Considerations for Teaching

Second Language Writing

SARAsGUSHING Weel GIRE

KEY QUESTIONS
> What does it mean to know how to write? ‘

> What is the role of writing in the second/foreign language curriculum?

> What do English as a second or foreign language teachers need to know about writing to design
and teach a writing course?
csc iter ted pnt ecm ctl attr timate one ceo

EXPERIENCE The teacher controls the pace of the class and

directs the activities, but during most of the class
Elizabeth teaches a writing course in an intensive the students are interacting with each other.
English program designed to prepare students to Second, students are using reading as a first step
enter an American university. Her 16 students come to inform their future writing. In this instance,
from 11 different countries and are interested in dif- they are analyzing writing prompts, though in
ferent disciplines, from business to mathematics to another class they may be reading about and dis-
the social sciences. As class begins, Elizabeth divides cussing a particular topic that they will be writing
the class into groups of four and gives each group about. Third, they are learning that the expecta-
a set of writing assignments from different univer- tions of readers in different disciplines will be
sity courses: one from an undergraduate business different and that they cannot necessarily transfer
course, one from U.S. history, one from environ- everything they know about writing in one sub-
mental science, and one from psychology. Elizabeth ject area to writing in another. Finally, this class
reminds the class of the concepts of audience, involves a consideration of global issues in writ-
purpose, and genre and asks the groups to identify ing, such as the need to think about one’s audi-
each in the set of tasks. The groups quickly get to ence and purpose in writing when deciding how
work; after about five minutes, Elizabeth asks them
to organize an essay, as well as local issues, such
to report on the similarities and differences among as being able to use specific verb forms appropri-
the tasks. She writes their responses on the board ately. Even in a very short observation, it is clear
and then asks the class to list the verbs used in the that learning to write in a second language (L2) is
assignments (e.g., discuss, compare, analyze) and then a complicated endeavor that involves a multiplic-
gives students a handout listing several of such verbs. ity of concerns.
Students discuss the handout with partners to make
sure they understand all the verbs. Then Elizabeth
presents the instructions for a writing assignment
WHAT IS SECOND LANGUAGE
that students will be working on over the next several
weeks. In introducing the assignment, she highlights WRITING?
the verbs in the instructions and then proceeds to go Writing has always had a place in the second/
over the details of the assignment. foreign language curriculum, but in the twenty-
An observer in this class wanting to learn first century the ability to write in an L2 may be
about teaching writing might notice several features even more important than ever. Globalization
about it. First, it is very much a collaborative class. and technological advances such as the rise of

222
the Internet have made written communication transfer these skills to a second language; however,
across languages and cultures not only possible a certain level of language proficiency is required
but essential in business, education, and many before such transfer can occur. For students at
other fields. More and more people are seeing every level of proficiency, a writing course provides
the need to learn to write in a language that is not opportunities to learn and practice new language
their mother tongue, whether their purpose is to forms and structures and thus contributes to lan-
transact business, interact on social-networking guage learning. For students with lower language
sites, Or pursue academic degrees. Thus, whereas proficiency, this focus on language may need to
writing was once seen as a skill that was primarily be emphasized, while for advanced students, more
taught to reinforce other language skills such as emphasis can be placed on the composition pro-
listening, reading, and grammar, in many settings cess. In short, both writing ability and language
writing has moved to a more central place in the proficiency are important factors in L2 writing
curriculum (Reid, 2001). As a result, many teach- ability, and both need to be included in a writing
ers will find themselves needing to teach writing curriculum.
and may not feel well prepared to do so effectively. From the sociocultural perspective, writing
The purpose of this chapter is to present some of is seen as part of a socially and culturally situated
the most important concepts in teaching writing set of literacy practices shared by a particular com-
and provide guidance on planning and delivering munity. From this perspective, the process of learn-
an effective writing curriculum. ing to write is the process of becoming a member
To teach writing effectively, we first need to of a discourse community, a group of people (e.g.,
understand the nature of L2 writing ability. We biologists, politicians, or even fans of a particular
can look at this ability from two perspectives: as a musical genre) who share values and assumptions
cognitive ability (i.e., a set of skills and knowledge about using language and also have certain ways
that reside within an individual) and as a sociocul- of using language (oral or written) for particular
tural phenomenon (i.e., as a means of communica- purposes. In academic writing, for example, there
tion within a particular setting aimed at achieving are different conventions for publishing articles in
specific goals). Both of these perspectives are different disciplines, and certain linguistic or sty-
important in the teaching of writing. listic choices, such as the use of the passive voice,
From a cognitive perspective, second lan- may be considered good writing in one discourse
guage writing can be seen as some combination community or discipline but not in another.
of writing ability (perhaps learned in one’s first Learning to write means learning to par-
language [L1]) and L2 proficiency. Even in one’s ticipate in one or more discourse communities,
native language, composing a text is a highly com- whether this means participating in an online
plex task that involves the consideration of many social network, writing medical laboratory reports,
factors at the same time. Writers have to keep in or writing academic papers. From this perspective,
mind their overall message, the major points and focusing simply on improving language proficien-
subpoints to be included, how these points will cy or studying strategies for composing and revis-
be organized, and a representation of the likely ing does not necessarily lead to good writing unless
readers: what they already know or believe about considerations of the broader context in which
the topic, what sorts of information they will find writing will be used are also taken into account.
persuasive, and how they might react. Writers need In addition, a crucial insight from the sociocul-
to be able to plan their writing, monitor and revise tural perspective is that written texts do not exist
what they have already written, and keep focused in isolation; rather, the texts that writers produce
on the process until they are satisfied with the end are shaped by and responsive to other preexisting
product. When an L2 is added to the mix, the pic- texts. This notion is important when we consider
ture becomes even more complex because writers the role of reading in the writing classroom, dis-
need to focus some of their attention on finding cussed later in the chapter.
the appropriate language to express their ideas These two perspectives together provide a
clearly and accurately as well. It seems reasonable, useful framework for the consideration of writing
and indeed research has shown it to be true, that instruction. The cognitive perspective helps us
students who have learned to write in their L1 can remember that individual students need to acquire

Chapter 15 223
knowledge and skills—about language and about to both, writing is frequently used for different
the process of writing—while the sociocultural per- purposes; it thus requires different linguistic struc-
spective reminds us that writing is always done for tures and functions than speaking and calls for a
a purpose, is directed at a specific audience, and somewhat different set of cognitive and metacog-
is part of a broader set of literacy practices that is nitive strategies. Writing teachers must have an
shaped by a particular culture and setting. understanding of both perspectives to plan and
The cognitive and sociocultural perspectives deliver instruction that addresses the writing needs
can also help us understand the difference between of their students, whether these students are not
speaking and writing, an important distinction for literate in their L1 or are transferring advanced L1
language teachers. From a purely mechanical writing skills to their L2.
perspective, the act of writing takes longer than
the act of speaking and leaves a physical trace that
can be referred to at a later date. Oral commu- CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNINGS
nication, at least without the help of technology,
typically requires that both participants (speaker Up to this point we have considered the nature of
and listener) be present at the same time in the writing ability, its relationship to speaking, and the
same place and allows the use of nonverbal and distinction between language ability and writing
contextual clues for shared meaning; furthermore, ability. In this section, I discuss several areas of
speakers get continuous feedback from their lis- research and best practices that teachers should be
teners about whether they are being understood aware of to teach writing effectively. First, teachers
and can clarify and repair mistakes if necessary. should understand why their students want or
In writing, these contextual cues and immediate need to write, and how certain student charac-
feedback are absent, and thus a writer must choose teristics (e.g., L1 literacy) affect their ability to
words more carefully to avoid misunderstandings. write in an L2. Next, teachers need to be familiar
The cognitive challenge of speaking is contrib- with research on the writing process, that is,
uting to an ongoing discourse without time to plan how experienced writers go about creating written
out what to say; the cognitive challenge of writing texts and how to support this process in novice
is anticipating and taking into account the existing writers. Finally, I discuss two issues that contrib-
knowledge, goals, and interests of one’s likely ute to a growing appreciation of best practices in
readers and tailoring one’s choice of words and writing instruction: (1) connections between read-
sentence structures to that audience. ing and writing; and (2) the role of grammar and
The fundamental differences between error correction in writing.
speaking and writing in the cognitive domain are
responsible to a great degree for differences in
the sociocultural domain. First, writing is used for
Student background and needs
different purposes and functions than speaking; The goals of a writing curriculum must start with
because it can be planned and leaves a permanent the needs of the students. As Leki, Cumming, and
record, it tends to be used for functions where preci- Silva (2008) state:
sion and accuracy are important, such as contracts.
Curricula for writing are also circumscribed
Written language tends to be more formal, use
by the purposes for which people are learning.
more complex structures, and be more carefully
These purposes reflect the status in a society
planned than spoken language, which tends to be
of the language being learned, the functions
characterized by shorter sentences or fragments,
and values of literacy in that language, as well
pauses, and repetitions and repairs. Correctness is
as the characteristics, intentions, and status of
more highly valued in writing than in speaking; thus
the learners and of the institutions in which
errors that might be permissible in speaking are
they study. (p. 76)
often more stigmatized in writing. (See McCarthy &
O'Keeffe, this volume.) One important factor is the age and educational
In summary, writing is not simply speaking in background of the writers. Children need writing
another modality. While the same basic building for school and are learning writing skills along
blocks of vocabulary and grammar are essential with other cognitive skills, whereas adult learners

224 Unit Il
come equipped with many of these cognitive skills language composition (see Matsuda, 2003b, for
but may not actually need writing for their jobs; a historical overview of second language writing
furthermore, while many adult L2 learners have instruction, particularly in the North American
good or excellent writing skills in their L1, others context). Much of this literature assumes that
may not have had much formal schooling and students are writing for academic purposes; this
may not be literate in their L1. Such students may may not always be the case, however, particularly
need to be taught the basics of writing, starting in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts.
from practicing how to hold a pencil and learning Increasingly, writing is used in the workplace, and
the alphabet. Another difference that impacts students need to learn the appropriate genres and
how writing is taught is the difference between L2 discourse conventions for different areas of work,
learners and foreign language learners. L2 learners such as resumes, business letters, emails, and web-
either need English for school or work, whereas site content.
foreign language learners may be studying English To summarize, the variety of English language
for a variety of reasons: for personal enrichment, learners throughout the world, their linguistic and
as a requirement for school, for further study, or educational backgrounds, and their different writing
for career reasons. needs make it impossible to prescribe a single
In the North American context, one distinc- approach to the teaching of writing because so much
tion that is frequently discussed is the difference depends on the particulars of the local context.
between “eye” learners (typically, those who However, there are some general principles of
have learned English through formal education writing that are of value to teachers in all contexts,
and thus primarily through reading and gram- and it is to these principles we now turn. Specifically,
Mar instruction) and “ear” learners (those who teachers should be aware of research in such areas
have learned English informally through oral as what proficient writers do when they write, what
interactions; Reid, 1998a). Many ear learners distinguishes good writers from weaker writers, and
emigrated from their home countries as chil- what the specific writing problems of English as a
dren and speak a language other than English at second language (ESL) learners are likely to be.
home; such learners are sometimes referred to Research (Penuelas, 2008; Sasaki, 2000; Weigle,
as “Generation 1.5” (Harklau, Losey, & Siegal, 2005) has shown that, for expert writers in particu-
1999). Research suggests that many of these lar, writing is not a linear process but involves going
U.S.-educated multilingual writers graduate back and forth among planning, writing, rereading,
from high school without the academic reading and revising. Furthermore, compared to novice
and writing skills needed for success in higher writers, expert writers spend more time planning
education (see Doolan & Miller, 2012, for a and revising their writing and editing their writing
review and discussion of error patterns made by for content and organization than they do making
these writers). Although the eye/ear distinction small surface changes to their texts. Expert writers
may be an oversimplification, it is clear that the are able to hold in mind numerous considerations
needs of students with different educational and simultaneously and have a greater understanding
language learning backgrounds will be quite of their own limitations, a greater understanding of
diverse: “eye” learners have strengths in formal the needs and expectations of their audiences, and
vocabulary and explicit knowledge of grammar, more highly developed schemata for different genres
but may lack the fluency and naturalness of ear than novice writers. All this does not mean that
learners. Teachers will have to adjust their les- writing is less effortful for experts than for novices,
sons to accommodate the needs of these differ- however: Expert writers are more likely to set great-
ent learner types. er challenges for themselves and to use a strategy of
In addition to considering the background “knowledge transforming” (using writing to create
of students and their development as writers in new knowledge) rather than “knowledge telling”
L1 and L2, it is important to distinguish between (expressing what they already know) in writing
learners who need to write for academic reasons (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987, pp. 9-10).
and those who need to write for professional or Comparing L1 and L2 writers, Silva’s (1993)
career reasons. Much of the pedagogy of second extensive review of the literature concludes that
language writing draws on the literature in first L2 writing is “more constrained, more difficult,

Chapter 15 225
and less effective” (p. 668) than LI writing, approaches, they all have certain features in com-
although the general processes are similar. L2 mon. Specifically, instead of producing several
writers in the studies that Silva reviewed tended different single-draft essays that are turned in for
to be similar to less experienced native speaking a grade, often with a primary focus on linguis-
writers in focusing prematurely on sentence-level tic accuracy, students produce more than one
errors rather than global issues of rhetorical draft of each piece of writing for feedback and
organization and were less likely to engage in . evaluation, and emphasis is placed on supporting
knowledge-transforming rather than knowledge- students through the various stages of writing,
telling strategies (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). including pre-writing (e.g., brainstorming or
Learning to write in a second language is further outlining), drafting, giving and receiving feed-
complicated by the fact that genres differ across back, and revising (see Table 1). How a process
languages and cultures, so writers may not be able approach is implemented in practice is discussed
to transfer their rhetorical knowledge from their in the next section
first language to English.
The implication of this research for teaching Reading and writing connections
writing is that L2 writers need more of every-
thing: more practice writing, more opportunities to Another important theoretical consideration for
develop effective writing strategies, more familiar- writing instruction is the connection between
ity with genres, more practice with vocabulary and reading and writing, skills that scholars now consider
grammar, and more feedback. Writing teachers complementary elements of literacy rather than
need to be aware that their students will not become separate, discrete skills. This connection between
experts over the course of a few weeks or months reading and writing is one that has received a great
and need to develop realistic expectations regarding deal of emphasis in recent years (see Belcher &
what can be accomplished in a single term. Hirvela, 2001; Carson & Leki, 1993; Hirvela, 2004).
It is well known that language proficiency, as There is a growing recognition that reading and
it relates to writing, develops slowly over a number writing are intimately connected and that one can-
of years and depends on extensive exposure to dif- not easily be taught without the other. In fact,
ferent texts in different genres. Certain elements problems with student writing can often be traced
of grammar, for example, appear to be resistant to to problems with reading (Hirvela, 2004); for this
explicit instruction and acquired late, such as the use reason, the writing teacher must also be prepared to
of relative clauses and the English article system (R. teach certain aspects of reading.
Ellis, 2005). However, other aspects of writing seem Hirvela (2004) provides a convincing ratio-
to be independent of language proficiency and ame- nale for including reading as an integral compo-
nable to instruction with more immediate results. nent of the writing classroom, primarily through
For example, Roca de Larios, Murphy, and Marin three main areas of reading-writing connections:
(2002) suggest that several writing strategies can be Reader response theory. This approach empha-
effectively taught within a relatively short time frame, sizes the reader’s active participation in under-
including problem-solving strategies; goal setting and standing a text and ways to develop effective reading
organization; having a sense of audience; and plan-
strategies. For example, instead of asking students
ning, monitoring, and evaluating performance.
simply to discuss their understanding of a particular
text, teachers can ask them to reflect on the strat-
The process approach egies they use for reading, what problems they
encountered, and how they dealt with those prob-
Research on the writing process has led to
lems. In this way students are encouraged to see
what is now the dominant paradigm in writing
themselves as active meaning-makers. Reflecting on
instruction, the process approach. Historical
reading processes can lead to an understanding of
overviews of writing instruction that have led
composition processes as complementary activities
to the preeminence of process approaches can
to reading.
be found in numerous sources (e.g., Ferris &
Hedgcock, 2004; Matsuda, 2003b; Raimes, 1991). Writing to read. This approach involves using
Although there are many variations on process writing as a way of interpreting and understanding

226 =Unit Il
 Table |. Phases of the Writing Process

Brace Pre-writing
Detiition |
Structured activities to provide motivation,
Examples of Teaching and Learning Atv
Structured language practice, readings, films, discussions,
content, fluency, language practice brainstorming, webbing, outlining f
Writing First draft Focus on content, getting ideas on paper

Response Reaction of a reader or listener Peer review, partners or small groups, teacher conferences,
written feedback i
Revising Reseeing or rethinking content; second Reorganizing, adding details, adding support for arguments
draft
Editing Refinement and attention to writing Checklists, grammar logs, exercises, proofreading practice
conventions, including grammar and
vocabulary; third draft
Post-writing What students and teachers do with Display, share online, compile class writing into a booklet
finished pieces
Evaluating How teachers and/or students assess Rubrics, conferences, self-evaluation, portfolios
student writing
Adapted from California State University, Stanislaus (n.d.).
_ SPLINT Nee eer titan erent tenet nm ieee mmr me imc tn nity

a text. Examples of writing-to-read activities include appropriate source use in writing is a much more
writing about a topic in preparation for reading complicated issue than it first appears to be. There
about it and response activities such as journals and are both cognitive and cultural factors involved,
response papers. Writing about what they read helps and writing teachers need to understand what
students create a deeper understanding of texts, these issues are so they can help their students
which will in turn help them in their further writing. learn to incorporate source materials into their
writing appropriately. Students with limited pro-
Reading to write. This approach involves using
ficiency have limited linguistic resources and may
reading as a source of input in creating a written text. need to rely more heavily on scaffolding (both
In reading to write, students explicitly and actively lexical and grammatical) from source materials
search for knowledge about writing; this knowledge because they may not know how to express an idea
can be rhetorical (what kinds of organizational pat- in a different way. Research suggests that many stu-
terns are common in this type of writing?), linguistic dents have difficulty with sentence simplification
(what words, phrases, or sentence structures are
and paraphrasing without changing the author's
useful?), or stylistic (how formal/informal is this original intent; furthermore, some students con-
kind of writing?). sider copying a legitimate strategy for composing
(Shi, 2004). Similar cultural issues regarding the
Attribution of sources and use of source text language have been noted by
plagiarism Pennycook (1996), who was among the first to
point out that the idea that individuals “own” ideas
In academic writing in particular, an emphasis on and words is a peculiarly Western notion that may
reading as part of writing naturally brings up the not be prevalent in other cultures. Commenting
issue of appropriate attribution of sources and the on the lack of fit between instructor and student
specter of plagiarism. Students are frequently told perceptions, Starfield (2007) noted:
to “use your own words” and are warned about the
seriousness of plagiarism and its consequences, whereas lecturers view the issue as being about
but teachers are often frustrated because their the correct referencing of sources, for stu-
students seem to have a difficult time knowing dents plagiarism is linked to their developing
when and how to paraphrase. In fact, the issue of identities as writers and their relative lack of

Chapter 15 227
 authority vis-a-vis the authority of academic 2003, for arguments in support of error correction;
texts and is part of a compiex process of learn- and see Truscott, 1996, 1999, for arguments against
ing to write according to unfamiliar norms and correcting grammar in the writing classroom).
conventions in a language that is often not Whether grammar instruction is effective in the
their primary language. (p. 880) second language writing classroom, particularly
for advanced learners, is similarly a matter of some
The notion of intertextuality (Bakhtin, 1981;
controversy because it is difficult to draw a straight
Fairclough, 1992; Starfield, 2007) is frequently
line between instruction and future performance
invoked to explain students’ difficulty with avoiding
(e.g., see Ferris, 2003; Frodesen & Holten, 2003).
plagiarism. What is meant by intertextuality is that all
Given the many other issues that writing teachers
writing uses words and phrases that are preexisting
need to deal with in their classes, asking whether
and combined in new ways, referring to and build-
to spend time on error correction is probably less
ing on what has come before. Writers constantly
appropriate than asking how to prioritize dealing
draw on and refer to other existing texts in their
with grammar instruction and errors along with
own writing through a set of conventions that are
other equally or more important considerations.
often implicit and known only to people within a
(See also Frodesen, this volume.) This issue is revis-
certain discourse community. Beginning writers
ited later in this chapter.
without extensive experience and without the same
history of working with and understanding the
important vocabulary and texts in a particular
discourse community may have difficulties under- CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
standing how to follow their instructors’ guidance In this part of the chapter, I discuss the fundamentals
about using their own words and paraphrasing. of designing a writing course. Specifically, I discuss
Given these complexities, it is clear that simply objectives and assessment, lesson planning, design-
teaching students to paraphrase and summarize ing writing tasks, and responding to student writing.
is only part of the solution to helping them learn A good place to begin is with Leki, Cumming,
acceptable citation practices. Students need to be and Silva’s (2008) statement that a writing cur
made aware of the possibilities for censure and be riculum “involves the organization of learning activi-
taught strategies for paraphrasing and citing sources; ties for students to develop abilities to produce
however, these strategies may not be entirely suc- (a) meaningful, accurate written texts (b) by com-
cessful given the complexity of issues surrounding posing effectively and (c) engaging in the discourse
textual borrowing (Currie, 1998; Starfield, 2007).
appropriate to specific social contexts and purposes”
Learning to identify and avoid inappropriate textual
(p. 72). In other words, there are three main consid-
borrowing is clearly an important part of the writing
erations in designing a writing curriculum: the writ-
classroom and teachers should avoid framing it as a
ten product, the writing process, and tailoring writing
moral issue.
to a specific audience and purpose. Effective teaching
involves a balance among these concerns. Focusing
The role of grammar and error too much on accurate texts divorces writing from its
communicative function and turns the writing class
correction in writing into a grammar class; on the other hand, focus-
The last theoretical issue is the role of grammar ing exclusively on the writing process with little or
and the effectiveness of error correction in the no attention to accuracy and precision can result
writing classroom. Beginning writing teachers tend in written products that are inappropriate or that
to take it as a given that one of their main roles is do not communicate clearly. Finally, focusing on
to point out and correct student errors in writing process or product without a consideration of
so that students can learn to avoid such errors. At the communicative situations in which writing is
the same time, teachers often become frustrated actually used can lead to lack of motivation because
both by the amount of time that error correction students will not see the relevance of what is being
takes and its seeming ineffectiveness. Indeed, the taught in class.
research evidence concerning the effectiveness of Kroll (2001) notes that the list of tasks that
error correction is inconclusive (e.g., see Ferris, any writing teacher must accomplish is somewhat

228 = Unit Il
predictable: designing/implementing a syllabus, plan- of the discourse mode). Finally, the rubric could
ning individual class sessions, providing opportuni- include a consideration of whether students have
ties for writing, and responding to that writing. The successfully incorporated feedback from peers or
novice teacher often finds it difficult to know how to the teacher in improving their writing. (See the
put this list into practice; the following suggestions Appendix for an example of a writing rubric used
may provide some guidance. in a low-intermediate composition course in an
The syllabus provides a road map for both intensive English program.)
students and teachers and also helps to clarify A useful way to begin formulating objec-
expectations and class policies. Designing a tives is to write down in as detailed a fashion as
syllabus provides an opportunity to think through possible what you hope students will know and
the overall goals of the writing course and the be able to do by the end of the course and how
major learning activities that serve those goals. For students will demonstrate their knowledge and
this reason, a critical step in creating a syllabus is skills through observable behaviors or products.
articulating learning outcomes or course objec- Elsewhere (Weigle, 2007) I have suggested an
tives. As far as possible, learning outcomes should exercise that may help teachers to articulate
be written in the form of observable behaviors and learning outcomes:
products so that it is easier to determine whether
Imagine the best piece of writing that could
these objectives have been met by the end of the
come from one of your students, and write
course. For example, a vague learning outcome
an imaginary endnote to a student saying
such as “Students will improve their writing in this
what you like about it. As you do so, you will
course” is less useful than the following outcome
articulate in words what you are hoping to see
statements (taken from a low-intermediate writing
in student writing, whether it is precise use of
course in an academically oriented intensive
language, vivid details, or a strong thesis with
English program at a U.S. university): good support. Each of these descriptions can
be used to create learning outcomes. (p. 197)
™ Produce organized paragraphs (7 sentence
minimum) with topic sentences, supporting For a writing course, it is useful to think of
details, and concluding sentences through a three components of objectives: (1) a description
process of drafting and revision of the performance itself, or what the student is
m Use the language of narration, exempli- expected to write (e.g., essays, descriptive para-
fication, process, comparison/contrast, or graphs, or business memoranda); (2) the conditions
description under which the writing will be done (e.g., at home
= Demonstrate coherence using repetition of key- or in class, and with or without feedback between
words, pronouns, synonyms, and signal words drafts); and (3) the level of performance that will be
deemed acceptable, that is, the criteria for evalua-
Note that these outcomes specify both the tion in terms of such considerations as organization,
product and the process of writing, along with use of vocabulary, or sentence types (adapted from
indications of the type of language needed to com- Mager, 1975, as cited in Ferris & Hedgcock, 2004).
plete the writing tasks. Students have a clear idea of Specifying objectives in this way goes hand in
what is expected of them, and teachers can readily hand with articulating the major assignments for
ascertain whether students have achieved these out- the course and determining how they will be evalu-
comes. Written learning outcomes are also useful ated. For example, in a 14-week term a teacher
in designing scoring rubrics, or written criteria for might assign three or four major papers, depend-
evaluating the writing, tailored to specific assign- ing on the level of student proficiency. The first
ments. For example, a rubric for paragraphs based step in filling out the details of the syllabus, then,
on the outcome statements could include points is to set deadlines for these major assignments at
for content and organization, such as the presence appropriate intervals during the term.
of an effective topic sentence, details that support Outcomes written in this way have the added
the main idea, and an appropriate conclusion; it advantage of helping teachers discern what aspects
could also include issues of language (such as the of writing they need to focus on in their teaching.
use of cohesive devices and the appropriate use For example, one learning outcome in an adult ESL

Chapter 15 229
setting might be “students will write short informa- learning, preview/warm-up, lesson core (instruc-
tional notes of request to a teacher, landlord, or tion, procedures, and participation), closure,
other community member.” Teachers wanting stu- and follow-up/reflection. These components are
dents to meet this outcome will need to make sure important no matter what phase of the writing
students know appropriate basic vocabulary, routine process is being focused on in any given lesson. In
greetings and closings, question formation, writing planning out a lesson, teachers should be mindful
conventions such as indentation and paragraphing, of maintaining a balance between teacher-centered
and politeness strategies. Thinking through these and student-centered activities, providing enough
learning points will help teachers determine what time for students to practice and apply concepts,
activities to focus on in any given lesson. and leaving time at the end to make sure that stu-
dents understand whatever homework is assigned.
Turning now to a discussion of the types of
activities that are appropriate for writing classes, we
Lesson planning
can divide them into the stages of the writing pro-
Once the major assignments for the course are cess: pre-writing, writing, feedback, and revising/
determined, planning must be done on two levels: editing.
in terms of the writing cycle for each major assign-
ment and in terms of the individual lesson. In terms
of the writing cycle, there are three phases that
need to be considered: pre-writing, writing, and
Pre-writing activities
revising/editing. The pre-writing phase includes Anyone who has ever stared for hours at a blank
setting up the assignment; providing input for sheet of paper or computer screen recognizes that
students to work with in the form of texts, visuals, one of the greatest challenges in writing is getting
videos, or other content; introducing and practic- started. Writing teachers need to have a variety of
ing specific points of grammar or vocabulary that strategies to help students get over their initial anxi-
are important for completing the assignment; ety, begin planning out their ideas, and start writing.
and various activities for brainstorming and idea Pre-writing activities can be targeted toward linguis-
generation. The writing phase must include time tic development, fluency, idea generation, building
for drafting in class (where appropriate), feedback up knowledge about a topic, or a combination of all
from peers and/or the teacher, ample time for of these. For example, activities such as freewriting
incubation and rewriting, and continued work (writing for a set period of time without stopping),
on troublesome areas as they come up. Finally, a generating lists of ideas or thoughts associated with
polished draft must be submitted; teachers need to a topic, and making a mind map of related con-
consider how much time to devote to grading and cepts are appropriate at all levels of proficiency and
evaluating, and what other means of dissemination experience. Additional pre-writing activities may
might be appropriate for sharing student work. include targeted lessons on specific aspects of
Specific suggestions for each of these phases are writing, including strategies for using dictionaries
given shortly; first, however, I discuss some general or other reference materials in writing, and identi-
principles of lesson planning. fying and analyzing rhetorical structures of texts,
Most experienced teachers will confirm that such as the activity described in the opening expe-
a written lesson plan is essential for every class rience section of this chapter. Detailed sugges-
period. A written lesson plan can be as simple as tions for activities for pre-writing activities can be
a few notes or quite formal, with each step written found in Ferris and Hedgcock (2004) and Williams
out in detail. (See Purgason, this volume, for an (2005). Such activities serve to help students find a
extended discussion of lesson planning.) However, way into the writing topic and to discover for them-
as Ferris and Hedgcock (2004) noted, “whatever selves strategies that they find useful and can apply
form a lesson plan takes, it should be readable, to writing assignments in the future.
convenient to refer to in class when needed, and In academic settings in particular, it is very com-
usable as a future record of what took place” mon to incorporate readings as a starting place for
(p. 99). Ferris and Hedgcock divide the typical writing. A substantial amount of pre-writing time will
writing lesson into five phases: activation of prior thus be dedicated to encountering written texts

230 Unit Il
of various types. As noted earlier, writing teachers own personal experience, surveys, observations, or
need to think carefully about how they will use interviews) or to summarize, analyze, or critique
readings in their courses; it is not enough simply information from preexisting sources.
to ask students to read a passage and then write Writing tasks need to be structured carefully
about it. Some questions teachers may want to ask to elicit the best writing from students. Reid and
themselves about readings include: Kroll (1995) point out that classroom writing dif-
= ~~ What will students do with the reading in fers from all other writing in the sense that it is not
their writing? Will they be responding to the voluntary, the topics are usually assigned, and the
reading, using materials from the reading to writing is evaluated. Even if the assignment speci-
support an argument, or completing some fies an audience and a purpose, students know
other writing task? that their real audience is the teacher and the
= What challenges might this reading pose to real purpose is to demonstrate their writing abil-
students? Will the vocabulary, concepts, or ity. In this sense, a writing assignment is a form of
background knowledge be an issue? How will assessment, and teachers thus need to design their
I deal with these challenges? writing prompts with as much care as they would
m How can I exploit this reading to teach for any other assessment. Reid and Kroll provide
something about writing? For example, are useful suggestions for designing appropriate tasks.
there organizational patterns that I can call In particular, they note that the content should
students’ attention to? Depending on the be accessible to all students and allow for multiple
level of the student and the stage within the approaches to responding to the prompt, the
writing process where students will encounter instructions should be written in clear and unam-
the text, the reading can be used to high- biguous language, and the task should include the
light citation practices, language forms and criteria on which the writing will be judged.
structures, or organizational patterns, for
For major assignments, where students will go
example; see Hyland (2004c) for specific sug-
through a process of drafting and revision, some
useful guidelines are as follows:
gestions for additional activities.
m Make sure that the scope of the task is feasible
within the time allotted.
Writing tasks ® Structure the task to reduce the possibility of
plagiarism.
To help students develop a wide range of writing
Provide appropriate scaffolding of the task.
skills, they should be asked to respond to a vari-
Specify the topic, genre, and purpose.
ety of tasks, some graded and some not, some
Provide the scoring criteria at the beginning.
impromptu and some planned, in a variety of
Specify intermediate deadlines for assign-
genres (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2004; A. M. Johns,
ments.
1997; S. McKay, 1994). Williams (2005) notes that
the nature of writing tasks will depend in part on One issue that teachers need to confront in
learners’ proficiency and provides a wealth of sug- lesson planning is how much class time to devote
gestions for students at different proficiency levels. to actual writing. How much writing is done in the
Activities appropriate for students with lower pro- classroom (as opposed to between class meetings at
ficiencies include picture description tasks; giving home) depends in great measure on the context; for
advice or instructions; and collaborative activities example, the availability of computers and the time
such as dictoglosses, in which students take notes available for out-of-class work are obvious factors
on a short text that is read aloud and then try to that affect this. One argument in favor of devoting
reconstruct the text. For students with higher pro- substantial time in class to writing is that it reinforces
ficiencies, especially in academic contexts, several the fact that writing takes a lot of practice and that
task types typical of authentic academic writing one cannot be a good writer without writing a lot;
include summaries, proposals, reading responses, another advantage of devoting time to writing in
case studies, and annotated bibliographies. For class is that the teacher can be available for one-on-
many of these activities, students can be asked to one help while others are working. On the other
either gather or generate information (from their -hand, there are often so many other things to do

Chapter 15 231
during the class period itself that many teachers feel round) on language issues. One or both of these
they cannot sacrifice class time for writing. Students feedback cycles frequently involve peer feedback
who are paying for instruction may also feel some- instead of or in addition to instructor feedback.
what slighted if they perceive that the teacher has Peer feedback has the obvious benefit of reducing
not prepared instruction for a class period. In this the teacher’s grading workload, but it has other
case, teachers will need to communicate their ratio- benefits as well. Some of the benefits of using peer
nale for devoting class time to writing. response include (adapted from Williams, 2005):
®™ Students have an authentic audience to write
Feedback, revision, and editing for other than. their teacher and can try dif-
ferent writing approaches.
In a process approach to teaching writing, once
= The process of reading others’ work develops
students have a working draft of a paper, they need
. critical reading skills that can transfer to stu-
to receive feedback (the third phase in Table 1)
dents’ own writing, in addition to improving
and then revise and edit their paper (for global
other L2 skills.
and local issues, respectively) on the basis of this
@ Peers may focus on issues that teachers do not
feedback (the fourth and fifth phases). While there
have time to comment on or choose not to
is general agreement among students, teachers, and
address.
scholars that good feedback is essential to revision,
there is less consensus on how feedback should be On the other hand, teachers should be aware of
given, when, by whom, and what sort of feedback is potential drawbacks to the use of peer feedback.
most useful. Since providing feedback to students is Research on peer feedback in L2 classroom has
potentially one of the most important yet difficult revealed two main issues: (1) students do not always
and time-consuming activities that writing teachers give good feedback; and (2) students frequently
engage in, it is important for teachers to know what resist or disregard peer feedback activities as not
experience and research have shown to be the most useful. Both of these issues can be dealt with by
useful ways to provide feedback to students. sufficient preparation on the part of the teacher,
Most resources for writing teachers (e.g., including rationalizing the procedure, modeling
Ferris & Hedgcock, 2004; Williams, 2005) recom- the process, and providing materials such as check-
mend commenting primarily on content before lists or peer-response guides that target only certain
commenting on language issues, despite it being a features for students to fill out while responding
natural tendency for language teachers to focus on to their classmates’ writing. Additional guidelines
sentence-level accuracy. There are several reasons for implementing peer review successfully in the
for this recommendation. As noted earlier, inex- second language writing classroom can be found in
perienced writers tend to revise at the sentence Ferris (2003) and Liu and Hansen (2002).
level more than at higher levels of organization Turning to the specifics of providing feedback,
and often need to be explicitly taught to revise on another issue is whether to provide oral comments,
the rhetorical level. In addition, a premature focus written comments, or both. Written feedback, in the
on language may stifle students’ processes of idea form of endnotes or marginal comments, can rein-
generation. Furthermore, there is little point in force the strengths of a paper or indicate areas where
making detailed language comments if the overall improvement is needed. However, written comments
content and organization are going to be revised. can be very time-consuming and are often open to
On the other hand, if language errors impede misunderstandings and different interpretations. An
communication to the extent that it is impossible alternative is individual conferencing with students
to discern the meaning, clearly these errors need during office hours so that teacher and student can
to be addressed right away. discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the paper.
Based on this notion of content first, a com- However, this may not be possible in some settings,
mon practice in writing courses is to require three if there are no office hours, or if students are unavail-
drafts of a paper with two cycles of feedback and able outside class. Fortunately, new technologies
revision: the first focusing primarily on global have opened up new possibilities for feedback in
issues of content and organization, and the second the form of podcasts or other digitally recorded
(assuming adequate improvements from the first means. The advantages of recording comments are

232 Unit Il
several. First, it is often faster and easier for teachers student writing, given that it is virtually impossible
to express their comments orally than in writing. to deal with every issue. Many scholars suggest
Second, attending to comments provides additional prioritizing errors that interfere with comprehen-
practice in listening comprehension. Students can sion, errors that are stigmatized, errors that are
listen to recorded comments and relisten as often a current focus of instruction, and errors that
as they need to, unlike in face-to-face conferences. occur frequently. Another important distinction
Third, and perhaps most important, the oral-aural to make is whether students can self-correct the
channel preserves cues to meaning and intention, errors or need to be taught the correct form
such as vocal inflection and pitch, which can help directly. In the former case, an indirect approach
students interpret the comments in a positive light. is usually advised. Many teachers use coding
These options are summarized in Table 2. sheets containing symbols and abbreviations to
Williams (2005) provides a comprehensive indicate types of errors that students can correct
list of good practices for giving feedback to student themselves (for example, W F for “word form” or
writers. Some of these suggestions involve making T for “tense”). However, while this may be an intu-
explicit to students the goals and process of feed- itively appealing practice, it has not been shown
back: explaining feedback procedures, modeling the to be effective (Truscott, 1996); furthermore,
process to students, and demonstrating to students such coding systems can be difficult to implement
how to incorporate feedback into their writing. consistently and may overwhelm both teachers
In terms of the actual feedback process, Williams and students with their complexity (Ferris &
recommends reading the whole text through before Hedgcock, 2004).
making comments, being as clear as possible (avoid- If self-correction is not an option, and partic-
ing indirectness because students often misinterpret ularly when several students are having difficulties
it), and offering concrete suggestions that students with complex structures, it is generally more effec-
can act on. Consistency is important, as is balanc- tive to conduct a grammar mini-lesson in class,
ing critique with praise. An important part of the consisting ideally of text analysis/discovery activi-
feedback process is making students accountable ties, a brief deductive explanation of the grammar
for using feedback; worksheets or checklists that point in question, and practice and application
students need to fill out when turning in later drafts activities (Ferris & Hedgecock, 2004; Williams,
can be a useful tool for accountability. 2005). However teachers may choose to deal with
As discussed earlier, one important issue errors, it is important that they be consistent,
in teaching writing is how to deal with errors in explain their systems clearly, and be explicit about

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Teacher Feedback on Writing

Type of Feedback Writing is time-consuming; written

_ Written comments Endnotes and margin comments can
reinforce strengths of a paper or comments are open to misinterpretation.
indicate where improvement is needed.

Individual conferences These provide an opportunity to Teachers and/or students may not be
clarify and negotiate meaning through available outside class; students may not be
discussion; they may be less time- willing to attend office hours; students may
consuming than providing clear written not be willing to admit when they do not
feedback. understand the teacher’s comments.

Recorded oral feedback May be faster than providing written Technology may not be available; some
feedback; provides opportunities for teachers or students may be uncomfortable
listening comprehension; students can with recording equipment.
listen to comments multiple times;
nonverbal information (inflections and
tone of voice) can promote a positive
interpretation of comments.
PA RESET
EERE TORIES BIHET TN EP DPR LONE EE

Chapter 15 233
how they want students to respond to feedback on online concordances such as the Virtual Language
errors; see Ferris (2011) for a thorough discussion Centre (n.d.) can be used to investigate the differ-
of responding to errors. ence between words like interested and interesting
by providing many examples of how these words
are used in authentic texts. Again, this is an area
where teacher education is needed so that writing
FUTURE TRENDS teachers are aware of the possibilities and limita-
Numerous changes in writing instruction have been tions of using corpus tools for teaching.
brought about by the rapid expansion of technology Finally, improvements in natural language
over the past 20 years. Writing increasingly involves processing have led to the introduction of auto-
keyboarding, a skill that can be taken for granted in mated systems for scoring and providing feedback
some contexts but may need to be taught in others. on writing, a trend with potential to save time
Social media networks such as Facebook and online and resources but one that is controversial among
discussion boards, blogs, and wikis can be exploited writing teachers (see Weigle, 2010, for an overview
in the writing classroom, providing opportuni- of automated scoring for ESL writing). Proponents
ties for genuine interaction with an audience that of automated assessment (e.g., Shermis, Burstein,
goes well beyond the teacher and fellow students. Higgins, & Zechner, 2010) point out the increased
(See Sokolik, this volume, for an expanded discus- speed and reliability of using computers to score
sion of the role of technology in second language writing compared to human raters. Ideally, comput-
teaching.) Warschauer (2007) discusses three main ers could take over some of the more arduous and
technological issues with regard to writing instruc- time-consuming aspects of providing feedback to
tion: synchronous (real-time) communication, such students, such as identifying grammatical errors,
as chats and instant messaging; asynchronous com- leaving teachers with more time to attend to higher-
munication formats, such as emails or web-based order concerns such as content development and
bulletin boards; and hypermedia authoring, such rhetorical organization. Self-access programs can
as designing webpages. Warschauer notes that, for allow students to submit samples of their writing for
many second language writers, electronic media automatic feedback without the potential loss of face
provide more access to authentic communica- involved in giving their writing to another person for
tion along with expanded opportunities to under- evaluation, and such feedback can be immediate,
stand and use a wider range of language functions allowing the student more opportunities to prac-
and structures than does face-to-face interaction. tice. Indeed, a recent article reports that in at least
Electronic media can thus be a tremendous asset to one institution this is indeed the case: students find
writing courses. However, teachers must be trained turning in multiple drafts to their teachers “correc-
to use these new technologies to exploit their advan- tive, even punitive” and much prefer to revise using
tages in the classroom. e-rater (Jaschik, 2011).
In addition to these new media for writing, On the other hand, many writing teachers
an important development that has been brought are strongly opposed to the use of automated
about by the revolution in information technology essay feedback programs because they contradict
is the availability of large language corpora, which the very nature of writing, which is a form of com-
can be a useful tool for teachers and students to munication (e.g., see Cheville, 2004; Herrington &
investigate the uses of specific linguistic items. Moran, 2001). Computers obviously cannot read;
For example, Cortes (2007) and Lee and Swales they can only count things. Thus students writing
(2006) describe courses for international graduate to a computer are not writing with an audience in
students that use corpora as teaching tools for rais- mind. Consequently, aspects of writing that can
ing awareness about the genres that these students be judged only by getting a sense of a text in its
will need to master in their professional lives. (See entirety, such as the persuasiveness of an argument
also McCarthy & O’Keeffe, this volume.) Charles or a sense of authorial voice, cannot be judged bya
(2007) outlines procedures for using controlled computer. Another objection to automated scoring
corpus searches to improve students’ awareness systems is that they reinforce the notion that errors
of and control over specific linguistic choices to can be defined objectively instead of contextually.
fulfill particular rhetorical functions. For example, For example, nonstandard linguistic forms such

234 Unit Il
as double negatives, while often inappropriate in » Writing teachers need to focus on the pro-
academic writing, are perfectly acceptable in some cess of writing as well as on the product,
less formal genres. both in instruction and in responding to
Asimilar developmentwith regard to computers student writing.
and writing is the increasing use of automated soft- » New technologies are already impacting the
ware for detecting plagiarism or textual borrowing, role of writing in society and the teaching of
such as Turnitin (Turnitin, 2010). While propo- writing; teachers must be able to understand
nents of such software programs note their success and evaluate these tools to make the most
in reducing the incidence of wholesale borrowing of effective use of them.
source text materials in student writing, some schol-
ars caution against the uncritical use of such pro-
grams by educators. Howard (2007), for example,
argues that the use of antiplagiarism software frames DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
complicated issues of textual borrowing solely in 1. Why is it important to understand writing
terms of individual student ethics rather than engag- from both a cognitive and a sociocultural
ing teachers and students in pedagogies that help perspective?
students learn to use textual material appropriately 2. What is the relationship between second lan-
in their own writing, as all successful writers do. guage proficiency and writing ability?
Whatever the objections, it is not likely that 3. Do you use elements of a process approach
technological advances such as automated scor- in your own writing? How can thinking about
ing and plagiarism detection will go away; it is up your own process be helpful in teaching writ-
to teachers, then, to educate themselves as to the ing to your students?
most appropriate uses of such technology and to 4. What are some of the ways in which reading
guard against misuses. and writing are connected, and what does a
writing teacher need to know about reading to
teach writing effectively?
CONCLUSION 5. What are some of the benefits and drawbacks
to peer review in a second language writing
As the world becomes more interconnected, writ- class?
ing is the skill that may ultimately be the most criti- 6. Why is it problematic to correct or point out
cal, and the need for skilled writing teachers will every grammatical error in a piece of writing?
only increase. It is clear from this brief overview
that writing is a complex ability involving consid-
eration of a wide range of issues and subskills, and SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
that teachers need to develop expertise in many
different areas to become effective at teaching writ- 1. Look at Table 1 on p. 227.
ing. Writing is perhaps the most challenging and a. Design a lesson plan for a writing class that
time-consuming skill to teach because of its com- applies the steps of the writing process pre-
plexity, but it is also one of the most rewarding. sented in the table. Be sure to designate
the students’ proficiency level, assignment
deadlines, and so on.
b. Prepare a scoring rubric that you would
SUMMARY give to students to make your grading crite-
> Writing is a complex activity that involves ria clear to students at the beginning of the
both language ability and composing ability. assignment. Refer to the sample rubric in
> Writing teachers need to consider both the the Appendix for ideas.
cognitive (individual) aspects of writing and the 2. Work with an ESL/EFL student for two to
sociocultural (contextual) aspects of writing. four sessions on writing. Ask the student
> Writing teachers need to understand the role to bring samples of his or her writing to
of other language skills, particularly reading work on together. Decide on a strategy
and grammar, in the writing process. for suggesting improvements on both the

Chapter 15 235
 rhetorical level (content and organization) FURTHER READING
and on the sentence level (grammar and
Ferris, D. R., & Hedgcock,J. S. (2004). Teaching ESL
vocabulary).
composition: Purpose, process, and practice (2nd ed.).
3. If you are working in an academic context,
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
interview several teachers from different con-
tent areas about writing in their field and This is a comprehensive book that provides practi-
teaching ESL students. Some questions you cal guidance for teaching composition. It is partic-
might ask include: ularly appropriate for teaching in North American
a. What types of writing assignments do you contexts at the university level.
give your students? Hirvela, A. (2004). Connecting reading and writing in
b. Are there specific features of writing in second language writing instruction. Ann Arbor,
your field that students need to know MI: University of Michigan Press.
about that they might not learn in a typical
This volume provides a theoretical rationale and
English writing class?
c. To what extent do you grade writing on con-
practical advice for incorporating reading into the
tent, organization, and language? What is writing classroom.
most important? Why? Least important? Why? Leki, I., Cumming, A., & Silva, T. (2008). A synthesis
d. If you have had non-native speakers of of research on second language writing. London,
English in your class, are there specific UK: Routledge.
strengths or weaknesses that such students This volume is particularly useful for anyone inter-
tend to display? ested in research and its implications for teaching
4. If you are currently teaching a writing class, writing, particularly in the ESL context.
imagine the best possible essay that could
come from one of your students. Write an Willams, J. (2005). Teaching writing in second and for-
endnote to the student describing the areas in eign language classrooms. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
which the student has succeeded, such as the This volume addresses writing issues for both
content, the paragraph development, or the second and foreign language classes. It is fairly
use of vocabulary. Using your endnote, draft short and accessible to teachers in training and
learning outcomes for your course. practicing teachers.

236 Unit Il
APPENDIX: SAMPLE SCORING RUBRIC FOR OUT-OF-CLASS
PARAGRAPHS, LOW-INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

Scoring rubric (100 points total)

Rough Final
Draft Draft
Content, organization, and clarity (50 points)
* Paragraph includes specific content points. alll te, a NKG |
* Paragraph includes a topic sentence (a sentence that tells the main idea). 0 e110 :
* All the sentences relate to the main idea and are in logical order. ANG _/N0
* Ideas are explained clearly. KG! ae 1:0)

* Paragraph gives enough information and includes specific examples. Se I /NQ)

i
Grammar, mechanics, and format (50 points) [
Sentence structure
* Complete sentences (subject and verb) 20 Ze ANO
Problem: no verb no subject
* Correct use of capital letters and periods (.) to divide sentences ile _/10
Problem: run on comma splice
Other grammar for the level/assignment
* Correct word order mat/5 Lue
¢ Correct word forms: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, plurals, pronouns (subject, wa/S pis
object, possessive)
* Correct use of verbs
Problem: __ verb tense __ incorrect use of be = am, is, are
___verb form ____ subject-verb agreement me 0 _/10

Format 15 5
* Indents the first line of the paragraph and uses correct format for other lines a —

Spelling and mechanics

Problem: ____ spelling ___ punctuation ____ capital letters eS —_/5

Final grade (100 points) _/100 __/100 __/100

Note: Points obtained on the rough and final drafts are averaged to arrive at the final grade. If the final draft is not turned in on time, 10 points are subtracted.
la Nay State University Intensive English Program. aes with permission.
LIRR
SE EOIN ENE ENTE
CTR ROME SELLE AEE AML LTTE TEEN IOC EE OLE ELITE
NE LCL LDS LE NALEOEEELEIP
TOO LE ET TI DIESEL I

Chapter 15 237