2.3. Migration.

1. Definition.

Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to
another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-permanent
residence, usually across a political boundary. An example of "semi-
permanent residence" would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm
laborers. People can either choose to move ("voluntary migration") or be
forced to move ("involuntary migration"). Migrations have occurred
throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human
groups from their origins in East Africa to their current location in the world.
Migration occurs at a variety of scales: intercontinental (between
continents), intra-continental (between countries on a given continent), and
interregional (within countries). One of the most significant migration
patterns has been rural to urban migration; the movement of people from
the countryside to cities in search of opportunities.

2. Types of Migration

Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or

continent.

External Migration: Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or

continent.

Emigration: Leaving one country to move to another.

Immigration: Moving into a new country.

In-migration: people moving into one place from another place within a
nation (internal migration).

Out-migration: people moving out of one place to another place within a

nation (internal migration).
Population Transfer: When a government forces a large group of people
out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as
an involuntary or forced migration.

Impelled Migration (also called "reluctant" or "imposed" migration):

Individuals are not forced out of their country, but leave because of
unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems, or religious
persecution.

Step Migration: A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a

person's place of origin to final destination, such as moving from a farm, to a
village, to a town, and finally to a city.

Chain Migration: A series of migrations within a family or defined group of

people. A chain migration often begins with one family member who sends
money to bring other family members to the new location.

Chain migration results in migration fields; the clustering of people from a

specific region into certain neighborhoods or small towns.

Return Migration: The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their

place of origin.
This is also known as circular migration

Seasonal Migration: The process of moving for a period of time in

response to labor or climate conditions (e.g., farm workers following crop
harvests or working in cities off-season; "snowbirds" moving to the southern
and southwestern United States during winter).
People Who Migrate

Emigrant: A person who is leaving a country to reside in another.

Immigrant: A person who is entering a country from another to take up new

residence.
Refugee: A person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due
to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership
in a particular social group, or political opinion.

Internally Displaced Person (IDP): A person who is forced to leave his or her
home region because of unfavorable conditions (political, social,
environmental, etc.) but does not cross any boundaries.

Migration Stream: A group migration from a particular country, region, or city

to a certain destination.
3. Causes of migration.

The practice of moving away from home in search of a better place is

becoming common. The ease of global mobility allows people to migrate to
distant places around the world. The rate of human migration has increased
recently due to many factors. People move for a variety of reasons. They
consider the advantages and disadvantages of staying versus moving, as
well as factors such as distance, travel costs, travel time, modes of
transportation, terrain, and cultural barriers. There are pull and push factors
that encompasses in each causes.

Push Factors: Reasons for emigrating (leaving a place) because of a difficulty

(such as a food shortage, war, flood, etc.).

Pull Factors: Reasons for immigrating (moving into a place) because of

something desirable (such as a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom,
etc.).

Several types of push and pull factors may influence people in their
movements (sometimes at the same time), including:
1. Environmental (e.g., climate, natural disasters)
2. Political (e.g., war)
3. Economic (e.g., work)
4. Cultural (e.g., religious freedom, education)
Place Utility: The desirability of a place based on its social, economic, or
environmental situation, often used to compare the value of living in
different locations. An individual’s idea of place utility may or may not reflect
the actual conditions of that location.

Intervening Opportunities: Opportunities nearby are usually considered more

attractive than equal or slightly better opportunities farther away, so
migrants tend to settle in a location closer to their point of origin if other
factors are equal.

Distance Decay: As distance from a given location increases, understanding

of that location decreases. People are more likely to settle in a (closer) place
about which they have more knowledge than in a (farther) place about which
they know and understand little.

Firstly, human migration is due to social factors such as, racism, sexism and
religion. The pushing factor from the social perspective is that people are
being discriminated in their homeland. People in these countries are treated
unfairly because of their difference and that they are small in numbers.
Besides that, the disapproval of LGBT relationships causes people to migrate
away from their homeland. Religious issues that can stir up controversies will
lead people that want to avoid getting involved in religious conflicts to
migrate to a safer place. Many of these people seek freedom in the social
aspects of life. The pulling factors come in as other countries, such as the
United States, Brazil and Argentina, approves of LGBT status. People often
seek refuge in countries that are more open minded and accepts you for who
you are disregarding of race or religion. Furthermore, people migrate from
their homeland as political issues arise. The main reason behind their action
of migrating is because they do not agree on the government’s rule.

Government instability, war and oppression contribute to the pushing factors

of migration. Wars will cause death of the innocent, and most people will try
their best to escape from war. Oppression from the government, such as not
recognizing the rights of people will also cause people to migrate away. For
example, Malaysia has recently undergone an election that was unfair due to
dirty schemes of the government parties. Precedents for situation such as
this would cause people to look for another country which is fairer. Political
instability, such as the inability for the government to maintain control will
cause the citizens to lose their faith towards their government, thus induce
the people to migrate to other countries. Moreover, people are migrating
around the world due to pulling factors such as higher standard of living and
better income while poverty and unemployment contribute to the pushing
factors. People from the third world countries would choose to migrate out of
their homeland as there is no opportunity to grasp. These people would
choose to take the risk and go forth to embrace the dreams and hopes in
finding the opportunities and fortune that they seek in life. Some people are
also underused as their country is not able to utilize a certain profession or
talent that would be more appreciated in some other places.

4. Social, economic and political effects of migration

Migration affects both the area of origin and the area of destination. The
effects of migration are social, economic and political

Issues of economic migration: source country

Economic costs include:

 The loss of young adult labour force

 The loss of those with skills and entrepreneurial talents, which may
slow economic development
 Regions where-out migration takes place may suffer from a spiral
decline that is difficult to halt
 The loss of labour may deter inward investment by private
organizations, increasing dependence on governmental initiatives
Economic benefits include:
 Reduced under-employment in the source country
 Returning migrants bring new skills to the country, which may help to
revitalize the home economy
 Many migrants send remittances home and much of this money is
reinvested in the some economy in projects such as new buildings
and services
 There is less pressure on resources in the area, including basic
supplies such as food essential services such as healthcare

Social costs include:

 The perceived benefits of migration encourage more of the same

generation to migrate, which has a detrimental effect on social
structure
 There is a disproportionate number of females left behind
 The non-return of migrants causes an imbalance in the
population pyramid
 Returning retired migrants may impose a social cost on the community
if support mechanisms are not in place to cater for them

Social benefits include

 The population density is reduced and the birth rate decreases , as t
is the younger adults who migrate
 Remittances sent home by economic migrants can finance improved
education and health facilities
 Returning retired migrants increase social expectations in the
community, for example, the demand for better leisure facilities

Political effects include

 Policies to encourage natural increase
 Policies to encourage immigration to counteract outflow or to
develop resources
  Requests for international aid

Issues of economic migration: destination country

Economic costs include

 The costs of educating the migrants’ children have to be home
 There is an over-dependence of some industries on migrant labour,
e.g. the construction in the UK
 Much of the money earned, including pension payments, is repatriated
to the country of origin
 Increased numbers of people add to the pressure on resources, such as
health services and education

Economic benefits include

 Economic migrants tend to take up the less desirable jobs
 The host country gains skilled labour at reduced cost
 The ‘skills gap’ that exists in many host countries is filled by
qualified migrants
 Costs of retirement are transferred back to the source country

Social costs include

 The dominance of males is reinforced, especially in countries where
the status of women is low – for example, in the Persian Gulf states
 Aspects of cultural identity are lost, particularly among second-
generation migrants
 Segregated areas of similar ethnic groups are created, and schools are
dominated by migrant children

Social benefits include:

 Creation of a multi-ethnic society increases understanding of other
cultures
 There is an influx of new and/or revitalised providers of local services –
for example, Turkish baths and local corner shops
  There is a growth of ethnic retailing and areas associated with ethnic
food outlets – for example, the ‘curry mile’ in Rusholme, Manchester

Political effects include:

 Discrimination against ethnic groups and minorities which may lead to
civil unrest and
extremism
 Call for controls on immigration
 Entrenchment of attitudes which may encourage fundamentalism

5. Migration Measurement

Net Migration Rate

The net migration rate for a given period of time is the difference between
how many people come from other regions to live in the region being
discussed, known as immigration, and how many people leave the region
to live elsewhere, known as emigration. A positive net migration rate
means that more people are moving into an area than are leaving it.
Conversely, a negative net migration rate means that more people are
moving out of an area than are moving into it.

The net migration rate, just like many other population statistics, is most
often reported per 1,000 residents over a period of one year and using
estimated mid-year population.

The formula for net migration rate is simple:

N = 1000 x (I - E) / P
I −E
N= ∗1000
P

Where N = net migration rate

E = number of people emigrating out of the country

I = number of people immigrating into the country

P = the estimated mid-year population.

Example

On January 1, 2000 country A has a population of 1,000,000 inhabitants.

From that date to January 1, 2001, 200,000 people immigrated to A, and
100,000 people left the country. At the same time, there were 100,000
babies born, and nobody died. Therefore, the population of A on January 1,
2001 is 1,200,000.

We consider that on July 1, 2000 (the middle of our time term) there were
1,100,000 inhabitants. And since 100,000 left and 200,000 came, the
migration difference is +100,000.

But this value is per inhabitant, and we want a per 1,000 person’s value:

This number gives us a comparable idea of the impact of migration on the

country's population.

6. Glossary: Migration

Migration refers to the number of migrants, people changing their

residence to or from a given area (usually a country) during a given time
period (usually one year).

Immigrants are people arriving or returning from abroad to take up

residence in a country for a certain period, having previously been resident
elsewhere. According to the 1998 United Nations recommendations on the
statistics of international migration (Revision 1), an individual is a long-term
immigrant if he/she stays in his/her country of destination for a period of 12
months or more, having previously been resident elsewhere for 12 months or
more.

Immigration is the number of immigrants for a given area during the year.

Emigrants are people leaving the country where they usually reside and
effectively taking up residence in another country. According to the 1998 UN
recommendations on the statistics of international migration (Revision 1), an
individual is a long-term emigrant if he/she leaves his/her country of
previous usual residence for a period of 12 months or more.

Emigration is the number of emigrants for a given area during the year.

Net migration is the difference between immigration to and emigration

from a given area during the year (net migration is positive when there are
more immigrants than emigrants and negative when there are more
emigrants than immigrants). Since many countries either do not have
accurate figures on immigration and emigration, or have no figures at all, net
migration has to be estimated. It is usually estimated as the difference
between the total population change and the natural increase during the
year. Net migration gives no indication of the relative scale of the separate
immigration and emigration flows to and from a country; a country may
report low net migration but experience high immigration and emigration
flows.

Crude rate of net migration is the ratio of net migration during the year to
the average population in that year. The value is expressed per 1 000
inhabitants.

7. Migration: Theories
People move for different reasons. These differences affect the overall
migration process. The conditions under which a migrant enters a receiver
population can have broad implications for all parties involved. The
expression migration experience refers to the fact that different causes for
migration will produce different outcomes observable from a sociological
perspective. For example, a person who moves within a nation will not have
the same migration experience as a political refugee. In most cases,
refugees need special services from the receiver population such as
emergency shelter, food, and legal aid. The psychological trauma of fleeing
their homeland and leaving family members behind can also complicate
refugees' adjustment to their new environment. Considering that a migrant
can be a slave, refugee, or job-seeker, or have some other reason for
moving, no single theory can provide a comprehensive explanation for the
migration process.

Although a comprehensive theory is unattainable, it remains a crucial task of

demographers to explain why people migrate. Theories of migration are
important because they can help us understand population movements
within their wider political and economic contexts. For example, if
outmigration from Third World nations is shown to be a result of economic
problems caused by the global economy, then such migration could be
managed with better international economic agreements instead of
restrictive immigration acts.

Push and pull factors theories.

Analyzing labor migration also requires us to consider factors other than

distance. We need to also think about the geographical context of both the
places where people leave and the places where people go.

Geographers summarize the motivations for migration by considering how

the relationship between two points (origin and destination) are affected by
push factors and pull factors . Push factors exist at the point of origin and
act to trigger emigration; these include the lack of economic opportunities,
religious or political persecution, hazardous environmental conditions, and so
on. Pull factors exist at the destination and include the availability of jobs,
religious or political freedom, and the perception of a relatively benign
environment. Pushes and pulls are complementary that is, migration can
only occur if the reason to emigrate (the push) is remedied by the
corresponding pull at an attainable destination. In the context of labor
migration, push factors are often characterized by the lack of job
opportunities in sending areas or countries, and pull factors are the
economic opportunities presented in receiving areas or countries.

Ernest Ravenstein is widely regarded as the earliest migration theorist.

Ravenstein, an English geographer, used census data from England and
Wales to develop his "Laws of Migration" (1889). He concluded that
migration was governed by a "push-pull" process; that is, unfavorable
conditions in one place (oppressive laws, heavy taxation, etc.) "push" people
out, and favorable conditions in an external location "pull" them out.
Ravenstein's laws stated that the primary cause for migration was better
external economic opportunities; the volume of migration decreases as
distance increases; migration occurs in stages instead of one long move;
population movements are bilateral; and migration differentials (e.g.,
gender, social class, age) influence a person's mobility.

Many theorists have followed in Ravenstein's footsteps, and the dominant

theories in contemporary scholarship are more or less variations of his
conclusions. Everett Lee (1966) reformulated Ravenstein's theory to give
more emphasis to internal (or push) factors. Lee also outlined the impact
that intervening obstacles have on the migration process. He argued that
variables such as distance, physical and political barriers, and having
dependents can impede or even prevent migration. Lee pointed out that the
migration process is selective because differentials such as age, gender, and
social class affect how persons respond to push-pull factors, and these
conditions also shape their ability to overcome intervening obstacles.
Furthermore, personal factors such as a person's education, knowledge of a
potential receiver population, family ties, and the like can facilitate or retard
migration.

The flow of migrants between two places may not totally develop if
intervening obstacles exist between them. The number of migrants is
directly proportional to the number of opportunities at a given place and
inversely proportional to the number of intervening obstacles. (One may also
think of intervening obstacles as intervening opportunities; that is, the
presence of other places between an origin and destination point to which
one could migrate.) Therefore, the volume of migration from one place to
another is associated not only with the distance between places and number
of people in the two places, but also with the number of opportunities or
obstacles between each place. This is especially true in labor migration.

Restrictive immigration laws, for example, can present a formidable barrier

to prospective migrants. Note that both the origin and destination have
pushes and pulls, reflecting the reality that any migrant must consider both
the positives of staying and the negatives of moving, as well as their
converses. The logic of the push-pull theory is that if the plusses (pulls) at
the destination outweigh the plusses of staying at the origin, the migration is
likely to occur.

Several theories have been developed to treat international patterns of

migration on their own terms, but these too are variants of push-pull theory.
First, neoclassical economic theory (Sjaastad 1962; Todaro 1969) suggests
that international migration is related to the global supply and demand for
labor. Nations with scarce labor supply and high demand will have high
wages that pull immigrants in from nations with a surplus of labor. Second,
segmented labor-market theory (Piore 1979) argues that First World
economies are structured so as to require a certain level of immigration. This
theory suggests that developed economies are dualistic: they have a primary
market of secure, well-remunerated work and a secondary market of low-
wage work. Segmented labor-market theory argues that immigrants are
recruited to fill these jobs that are necessary for the overall economy to
function but are avoided by the native-born population because of the poor
working conditions associated with the secondary labor market. Third, world-
systems theory (Sassen 1988) argues that international migration is a by-
product of global capitalism. Contemporary patterns of international
migration tend to be from the periphery (poor nations) to the core (rich
nations) because factors associated with industrial development in the First
World generated structural economic problems, and thus push factors, in the
Third World.

Theory of intervening opportunities

Theory of intervening opportunities attempts to describe the likelihood

of migration. Its hypothesis is that this likelihood is influenced most by the
opportunities to settle at the destination, less by distance or population
pressure at the starting point.

Stouffer's law of intervening opportunities states, "The number of

persons going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of
opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of
intervening opportunities."

Stouffer theorizes that the amount of migration over a given distance is

directly proportional to the number of opportunities at the place of
destination, and inversely proportional to the number of opportunities
between the place of departure and the place of destination. These
intervening opportunities may persuade a migrant to settle in a place in the
route rather than proceeding to the originally planned destination. Stouffer
argued that the volume of migration had less to do with distance and
population totals than with the opportunities in each location.

Chain migration

Chain migration has multiple meanings. It refers to the social process by

which immigrants from a particular town follow others from that town to a
particular city or neighborhood, whether in an immigrant-receiving country
or in a new, usually urban, location in the home country. The term also refers
to the process of foreign nationals immigrating to a new country under laws
permitting their reunification with family members already living in the
destination country. This mechanism is also known as serial migration.

Chain migration can be defined as a “movement in which prospective

migrants learn of opportunities, are provided with transportation, and have
initial accommodation and employment arranged by means of primary social
relationships with previous migrants.”

Chain migration and the accumulation of social capital

According to James Coleman, “social capital is created when the relations

among persons change in ways that facilitate action.” Douglas Massey, Jorge
Durand and Nolan J. Malone apply this theory to chain migration, positing
that, “each act of migration creates social capital among people to whom the
migrant is related, thereby raising the odds of their migration.” In Massey et
al.’s argument, social capital is the tool by which chain migration occurs. In
the context of migration, social capital refers to relationships, forms of
knowledge and skills that advance one’s potential migration. One example is
the positive impact of social capital on subsequent migration in China.
Massey et al. link their definition to Gunnar Myrdal’s theory of cumulative
causation of migration, stating that, “each act of migration alters the social
context within which subsequent migration decisions are made, thus
increasing the likelihood of additional movement. Once the number of
network connections in a community reaches a critical threshold, migration
becomes self-perpetuating.” Therefore, by initiating small social networks of
migration, chain migration becomes a larger mass movement in and of itself

8. Important formula

Balancing Equation

A basic demographic formula used to estimate total population change

between two points in time or to estimate any unknown component of
population change, provided that the other components are known. The
balancing equation includes all components of population change: births,
deaths, immigration, emigration, in-migration, and out-migration.

Pt = Pi+ (B-D) + (I-E)

Where
Pt = Population after time t
Pi = Initial population
B= Births
D= Deaths
I= Immigrants
E= Emigrants

Rate of Natural Increase

The rate of natural increase refers to the difference between the number of
live births and the number of deaths occurring in a year, divided by the mid-
year population of that year, multiplied by a factor (usually 1,000). It is equal
to the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate. This
measure of the population change excludes the effects of migration
 B−D
RNI= ×1000 RNI= CBR-CDR
P

Population Doubling Time

The number of years required for the population of an area to double its
present size, given the current rate of population growth. Population
doubling time is useful to demonstrate the long-term effect of a growth rate,
but should not be used to project population size. Many more-developed
countries have very low growth rates. But these countries are not expected
to ever double again. Most, in fact, likely have population declines in their
future. Many less-developed countries have high growth rates that are
associated with short doubling times, but are expected to grow more slowly
as birth rates are expected to continue to decline.

log ⁡(2) 70
Td= ≈
r r
log ⁡( 1+ )
100

Growth rate

The number of persons added to (or subtracted from) a population in a year

due to natural increase and net migration; expressed as a percentage of the
population at the beginning of the time period.