Silicon semiconductor technology

 Silicon semiconductor technology forms the foundation of most modern electronic systems
and devices. It involves the use of silicon, a widely available and cost-effective material, as
the base for manufacturing semiconductors such as diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits (ICs).
 Silicon is favored due to its excellent semiconductor properties, including its ability to
function as both a conductor and an insulator under different conditions, and the ease with
which its electrical characteristics can be precisely modified through doping with elements
like phosphorus or boron.
 One of its key advantages is the formation of a stable and high-quality native oxide layer
(silicon dioxide), which is essential in the fabrication of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs), the building blocks of modern digital electronics. The
development of silicon-based technology has enabled the miniaturization and performance
enhancement of electronic devices, leading to the creation of microprocessors, memory
chips, and various sensors.
 Overall, silicon semiconductor technology is a critical driver of innovation in electronics,
powering everything from smartphones and computers to medical devices and space
systems.

n-well CMOS process

Step 1: Si Substrate The n-well CMOS process starts with a moderately doped (with impurity
concentration around 2 ×1021 impurities/m3 ) p-type silicon substrate.

Step 2: Oxidation This step deposits a thin layer of SiO2 over the complete wafer by exposing it to
high-purity oxygen and hydrogen at approx. 1000o C

Step 3: Photoresist Coating Photoresist is a light sensitive polymer evenly applied to a thickness of
1µm by spinning the wafer. This photoresist cross link when exposed to light, making the affected
regions insoluble.

Step 4: Masking The first lithographic mask defining the n-well region is brought in close proximity to
the wafer. The mask is opaque in the regions we want to process and transparent in the other
regions The combination of mask and wafer is now exposed to Ultraviolet rays. Where the mass is
transparent, the photoresist becomes insoluble.

Step 5: Removal of Photoresist The soluble photoresist are removed by treating the wafer with acidic
or basic solution. Then the wafer is soft baked at low temperature to harden the the remaining
photoresist

Step 6: Acid Etching SiO2 is selectively removed from areas of wafer that are not covered by
photoresist by using hydrofluoric acid.

Step 7: Removal of Photoresist Strip off the remaining photoresist

Step 8: Formation of n-well n-well is formed by diffusion or ion implantation.

DIFFUSION In diffusion, the wafers are placed in a quartz tube embedded in a heated furnace. A gas
containing the dopant is introduced in the tube. The high temperatures of the furnace (900 to 1000o
C) cause the dopants to diffuse into the exposed surface both vertically and horizontally.
ION IMPLANTATION Dopants are introduced as ions into the material. The ion implantation system
directs and sweeps a beam of purified ions over the semiconductor surface. The acceleration of ions
determines how deep they will penetrate the material, while the beam current and the exposure
time determine the dosage.

Step 9: Removal of SiO2 Strip off the remaining oxide using HF and we have bare wafer with n-well

Step 10: Polysilicon deposition Deposit very thin layer of gate oxide and then using chemical vapor
deposition process a layer of polysilicon is deposited. In this process silane gas flows over the heated
wafer coated with SiO2 at a temperature of approx. 650o [Link] resulting reaction produces a
noncrystaline or amorphous material called polysilicon.

Use same lithography process to pattern polysilicon

Step 11: N- diffusion Carry on photolithographic process to diffuse n- type material. N-diffusion
forms nMOS source, drain, and n-well contact.

Step 12: P- diffusion: Step 11 repeated with p diffusion mask produces pMOS source ,drain and
substrate contact.
Step 13: Contact cuts Now we need to wire the devices. Cover chip with thick field oxide. Etch oxide
where contact cuts are needed

Step 14: Metallization Aluminum interconnect layers are deployed using a process known as
Sputtering. Aluminum is evaporated in vacuum with heat for evaporation delivered by electron-
beam or ion-beam bombarding. Other metal interconnects such as copper require different
deposition techniques.

P-WELL CMOS process

Step1: For P well process first we take an N type substrate.

Step2: Substrate is oxidized in high temperature.

Step3: Apply photoresist on the surface of the silicon dioxide

Step4: Selectively expose the photoresist to the UV rays.

Step5: The soluble photoresist is removed

Step6: The exposed Silicon dioxide region is removed.

Step7: The entire photoresist layer is stripped off.

Step8: By using ion implantation or diffusion process P-well is formed

Step9: The remaining silicon dioxide is removed

Step10: A thin layer of gate oxide is deposited on the surface of the substrate. Then apply the
polysilicon on the surface.

Step 11: Gate oxide and polysilicon layers are selectively removed.

Step 12: An oxide layer is formed on the surface.

Step 13: By using the masking process small gaps are made for the purpose of P-diffusion.

Step14 : Using diffusion or ion implantation method P type regions are formed

Step15: The remaining oxide layer is stripped off.

Step 16: Similar to the above process, the n type regions are formed.

Step17: A thick-field oxide is formed in all regions and then selectively removed.
Step18: Then the surface is covered with evaporated aluminium

Step19 : The excess metal is removed from the surface

Step 20: The terminals of the PMOS and NMOS are made from respective gaps.
Circuit Characterization and Performance Estimation
Each layer of transistor-forming material has both a resistance and a capacitance that are
fundamental components in estimating the performance of a circuit or a system. (It also has
inductance but insignificant for most on-chip circuit.)

 Resistance Estimation
The resistance of a uniform conducting slab is where
ρ = resistivity.
t = thickness.
l = conductor length.
w = conductor width.
Rs = Sheet resistance having units of :/square. – According to the above formula, the two
metal slabs shown in Figure 4.1 have the same resistance.

 Sheet Resistance: Resistance of thin sheet material with uniform thickness measured
between two contacts on opposite sides of a square.
 Capacitance Estimation
Capacitance in CMOS circuits affects speed, power consumption, and signal behavior. There are
three major types of capacitance to estimate:
1. Gate Capacitance (C_g)
This is the capacitance between the gate and the channel (oxide capacitance).
Equation:
Cg=Cox⋅W⋅L

Where:

 Cox=εox/tox
 εox = Permittivity of SiO₂ ≈ 3.45×10−11 F
 tox = Oxide thickness
 W = Width of the MOSFET
 L = Channel length

2. Junction Capacitance (C_j)

This is the capacitance between the drain/source diffusion regions and the substrate (bulk).

Equation:

Where:

 Cj0: Zero-bias bottom-plate capacitance per unit area

 Cjsw: Sidewall capacitance per unit length
 A: Area of the diffusion region
 P: Perimeter of the diffusion
 VR: Reverse bias voltage
 ϕj: Built-in potential (≈ 0.6–0.8 V)
 m,msw: Grading coefficients (≈ 0.33 to 0.5)

3. Interconnect Capacitance (C_w)

Also called wire capacitance, it includes:

 Capacitance to substrate
 Capacitance to neighboring wires (coupling)
⚡ Equation:

Cw=Cmetal−substrate + Ccoupling
Simplified estimation (for capacitance to substrate):

Where:

 L: Length of the wire

 W: Width of the wire
 d: Distance to substrate
 εox: Permittivity of the dielectric

4. Total Load Capacitance (C_L)

The total capacitance seen by a gate's output.

⚡ Equation: