
a flat frequency response curve. In practice, however, there will be
cutoff frequencies and higher cut off frequency should he high in order to have
a wide bandwidth.
8. Loading Effects
The transducer should have high input impedance and a low output
impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility
It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified
environmental conditions maintains its input/ output relationship and does not
break down. For example, the transducer should remain operable under its
temperature range. It should be able to work in corrosive environments, should
be able to withstand pressures and shocks and other interactions to
which it is subjected to.
10. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals
The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.
11. Usage and Ruggedness
The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer
versus its size and weight must be considered while selecting a suitable transducer.
12. Electrical aspects
The Electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer
include the length and type of cable required. Attention also must be paid to signal
to noise ratio in case the transducer is to be used in
conjunction with amplifiers.
13. Stability and Reliability
The transducers should exhibit a high degree of stability during its operation
and storage life. Reliability should be assured in case of failure of
 transducer in order that the functioning of the instrumentation system continues
unaffected.
14. Static Characteristics
Apart from low static error, the transducers should have a low
nonlinearity, low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of repeatability.
The transducer selected should be free from load alignment effects. It
should not need frequent calibration, should not have any component limitations,
and should be preferably small in size,

Resistive Transducer
The variable resistance transducers are one of the most commonly used
types of transducers. The variable resistance transducers are also called as resistive

transducers or resistive sensors. They can be used for measuring various physical
quantities like temperature, pressure, displacement, force, vibrations etc. These
transducers are usually used as the secondary transducers, where the output from the
primary mechanical transducer acts as the input for the variable resistance transducer.
The output obtained from it is calibrated against the input quantity and it directly gives
the value of the input.

Principle of Working of Variable Resistance Transducer

The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the
resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. Thus if L is the length of the
conductor (in m) and A is its area (in m square), its resistance (in ohms) is given by:
R = ρL/A
Where ρ is called as resistivity of the material and it is constant for the materials and
is measured in ohm-m

Strain Gauges
Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application
of force or strain. They can be used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure,
displacement, acceleration etc.
It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight
etc that can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the
dimensions like force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any
instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges are very useful.
There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied
to them or when they are stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily.
For applying the strain you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can
be calibrated to measure the applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance changes
due to applied strain or applied force are called as the strain gauges.

Principle of Working of Strain Gauges

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the
strain. The more is the applied force, more is the strain and more is the increase in
length of the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the wire and L2 is the final length after
application of the force, the strain is given as:
ε =(L2-L1)/L1
Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its diameter decreases. Now, we
know that resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the length
of the conductor increases its resistance decreases. This change in resistance of the
conductor can be measured easily and calibrated against the applied force. Thus strain
gauges can be used to measure force and related parameters like displacement and
stress. The input and output relationship of the strain gauges can be expressed by the
term gauge factor or gauge gradient, which is defined as the change in resistance R for
the given value of applied strain ε.
Consider a wire strain gage, as illustrated above. The wire is composed of a uniform
conductor of electric resistivity r with length l and cross-section area A. Its resistance
R is a function of the geometry given by

The resistance change rate is a combination effect of changes in length, cross-

section area, and resistivity.

When the strain gage is attached and bonded well to the surface of an object, the
two are considered to deform together. The strain of the strain gage wire along the
longitudinal direction is the same as the strain on the surface in the same direction.
However, its cross-sectional area will also change due to the Poisson's ratio.
Suppose that the wire is cylindrical with initial radius r. The normal strain along
the radial direction is

The change rate of cross-section area is twice as the radial strain, when the strain
is small.

The resistance change rate becomes

For a given material, the sensitivity of resistance versus strain can be calibrated by
the following equation.
 When the sensitivity factor S is given, (usually provided by strain gage vendors)
the average strain at the point of attachment of the strain gage can be obtained by
measuring the change in electric resistance of the strain gage.

Materials Used for the Strain Gauges

Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now
being replaced by the metal foil types of gauges. The metals can be easily cut into the
zigzag foils for the formation of the strain gauges. One of the most popular materials
used for the strain gauges is the copper-nickel-manganese alloy. Some semiconductor
materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.

Types of Strain Gauges based on principle of working

1. Mechanical: It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has
a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or pointer. One layer is glued
to one side of the crack and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers
slide very slowly past one another and the pointer moves over the scale. The red
crosshairs move on the scale as the crack widens. Some mechanical strain gauges
are even cruder than this. The piece of plastic or glass is sticked across a crack and
observed its nature.

2. Electrical: The most common electrical strain gauges are thin, rectangular-
shaped strips of foil with maze-like wiring patterns on them leading to a couple of
electrical cables. When the material is strained, the foil strip is very slightly bent
out of shape and the maze-like wires are either pulled apart (so their wires are
stretched slightly thinner) or pushed together (so the wires are pushed together
and become slightly thicker). Changing the width of a metal wire changes its
electrical resistance. This change in resistance is proportional to the stress applied.
If the forces involved are small, the deformation is elastic and the strain gauge
eventually returns to its original shape.

3. Piezoelectric: Some materials such as quartz crystals and various types of

ceramics are effectively "natural" strain gauges. When pushed and pulled, they
generate tiny electrical voltages between their opposite faces. This phenomenon is
called piezoelectricity. By measuring the voltage from a piezoelectric sensor we
can easily calculate the strain. Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most sensitive and
reliable devices.

Electrical Strain Gauge: A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property
of electrical conductance. It does not depend on merely the electrical conductivity
of a conductor, but also the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is
stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently
deform, it will become narrower and longer. Similarly, when it is compressed, it
will broaden and shorten. The change in the resistance is due to variation in the
length and cross sectional area of gauge wire.

Gauge Factor:
The characteristics of the strain gauges are described in terms of its
sensitivity (gauge factor).
Gauge factor is defined as unit change in resistance for per unit change in
length of strain gauge wire given as
G.F. = (∆R/RG)/ε
Where,
ΔR - the change in resistance caused by strain,
 RG - is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and
ε – Strain.

Types of strain gauge based on construction

Optical sensors are sensitive and accurate, but are delicate and not very
popular in industrial applications. They use interference fringes produced by
optical flats to measure strain. Optical sensors operate best under laboratory
conditions.
The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine gratings, and a
photocell detector to generate an electrical current that is proportional to strain. The
gage length of these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but they are costly and
delicate.
Semiconductor strain gauges: For measurements of small strain,
semiconductor strain gauges, so called piezo-resistors, are often preferred over foil
gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the piezo-resistive effects of
silicon or germanium and measure the change in resistance with stress as opposed
to strain. The semiconductor bonded strain gauge is a wafer with the resistance
element diffused into a substrate of silicon. The wafer element usually is not
provided with a backing, and bonding it to the strained surface requires great care
as only a thin layer of epoxy is used to attach it. The size is much smaller and the
cost much lower than for a metallic foil sensor. The same epoxies that are used to
attach foil gages are used to bond semiconductor gages. The advantages are higher
unit resistance and sensitivity whereas, greater sensitivity to temperature variations
and tendency to drift are disadvantages in comparison to metallic foil sensors.
Another disadvantage of semiconductor strain gages is that the resistance-to-strain
relationship is nonlinear. With software compensation this can be avoided.
 Thin-film strain gauge: These gauges eliminate the need for adhesive
bonding. The gauge is produced by first depositing an electrical insulation
(typically a ceramic) onto the stressed metal surface, and then depositing the strain
gauge onto this insulation layer. Vacuum deposition or sputtering techniques are
used to bond the materials molecularly. Because the thin-film gauge is molecularly
bonded to the specimen, the installation is much more stable and the resistance
values experience less drift. Another advantage is that the stressed force detector
can be a metallic diaphragm or beam with a deposited layer of ceramic insulation.

Diffused semiconductor strain gauges: This is a further improvement in

strain gage technology as they eliminate the need for bonding agents. By
eliminating bonding agents, errors due to creep and hysteresis also are eliminated.
The diffused semiconductor strain gage uses photolithography masking techniques
and solid-state diffusion of boron to molecularly bond the resistance elements.
Electrical leads are directly attached to the pattern. The diffused gauge
is limited to moderate-temperature applications and requires temperature
compensation. Diffused semiconductors often are used as sensing elements in
pressure transducers. They are small, inexpensive, accurate and repeatable, provide
a wide pressure range, and generate a strong output signal. Their limitations include
sensitivity to ambient temperature variations, which can be compensated for in
intelligent transmitter designs.

Types of strain gauge based on mounting

Bonded strain gauge
A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil,
vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.

Unbonded Strain Gauge

The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched between two points in an
insulating medium such as air. One end of the wire is fixed and the other end is
attached to a movable element.
ROSETTES
In addition to single element strain gauges, a combination of strain gauges
called rosettes is available in many combinations for specific stress analysis.

Strain Gauge Rosette at Arbitrary Angles

 Since a single gage can only measure the strain in only a single direction,
two gauges are needed to determine strain in the εx and εy. However, there is no gage
that is capable of measuring shear strain.

There is a clever solution to finding shear strain. Three gauges are attached
to the object in any three different angles. Recall, any rotated normal strain is a
function of the coordinate strains, εx, εy and γxy, which are unknown in this case.
Thus, if three different gages are all rotated, that will give three equations, with three
unknowns, εx, εy and γxy. These equations are,

Any three gages used together at one location on a stressed object is called a
strain rosette.

Strain Rosette - 45o

To increase the accuracy of a strain rosette, large angles are used. A

common rosette of three gauges is where the gages are separated by 45o, or θa = 0o,
or θb = 45o, or θc = 90o. The three equations can then be simplify to
 Strain Gauge Rosette at 45o

Solving for εx, εy and γxy gives,

Strain Rosette - 60o

Similarly, if the angles between the gages are 60o, orθa = 0o, or θb = 60o,
or θc = 120o., the unknown strains, for εx, εy and γxy will be,
 Strain Gage Rosette at 60o

Applications of the Strain Gauges

The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:
1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high loads, they
come under strain, which can be measured easily with the strain gauges. The strain can
also be used to carry out stress analysis of the member.
2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in resistance due to
applied force can also be calibrated to measure a number of other quantities like force,
pressure, displacement, acceleration etc since all these parameters are related to each
other. The strain gauges can sense the displacements as small as 5 µm. They are usually
connected to the mechanical transducers like bellows for measuring pressure and
displacement and other quantities.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
The variable inductance transducers work generally upon of the following three
principals
✓ Change of self inductance
✓ Change of mutual inductance
✓ Production of eddy current

Linear Variable Differential Transformer – LVDT Transducer

 Construction of the LVDT
The differential transformer transducer measures force in terms of the
displacement of the ferromagnetic core of a transformer. The basic
construction of the LVDT is given in Fig, 9. The transformer consists of a
single primary winding and two secondary windings which are placed on
either side of the primary. The secondaries have an equal number of turns but
they are connected in series opposition so that the emfs induced in the coils
OPPOSE each other. The position of the movable core determines the flux
linkage between the ac-excited primary winding and each of the two
secondary winding.

Relative positions of the core generate the indicated output voltages as

shown in Fig. The linear characteristics impose limited core movements,
which are typically up to 5 mm from the null position. With the core in the
center, (or reference position or Fig.), the induced emfs in the secondaries are
equal, and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be
 0 V. When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand
position, more magnetic flux links the left-hand coil than the right-hand coil
and the Differential Output E0 = ES1 – ES2 Is in-phase with Ei as ES1 >
ES2 . The induced emf of the left hand coil is therefore larger than the
induced emf of the right-hand coil. The magnitude of the output voltage
is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages, and
it is in phase with the voltage of the left-hand [Link], when the core is
forced to move to the right, more flux links the right- hand coil than the
left-hand coil and the resultant output voltage is now in phase with the emf of
the right-hand coil, while its magnitude again equals the difference between
the two induced [Link] the output voltage at the null position should be
equal to zero. In actual practice there exists a small voltage at the null
position. This may be on account of presence of harmonics in the input
supply voltage and also due to harmonics produced in the output
voltage due to use of iron Displacement core. There may be either an
incomplete magnetic or electrical unbalance or both which result in a
finite output voltage at the null position. This finite residual voltage is
generally less than 1% of the maximum output voltage in the linear range.
Other causes of residual voltage are stray magnetic fields and temperature
effects.

Advantages of LVDT

➢ High Range: the LVDTs has a very high range for measurement of

displacement This can be used for measurement of displacement ranging

from 1.25 mm to 2.50 mm

➢ Friction and Electrical Isolation

 ➢ Immunity from External Effects
➢ High input and high sensitivity
➢ Ruggedness: The transducer can usually tolerate high degree of shock and
vibration
➢ Low Hysteresis
➢ Low Power consumption

Disadvantage of LVDT

✓ Relatively large displacement are required for appreciable

differential output

✓ They are sensitivity to stray magnetic fields but shielding

is possible
✓ Many times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations
✓ The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signal
✓ The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the
core and electrically by frequency of applied voltage. The frequency
of the carrier of the carrier should be at least ten times the highest
frequency component to be measured
✓ Temperature affects the performance

Applications of LVDT

Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as a device to measure

force, weight and pressure etc. The force measurement can be done by using

a load cell as the primary transducer while fluid pressure can be measured
 by using Bourdon tube which acts as primary transducer. The force or the

pressure is converted into a voltage. In these applications the high sensitivity of

LVDTs is a major attraction.

Capacitve Transducer
The capacitive transducer is used extensively for the measurement of
displacement, pressure etc. Let us see the principle of working of capacitive transducer
or sensor also called as variable capacitance transducer. The capacitive transducer or
sensor is nothing but the capacitor with variable capacitance. The capacitive transducer
comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the material such as air,
which is called as the dielectric material. In the typical capacitor the distance between
the two plates is fixed, but in variable capacitance transducers the distance between the
two plates is variable. In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the
capacitance changes due to change in the value of the input quantity that is to be
measured. This change in capacitance can be measured easily and it is calibrated
against the input quantity, thus the value if the input quantity can be measured directly.
Capactive Transducer or Capacitive Sensor or Variable Capacitance Transducer

The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is given by:
C = εo x εr x A/ d
Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor or the variable capacitance transducer
εo is the absolute permittivity
εr is the relative permittivity
The product of εo & εr is also called as the dielectric constant of the capacitive
transducer.
A is the area of the plates
D is the distance between the plates
It is clear from the above formula that capacitance of the capacitive
transducer depends on the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. The
capacitance of the capacitive transducer also changes with the dielectric constant of the
dielectric material used in it. Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance
transducer can change with the change of the dielectric material, change in the area of
the plates and the distance between the plates. Depending on the parameter that
changes for the capacitive transducers, they are of three types as mentioned below.
1) Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive Transducers
In this capacitive transducer the dielectric material between the two plates
changes, due to which the capacitance of the transducer also changes. When the input
quantity to be measured changes the value of the dielectric constant also changes so
the capacitance of the instrument changes. This capacitance, calibrated against the
input quantity, directly gives the value of the quantity to be measured. This principle
is used for measurement of level in the hydrogen container, where the change in level
of hydrogen between the two plates results in change of the dielectric constant of the
capacitance transducer. Apart from level, this principle can also be used for
measurement of humidity and moisture content of the air.
2) Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers
The capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer also changes with
the area of the two plates. This principle is used in the torquemeter, used for
measurement of the torque on the shaft. This comprises of the sleeve that has teeth
cut axially and the matching shaft that has similar teeth at its periphery.
3) Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers
In these capacitive transducers the distance between the plates is variable,
while the area of the plates and the dielectric constant remain constant. This is the most
commonly used type of variable capacitance transducer. For measurement of the
displacement of the object, one plate of the capacitance transducer is kept fixed, while
the other is connected to the object. When the object moves, the plate of the capacitance
transducer also moves, this results in change in distance between the two plates and the
change in the capacitance. The changed capacitance is measured easily and it calibrated
against the input quantity, which is displacement. This principle can also be used to
measure pressure, velocity, acceleration etc
Load cell
A load cell is a device that is used to convert a force into electrical signal. Strain
gauge load cells are the most common types of load cells. There are other types of load
cells such as hydraulic (or hydrostatic), Pneumatic Load Cells, Piezoelectric load cells,
Capacitive load cells, Piezo resistive load cells etc. Load cells are used for quick and
precise measurements. Compared with other sensors, load cells are relatively more
affordable and have a longer life span.

Strain Gauge load cell

The principle of operation of the Strain Gauge load cell is based on the fact
that the resistance of the electrical conductor changes when its length changes due
to stress. Cu Ni alloy is commonly used in strain gauge construction as the
resistance change of the foil is virtually proportional to the applied strain.
The change in resistance of the strain gauge can be utilized to measure strain
accurately when connected to an appropriate measuring circuit. A load cell usually
consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The electrical
signal output is typically very small in the order of a few millivolts. It is amplified
by an instrumentation amplifier before sending it to the measurement system. The
output can be Digital or Analog (0-5V) depending on the application.

Capacitive Load Cell

Capacitive load cells is based on the principle where the capacitance of a

capacitor changes as the load presses the two plates of a capacitor closer together.
The construction of a capacitive sensor is simpler than a resistive load
cell. Capacitive techniques can be used to measure proximity, humidity, tilt, force,
torque, fluid quality, acceleration and many other physical parameters. It is a very
versatile parameter that offers tremendous sensitivities in a small package. The
capacitive technology is more rugged than strain gauge designs and can therefore
be used in a wider variety of engineering applications.
Hydraulic Load Cell

Hydraulic load cells are force-balance devices, measuring weight as a

change in pressure of the internal filling fluid. In hydraulic load cell, a load or force
acting on a loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn compresses a filling
fluid confined within an elastomeric diaphragm chamber. As the force increases,
the pressure of the hydraulic fluid increases. This pressure can be locally indicated
or transmitted for remote indication or control. This sensor has no electric
components and immune to transient voltages so it is ideal for use in hazardous
areas. The advantages of Hydraulic load cells are it is expensive and very complex.

Pneumatic load cell

Pneumatic load cells operate on the force-balance principle. These devices

use multiple dampener chambers to provide higher accuracy than can a hydraulic
device. Pneumatic load cells are often used to measure relatively small weights in
industries where cleanliness and safety are of prime concern.

Advantages of Load cell

• Rugged and compact construction

• No moving parts
 • Can be used for static and dynamic loading
• Highly Accurate
• Wide range of measurement
• Can be used for static and dynamic loading
Disadvantages of Load cell
• Mounting is difficult
• Calibration is a tedious procedure

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

Piezoelectric Effect
There are certain materials that generate electric potential or voltage when
mechanical strain is applied to them or conversely when the voltage is applied to them,
they tend to change the dimensions along certain plane. This effect is called as the
piezoelectric effect. This effect was discovered in the year 1880 by Pierre and Jacques
Curie.
Some of the materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect are quartz, Rochelle
salt, polarized barium titanate, ammonium dihydrogen, ordinary sugar etc.
 The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect.
When mechanical stress or forces are applied to some materials along certain planes,
they produce electric voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the
voltage measuring instruments, which can be used to measure the stress or force.
The physical quantities like stress and force cannot be measured directly.
In such cases the material exhibiting piezoelectric transducers can be used. The stress
or the force that has to be measured is applied along certain planes to these materials.
The voltage output obtained from these materials due to piezoelectric effect
is proportional to the applied stress or force. The output voltage can be calibrated
against the applied stress or the force so that the measured value of the output voltage
directly gives the value of the applied stress or force. In fact the scale can be marked
directly in terms of stress or force to give the values directly.
The voltage output obtained from the materials due to piezoelectric effect
is very small and it has high impedance. To measure the output some amplifiers,
auxiliary circuit and the connecting cables are required.
Materials used for the Piezoelectric Transducers
There are various materials that exhibit piezoelectric effect as mentioned
above. The materials used for the measurement purpose should posses desirable
properties like stability, high output, insensitive to the extreme temperature and
humidity and ability to be formed or machined into any shape. But none of the
materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect possesses all the properties. Quartz, which is
a natural crystal, is highly stable but the output obtained from it is very small. It also
offers the advantage of measuring very slowly varying parameter as they have very
low leakage when they are used with high input impedance amplifiers.
Due to its stability, quartz is used commonly in the piezoelectric
transducers. It is usually cut into rectangular or square plate shape and held between
two electrodes. The crystal is connected to the appropriate electronic circuit to obtain
sufficient output.
 Rochelle salt, a synthetic crystal, gives the highest output amongst all the
materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect. However, it has to be protected from the
moisture and cannot be used at temperature above 115 degree F. Overall the synthetic
crystals are more sensitive and give greater output than the natural crystals. The
materials used for the measurement purpose should posses desirable properties like
stability, high output, insensitive to the extreme temperature and humidity and ability
to be formed or machined into any shape. The piezoelectric crystals have high
impedance so they have to be connected to the amplifier and the auxiliary circuit, which
have the potential to cause errors in measurement. To reduce these errors amplifiers
high input impedance and long cables should be used.
Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers
Every devise has certain advantages and limitations. The piezoelectric
transducers offer several advantages as mentioned below:
1) High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response that
means the parameter changing at very high speeds can be sensed easily.
2) High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect the events
of microseconds and also give the linear output.
3) High output: They offer high output that be measured in the electronic circuit.

Digital Transducers
Any Transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not
introduce a quantization error when reading is represented in the digital form may
be classified as a digital transducer. Encoder is an example for digital transducer.

Encoders

• Any transducer that generates a coded reading of a measurement can be

termed an encoder.
• Shaft Encoders are digital transducers that are used for
measuring angular displacements and velocities.

• Relative advantages of digital transducers over their analog

counterparts:

– High resolution (depending on the word size of the encoder output

and the number of pulses per revolution of the encoder)

– High accuracy (particularly due to noise immunity of digital

signals and superior construction)

– Relative ease of adaptation in digital control systems (because

transducer output is digital) with associated reduction in system
cost and improvement of system reliability

• Shaft Encoders can be classified into two categories depending on the

nature and method of interpretation of the output:

– Incremental Encoders

– Absolute Encoders

• Incremental Encoders

– Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the transducer disk

rotates as a result of the motion that is being measured.
 – By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a clock signal, both angular
displacement and angular velocity can be determined.

– Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to some reference point on the

disk, as indicated by a reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location on
the disk. The index pulse count determines the number of full revolutions.

• Absolute Encoders

– An absolute encoder has many pulse tracks on its transducer disk.

– When the disk of an absolute encoder rotates, several pulse trains – equal in
number to the tracks on the disk

– are generated simultaneously.

– At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse signal will have one of two signal
levels (i.e., a binary state) as determined by a level detector. This signal level
corresponds to a binary digit (0 or 1). Hence, the set of pulse trains gives an encoded
binary number at any instant.

– The pulse windows on the tracks can be organized into some pattern (code) so that
each of these binary numbers corresponds to the angular position of the encoder
disk at the time when the particular binary number is detected.

– Pulse voltage can be made compatible with some form of digital logic (e.g., TTL)

– Direct digital readout of an angular position is possible.

– Absolute encoders are commonly used to measure fractions of a revolution.

However, complete revolutions can be measured using an additional track that
generates an index pulse, as in the case of an incremental encoder.

• Signal Generation can be accomplished using any one of four techniques:

– Optical (photosensor) method

– Sliding contact (electrical conducting) method

 – Magnetic saturation (reluctance) method

– Proximity sensor method

• Method of signal interpretation and processing is the same for all four types of signal
generation.

Schematic Representation of an Optical Encoder

Elements of the Optical Encoder

– The optical encoder uses an opaque disk (code disk) that has one or more circular
tracks, with some arrangement of identical transparent windows (slits) in each track.

– A parallel beam of light (e.g., from a set of light- emitting diodes) is projected to all
tracks from one side of the disk.

– The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of photosensors on the other side of
the disk that typically has one sensor for each track.

– The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode, a phototransistor, or a photovoltaic

cell.

– Since the light from the source is interrupted by the opaque areas of the
track, the output signal from the probe is a series of voltage pulses. This
signal can be interpreted to obtain the angular position and angular velocity of
the disk.

– Note that an incremental encoder disk requires only one primary track that has
equally spaced and identical window (pick-off) areas. The window area is equal
 to the area of the inter-window gap. Usually, a reference track that has just one
window is also present in order to generate a pulse (known as t he i n d e x
p u lse ) to initiate pulse counting for angular position measurement and to detect
complete revolutions.

– In contrast, absolute encoder disks have several rows of tracks, equal in number to
the bit size of the output data word. Furthermore, the track windows are not equally
spaced but are arranged in a specific pattern on each track so as to obtain a binary
code (or gray code) for the output data from the transducer.

– It follows that absolute encoders need as least as many signal pick-off sensors
as there are tracks, whereas incremental encoders need one pick-off sensor to detect
the magnitude of rotation and an additional sensor at a quarter-pitch separation (pitch
= center-to-center distance between adjacent windows) to identify the direction of
rotation, i.e., the offset sensor configuration.

– Some designs of incremental encoders have two identical tracks, one a quarter-
pitch offset from the other and the two pick-off sensors are placed radially without any
circumferential offset, i.e., the offset track configuration.

– A pick-off sensor for a reference pulse is also used.

• Signal interpretation depends on whether the particular optical encoder is an incremental

device or an absolute device.

– We will focus on the incremental optical encoder.

– The output signals from either the offset sensor configuration or the offset track
configuration are the same.

– Note that the pulse width and pulse-to-pulse period (encoder cycle) are constant in
each sensor output when the disk rotates at constant angular velocity. When the disk
accelerates, the pulse width decreases continuously; when the disk decelerates, the
pulse width increases continuously.
– The q u a r t e r -pitch o f f s e t in s e n s o r l o c a t i o n or t r a c k position is used to
determine the direction of rotation of the disk. It is obtained by determining
the phase difference of the two output signals, using
phase- detection circuitry. One method for determining the phase difference is
to time the pulses using a high- frequency clock signal.

Incremental Optical Encoder Disk

Displacement Computation

– Maximum count possible: M pulses

– Range of the encoder: ± θmax

–If the data size is r bits, allowing for a sign bit, M = 2r-1,

where zero count is also included.

– If zero count is not included, M = 2r-1 – 1

– If θmax is 2π and θmin is zero, then θmax and θmin will correspond to the same position of
the code disk.

To avoid this ambiguity, we use

– The conventional definition for digital resolution is:

• T w o methods are available for determining

Velocities using an incremental encoder:

– Pulse-counting method

– Pulse-timing method
 • Pulse-Counting Method

– The pulse count over the sampling period of the digital processor is measured
and is used to calculate the angular velocity. For a given sampling period, there
is a lower speed limit below which this method is not very accurate.

– To compute the angular velocity 𝟂, suppose that the count during a sample period
T is n pulses. Hence, the average time for one pulse is T/n. If there are N windows
on the disk, the average time for one revolution is NT/n. Hence 𝟂 (rad/s) =
2πn/NT.

• P u l s e -Timing Method

– The time for one encoder cycle is measured using a high-frequency clock signal. This
method is particularly suitable for measuring low speeds accurately.

– Suppose that the clock frequency is f Hz. If m cycles of the clock signal are counted
during an encoder period (interval between two adjacent windows), the time for that
encoder cycle (i.e., the time to rotate through one encoder pitch) is given by m/f.

- With a total of N windows on the track, the average time for one revolution
of the disk is Nm/f. Hence 𝟂 = 2πf/Nm.
• Resolution of an Encoder

– The resolution of an encoder represents the smallest change in measurement that

can be measured realistically. Since an encoder can be used to measure both
displacement and velocity, a resolution can be identified for each case.

– The displacement resolution of the incremental encoder depends on the following

factors:

• Number of windows on the code track

• Gear ratio
• Word size of the measurement buffer
 – Velocity Resolution

– the speed resolution of an incremental encoder depends on the following

factors:

• number of windows N
• sampling period T
• clock frequency f
• speed
• gear ratio
• Errors in shaft encoder readings can come from several factors:
– Quantization error (due to digital word size limitations)
– Assembly error (eccentricity, etc.)
– Coupling error (gear backlash, belt slippage, loose fit, etc.)
– Structural limitations (disk deformation and shaft deformation due to
loading)
– Manufacturing tolerances (errors from inaccurately imprinted code patterns, inexact
positioning of the pick- off sensors, limitations and irregularities in signal generation
and sensing components, etc.)
– Ambient effects (vibration, temperature, light noise, humidity, dirt, smoke,
etc.)
• These factors can result in erroneous displacement and velocity readings and inexact
direction detection.
• One form of error in an encoder reading is the hysteresis.
FIBER-OPTIC TRANSDUCER
An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of
applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers
are widely used in fiber optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) because light has high frequency than any other form of radio signal than
other forms of communications. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This
causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along
them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference, which is caused by
thunderstorm. Fibers are also used for illumination and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry
images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other
applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.
THE GENERAL SYSTEM
An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communication system. A
block schematic of a general communication system is shown in the figure 1. The function is to convey the
signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the destination. The communication
system therefore consists of a transmitter or modulator linked to the information source, the transmission
medium, an a receiver or demodulator at the destination point. In electrical communication the information
source provides an electrical signal, usually derived from a message signal which is not electrical
,e.g;(sound) to a transmitter comprising electrical and electronic components which converts the signal to a
suitable form for propagation over transmission medium. This is often achieved by a modulating a carrier,
may be an electromagnetic wave. Figure 2 shows the block diagram communication system using optic
fiber. The transmission medium can consists of a pair of wires , a co-axial cable or a radio link through free
space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver where it is transformed in to original electrical
information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination .However it must be noted that in
any transmission medium the signal is attenuated orsuffers loss ,and is subjected to degradations due to
contamination by random signals and noise,as well as possible distortions imposed by mechanisms within
the medium [Link] in communication system there is a maximum permitted distance between the
transmitter and the receiver beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible communication
for long haul applications this factors necessitate the installation of repeaters or line amplifiers at intervals
,both to remove signal distortion and to increase signal level before transmission is continued down the link
An optical fiber is a very thin strand of silica glass in geometry quite like a human hair. In reality it is a very
narrow, very long glass cylinder with special characteristics. When light enters one end of the fiber it travels until
it leaves the fiber at the other end. An optical fiber consists of two parts: the core and the cladding . The core is a
narrow cylindrical strand of glass and the cladding is a tubular jacket surrounding it. The core has a (slightly)
higher refractive index than the cladding. Light travelling along the core is confined by the mirror to stay within it
even when the fiber bends around a corner.A fiber optic cable has an additional coating around the cladding called
the jacket. The jacket usually consists of one or more layers of polymer. Its role is to protect the core and cladding
from shocks that might affect their optical or physical properties. It acts as a shock 14 absorber. The jacket also
provides protection from abrasions,solvents and other contaminants. The jacket does not have any optical
properties that might affect the propagation of light within the fiber optic cable
Fiber optic sensor principles The general structure of an optical fiber sensor system. It consists of an optical source
(Laser,LED, Laser diode etc), optical fiber, sensing or modulator element (which transduces the measurand to an
optical signal), an optical detector and processing electronics (oscilloscope, optical spectrum analyzer etc).
Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors Fiber optic sensors are used in several areas. Specifically: • Measurement of
physical properties such as strain, displacement, temperature, pressure, velocity, and acceleration in structures of
any shape or size. • Monitoring the physical health of structures in real time. • Buildings and Bridges: Concrete
monitoring during setting, crack (length, propagation speed) monitoring, prestressing monitoring, spatial
displacement measurement, neutral axis evolution, long-term deformation (creep and shrinkage) monitoring,
concrete-steel interaction, and postseismic damage evaluation. • Tunnels: Multipoint optical extensometers,
convergence monitoring, shotcrete / prefabricated vaults evaluation, and joints monitoring damage detection. •
Dams: Foundation monitoring, joint expansion monitoring, spatial displacement measurement, leakage
monitoring, and distributed temperature monitoring. • Heritage structures: Displacement monitoring, crack
opening analysis, post-seismic damage evaluation, restoration monitoring, and old-new interaction.

PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

A photoelectric transducer converts light energy (photons) into electrical energy (current, voltage, or resistance
change) using a photosensitive material that releases electrons when illuminated, based on the photoelectric
effect. These devices, often made from semiconductors, act as light sensors, forming the basis for photodiodes,
solar cells (photovoltaic), and photoconductors, finding uses in automation, aerospace, and light measurement.
 The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light which falls on their semiconductor
material. The absorption of light energises the electrons of the material, and hence the electrons start
moving. The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects.
1. The resistance of the material changes.
2. The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3. The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
Classification of Photoelectric Transducers
The photoelectric transducers are classified into following ways.
Photoemissive Cell
The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy. It consists the anode rode and the cathode plate.
The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive material called caesium antimony.

When the radiation of light fall on

cathode plates the electrons starts flowing from anode to cathode. Both the anode and the cathode are sealed in a
closed, opaque evacuated tube. When the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts emitting
from the cathode and moves towards the anode.
The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric current starts flowing through the anode. The
magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the intensity of light passes through it.
Photoconductive Cell
The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current. It uses the semiconductor material like
cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a photo sensing element.

When the beam of light

falls on the semiconductor material, their conductivity increases and the material works like a closed switch. The
current starts flowing into the material and deflects the pointer of the meter.
Photo-voltaic cell
The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer. The current starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when
the load is connected to it. The silicon and selenium are used as a semiconductor material. When the semiconductor
material absorbs heat, the free electrons of the material starts moving. This phenomenon is known as the

photovoltaic effect. The

movements of electrons develop the current in the cell, and the current is known as the photoelectric current.
Photodiode
The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts the light into the current. The electrons of the
semiconductor material start moving when the photodiode absorbs the light energy. The response time of the
photodiode is very less. It is designed for working in reverse bias.

Phototransistor
The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into electric energy. It produces both the current and
voltage.
 The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is
made of semiconductor material. The semiconductor material is enclosed in an opaque container in which the light
easily reaches to the photosensitive element. The element absorbs light, and the current starts flowing from base
to emitter of the device. This current is converted into the voltages.
The working principle of a Piezoelectric Transducer is based on the fact that when a mechanical force is applied
on a piezoelectric crystal, a voltage is produced across its faces. Thus, mechanical phenomena is converted into
electrical signal. No external supply is required for this transducer to work and hence it is an active transducer.
Piezoelectric Transducer responds to the mechanical force / deformation and generate voltage. There may be
various modes of deformation to which these transducers can respond. The modes can be: thickness expansion,
transverse expansion, thickness shear and face shear. In a piezoelectric transducer, a piezoelectric crystal is
sandwiched between the two electrodes. When a mechanical deformation takes place, it generates charge and
hence it acts as a capacitor. A voltage is developed across the electrodes of the transducer which can be measured
and calibrated with the deforming force to directly measure the mechanical deforming force. Figure below shows
a simple piezoelectric transducer. It should be noted that, piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. This means
that, the polarity of charge will not be same for a tensile and compressive force. The polarity of voltage induced
due to a tensile force will be opposite to the polarity of voltage produced due to a compressive force. The magnitude
and polarity of induced charge on the electrodes are directly proportional to the applied force and its direction. Let
the applied force be F, then the charge induced will be given as Q = kF Where, k is constant of proportionality.
This constant is nothing but the charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric material. It is constant for a given material
and defined as the charge generated per unit applied force. Its unit is (Column / Newton) Assuming the surface
area of electrode, separation between the electrodes be A and d respectively, the charge generated on each of the
electrode of piezoelectric transducer is given as below. Q = CV Where, C is capacitance formed by the electrodes
and the piezoelectric material C = εA d ⁄ Therefore, Q = εAV d ⁄ From (1) and (2), kF = εAV d ⁄ F = εAV kd ⁄ That
is, magnitude of applied force is directly proportional to the output voltage across the electrodes. Thus, by
measuring the value of voltage across the electrodes of piezoelectric transducer, we can find the value of
mechanical force. Hence, mechanical force converted into electrical signal which is the whole & sole requirement
of any transducer. Modes of Operation of Piezoelectric Crystal: Piezoelectric crystal can be used in many modes.
There modes are: - Thickness shear - Face Shear - Thickness Expansion - Transverse Expansion
PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS:
Principle of Operation :
The photoelectric transducers operate on the principle that when light strikes special combination of materials then
following may result: (i) Electrons may flow. (ii) A voltage may be generated, (iii) A resistance change may take
place, Applications: These transducers find the following fields of application: 1. Control engineering. 2. Precision
measuring devices. 3. Exposure meters used in photography. 4. Solar batteries as sources of electric power for
rockets and television, counting machines etc. 5. Satellites used in space research, Classification: Photoelectric
transducers may be grouped as follows: 1. Photoemissive cell. 2. Photovoltaic cell. 3. Photoconductive cell.
Photovoltaic Cell In this cell sensitive element is a semiconductor (not metal) which generates voltage proportion
to the light or any radiant energy incident on it. The most commonly used photo-voltaic cells are barrier layer type
like iron-selenium cells or Cu-CuO₂ cells
shows a typical widely used photo-voltaic cell - "Selenium cell". It consists of a metal electrode on which a layer
of selenium is deposited; on the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very thin layer of gold.
The latter serves as a translucent electrode through which light can impinge on the layer below. Under the influence
of this light, a negative charge will build up on the gold electrode and a positive charge on the bottom electrode.
Photo-voltaic cells are widely used in the following fields:  Automatic control systems  Television circuits 
Sound motion picture and reproducing equipment. Photodiode: A photodiode is a semiconductor device that
functions as a transducer by converting light (photons) into an electrical current. It operates based on the inner
photoelectric effect, where incoming photons generate electron-hole pairs within the semiconductor [Link]
photodiode is constructed using two types of semiconductor materials: P-type and N-type. In its fabrication, a
lightly doped P-type substrate undergoes diffusion to form a P+ layer, while an N-type epitaxial layer is grown on
a heavily doped N-type substrate. The P+ diffusion layer is then formed over the N-type epitaxial [Link]
contacts are added to create the two terminals: anode and cathode. The front surface of the photodiode is divided
into active and non-active regions. The non-active surface is typically coated with silicon dioxide (SiO₂), which
prevents light from reaching it. In contrast, the active surface is exposed to incoming light and is often coated with
an anti-reflective material to reduce light loss and improve light-to-current conversion efficiency.

When photons with sufficient energy strike the active region of the photodiode, they generate electron-hole pairs
through the inner photoelectric effect. If this generation occurs within the depletion region, the built-in electric
field quickly separates the charges: electrons move toward the cathode, and holes move toward the anode, resulting
in a photocurrent. The total current through the photodiode consists of two components: the dark current (current
in the absence of light) and the photocurrent. For optimal sensitivity, the dark current should be minimized so that
the photocurrent becomes the dominant signal.
Advantages: 1. High Speed Response: - Photodiodes have a fast response time, making them ideal for high-speed
light detection (e.g., in optical communication). 2. Compact Size: - Small and lightweight, allowing for easy
integration into compact electronic systems. 3. High Sensitivity to Light: - Capable of detecting even low levels
of light when designed with proper materials and configurations. 4. Low Noise:- Generates low electrical noise,
improving the signal-to-noise ratio. 5. Linearity:- Output current is linearly proportional to the intensity of incident
light (under certain operating conditions). 6. Low Power Consumption:- Requires minimal power to operate,
especially in photovoltaic mode.
Disadvantages of Photodiode as a Transducer:
1. Affected by Temperature:- Performance can degrade with temperature variations, affecting accuracy. 2. Limited
Output Signal: Produces a relatively small current, often requiring amplification. 3. Sensitive to Electrical Noise:-
Needs proper shielding and filtering in noisy environments. 4. Dark Current:- A small current flows even in
complete darkness, which can affect low-light measurements. 5. Narrow Spectral Response (for some types):-
May not be sensitive to all wavelengths unless designed with specific materials. Applications of Photodiode as a
Transducer:** 1. Optical Communication Systems:- Used to convert light signals into electrical signals in fiber
optic networks. 2. Light Intensity Measurement:- Used in light meters, solar energy systems, and illumination
control systems. 3. Smoke Detectors and Fire Alarms:- Detects changes in light intensity caused by smoke
particles. 4. Medical Equipment:- Found in pulse oximeters and medical imaging devices. 5. Bar Code Scanners:-
Converts reflected light from barcodes into electrical signals. Phototransistor: A Phototransistor is an electronic
switching and current amplification component which relies on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on
the junction, reverse current flows which are proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used extensively
to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical signals. These are operated by light rather than electric
current. Providing a large amount of gain, low cost and these phototransistors might be used in numerous
applications.

It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in a similar way to photoresistors
commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but are able to produce both current and voltage while
photoresistors are only capable of producing current due to change in resistance. Phototransistors are transistors
with the base terminal exposed. Instead of sending current into the base, the photons from striking light activate
the transistor. This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses on the energy that
is passed through It These are activated light particles and are used in virtually all electronic devices that depend
on light in some way. All silicon photosensors (phototransistors) respond to the entire visible radiation range as
well as to infrared. In fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlington’s, TRIACs, etc. have the same basic radiation
frequency response. The structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimized for photo applications. Compared
to a normal transistor, a phototransistor has a larger base and collector width and is made using diffusion or ion
implantation. Construction:A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the base region
is exposed to illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types having different configurations like
common emitter, common collector, and common base but generally, common emitter configuration is used. It
can also work while the base is made open. Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base and collector
areas. Ancient photo transistors used single semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium but nowadays
modern components use materials like gallium and arsenide for high-efficiency levels. The base is the lead
responsible for activating the transistor. It is the gate controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector
is the positive lead and the larger electrical supply. The emitter is the negative lead and the outlet for the larger
electrical supply. Photo Transistor Construction: With no light falling on the device there will be a small current
flow due to thermally generated hole-electron pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be slightly less
than the supply value due to the voltage drop across the load resistor R. With light falling on the collector-base
junction the current flow increases. With the base connection open circuit, the collector-base current must flow in
the base-emitter circuit and hence the current flowing is amplified by normal transistor action. The collector-base
junction is very sensitive to light. Its working condition depends upon the intensity of light. The base current from
the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor resulting in current gains that range from hundreds
to several thousand. A phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a lower level or
noise. Phototransistor Working: A normal transistor includes an emitter, base, and collector terminals. The
collector terminal is biased positively relating to the emitter terminal & the BE junction is in reverse biased. A
phototransistor activates once the light strikes the base terminal & the light triggers the phototransistor by allowing
the Configuration of hole-electron pairs as well as the current flow across the emitter or collector. When the current
increases, then it is concentrated as well as changed into [Link], a phototransistor doesn’t include a
base connection. The base terminal is disconnected as the light is used to allow the flow of current to supply
through the phototransistor. Types of Phototransistor: Phototransistors are classified into two types namely BJT
and FET. BJT Phototransistor:In the deficiency or light, BJT phototransistor allows leakage among collectors as
well as an emitter of 100 nA otherwise low. Once this transistor is exposed to the beam, it performs upto 50mA.
This distinguishes it from photodiode which cannot allow much current. FET Phototransistor: This kind of
phototransistor includes two terminals that connect inside through its collector & emitter otherwise source & drain
within FET. The transistor’s / base terminal reacts to light & controls the current flow among the terminals.
Phototransistor Circuit: A phototransistor works just like a normal transistor, where the base current is multiplied
to give the collector current except that in a phototransistor, the base current is controlled by the amount of visible
or infrared light where the device only needs 2 pins.
DESCRIPTION AND FEATURE APPLICABLE FOR BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION-
RESISTIVE,INDUCTIVE, CAPACITIVE, FIBER-OPTIC, PHOTOELECTRIC AND
CHEMICAL TRANSDUCERS
These transducers work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a material changes when subjected to
mechanical deformation (strain), temperature variations, or light intensity changes.
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Strain Gauges: Used to measure small changes in blood volume (plethysmography) when mounted on a
finger or to monitor respiration when placed around the chest or abdomen. They are also used in catheter-
tip pressure sensors to measure intra-arterial and intravenous blood pressure.
• Thermistors/Resistance Thermometers: Measure body, skin, and blood temperature by detecting
resistance changes due to temperature variations. They can also measure respiratory rate by sensing the
temperature difference between inspired and expired air.
• Photoresistors (LDRs): Measure pulsatile blood volume changes by detecting variations in light intensity
caused by blood flow.
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Inductive transducers operate based on changes in self-inductance or mutual inductance due to the
movement of a core, which is ideal for measuring displacement and motion.
• Respiratory Inductance Plethysmography (RIP): Uses elastic belts with coiled wires around the chest
and abdomen to non-invasively monitor respiratory movement and diagnose sleep apnea by measuring
changes in cross-sectional area.
• Electromagnetic Flow Meters: Measure blood flow velocity by the voltage induced when a conductor
(blood) moves through a magnetic field.
• Displacement Sensors (LVDT): Used to measure the displacement of organs or tissues, such as changes
in blood vessel diameter or movement of heart valves, often by converting pressure into displacement via
a diaphragm.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
These transducers function by changes in capacitance between two conductive plates, which can be altered
by physical parameters like displacement, pressure, or changes in the dielectric medium.
• Blood Pressure Monitoring: Differential capacitive transducers are used in invasive and non-invasive
systems to monitor blood pressure by sensing the deflection of a diaphragm under pressure.
 • Apexcardiography: Record chest wall movements produced by the heart.
• Wearable Sensors: Flexible capacitive sensors are being developed for continuous, real-time monitoring
of various vital signs like arterial pulse waves and respiration.
Fiber-Optic Transducers
Fiber-optic sensors offer immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI), small size, and high sensitivity,
making them suitable for use in environments like MRI machines and for minimally invasive procedures.
• Temperature Sensors: Used for monitoring tissue temperature during laser or RF ablation cancer
treatments to ensure controlled heating.
• Pressure Sensors: Integrated into catheter tips for monitoring intra-aortic, intracranial, and intravesical
pressures.
• Oximetry: Measure blood oxygen saturation levels in real-time, often using light absorption techniques
in the earlobe or fingertips.
• Biochemical Sensing (Optrodes): Fiber tips coated with specific indicator dyes or antibodies can
measure pH, blood gases (O₂, CO₂), and glucose levels in bodily fluids by detecting changes in light
properties like fluorescence or absorption.
PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
These transducers operate based on the photoelectric effect, where light interaction with a material
produces an electrical signal.
• Pulse Oximeters: Widely used to determine blood oxygen saturation and pulse rate by measuring the
differential light absorption of red and infrared light in pulsatile blood flow.
• Photoplethysmography (PPG): Detect changes in blood volume in tissue to monitor heart rate and blood
flow.
• Blood Component Analysis: Photovoltaic cells and photodetectors measure ion concentrations (like Na⁺
and K⁺) in samples using light absorption techniques.
Chemical Transducers
Chemical transducers, including fiber-optic and electrochemical types, respond to specific chemical
concentrations in the body.
• Blood Gas Analyzers: Fiber-optic probes detect pH, pO₂, and pCO₂ levels in the blood using specific
chemical indicators trapped in membranes.
• Glucose Monitoring: Biosensors are being developed that use optical fibers to detect glucose
concentrations based on changes in light properties when interacting with glucose-sensitive materials.
• Ion Concentration Measurement: Used to measure the concentration of various ions like sodium and
potassium in body samples.

BIO & NANO SENSORS & APPLICATION

The “Nano Biosensors” series reviews various types of biosensors and biochips (including an array of
biosensors), emphasizing the role of nanostructures, developed for medical and biological applications.
Nano Biosensors Electrochemical sensors are sensors that use the biological element as a diagnostic
component and the electrode as a transducer. The use of nanostructures in these systems is usually done
to fill the gap between the converter and the bioreceptor, which is at the nanoscale. Given the nature of
the biomaterial detection process, electrochemical biosensors are divided into catalytic and propulsion.
Common electrochemical techniques common in sensors include potentiometric, chronometry,
voltammetry, impedance measurement, and field effect transistor (FET). Simultaneous use of the
advantages of nanostructures and electrochemical techniques has led to the emergence of sensors with
high sensitivity and decomposition power. The use of nanostructures in these sensors is usually done to
fill the gap between the converter and the bioreceptor, which is at the nanoscale. Various types of
nanostructures including nanoparticles, nanotubes and nanowires, nanopores, self-adhesive monolayers
and nanocomposites can be used to improve the performance and efficiency of sensors in their structure.
Simultaneous use of the advantages of nanostructures and electrochemical techniques has led to the
emergence of sensors with high sensitivity and decomposition power.
While the biological layer is responsible for the specific interaction with the analyte, the transducer converts the
information from this interaction into a measurable effect .For example, mechanical transducers convert the
analyteebioreceptor interaction to a change in bending or resonant frequency, optical transducers usually convert
this phenomenon to a change in light frequency or intensity, and electrochemical transducers to a change in current,
potential, and so on. Finally, the reading system measures the amount of these changes. Fig. 1 shows the biosensor
process schematically . The reading system measures the physical phenomenon caused by the interaction . Changes
in bending, changes in resonant frequency, changes in electrochemical parameters such as current and potential,
and changes in optical properties are among the physical phenomena that are measured by a proper reading system
3.1. Classification based on the type of transducer
The transducer occurrence and rate of interaction between the analyte and the receptor into a measurable
physical phenomenon . Conversion can be done in a wide variety of ways, and biosensors can be classified
according to the type of conversion system used. Classification of common conversion systems includes: 1-
Optical systems (based on luminescence measurement, absorption, surface Plasmon resonance) 2-
Electrochemical (measurement of impedance changes, current, potential, etc.) and 3- Systems It is sensitive to
mass (measurement of bending and change of resonant frequency) which is divided into related subgroups.
Existing conversion systems are one or a combination of the above methods . Fig. 3 shows Classification based
on the type of transducer

3.2. Optical techniques Analyte-receptor interaction can lead to changes in optical properties such as intensity or
frequency of absorption and emission, resonance frequency of surface electrons, refractive angle, etc. Biosensors
can use different types of spectroscopy by recording different spectrochemical properties (absorption,
fluorescence, phosphorescence, Raman, surface electron resonance, refraction, diffusion, etc.)

3.3. Electrochemical techniques Electrochemical detection is another conversion method used in biosensors.
Electrochemical techniques can be used independently or in combination with optical detection methods such as
the highly sensitive fluorescence optical technique . Since many analytes do not have strong
3.4. Sensitive techniques to mass Measuring small mass changes due to analyteebioreceptor interaction is
another form of conversion used in biosensors . This method is based on piezoelectric crystals. These crystals
vibrate at a certain frequency due to the application of an electrical signal. The oscillation frequency depends on
the electrical frequency used and the mass of the crystal; therefore, when the mass increases due to chemical
bonds, the oscillation frequency of the crystal changes and the resultant change is measured electrically and used
to evaluate the added mass

Common Applications
• Healthcare: Disease diagnosis (biomarkers), continuous glucose monitoring, point-of-care testing,
tissue engineering.
• Environmental: Water quality control, pollution detection, waste management.
• Food Industry: Quality and safety testing, detecting contaminants.
• Agriculture: Monitoring soil health and plant stress.
• Security/Forensics: Biological threat detection, forensics.