Principles of Wireless
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Communications
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Module-1
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VT
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Module-1: Contents
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• Principles of Wireless Communications: The Wireless
Communication Environment, Modelling of wireless
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systems, System model for narrowband Signals, Rayleigh
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fading Wireless Channel.
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• The Wireless Channel: Basics of Wireless Channel
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Modelling, Average Delay Spread in Outdoor Cellular
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Channels, Coherence bandwidth, Relation between ISI and
Coherence Bandwidth, Doppler fading, Doppler Impact on a
wireless Channel, Coherence Time.
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Introduction to Wireless Communications
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➢ Wireless communication enables data transmission without
physical connections.
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• It is the backbone of modern technologies:
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• Mobile phones
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• Wi-Fi
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• Bluetooth VT
• Satellite systems
➢ Offers mobility, flexibility, and ubiquitous access to information.
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Introduction to Wireless Communications
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➢ Focuses on key concepts such as:
• Signal propagation and channel modeling
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• Modulation techniques
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• Fading and interference
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• Bandwidth and power efficiency
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Introduction to Wireless Communications
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➢ Essential for designing efficient systems in:
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• 5G networks
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• Internet of Things (IoT)
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• Wireless sensor networks
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• Enables innovations in communication and
connectivity.
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
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➢ Introduction
• Wireless communication relies on radio wave propagation through
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the environment.
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• Unlike wired media, the wireless environment is unpredictable and
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dynamic.
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• Key environmental factors affect signal strength and quality.
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
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➢ Key Components of the Wireless Environment
• Radio Path: The route taken by radio waves from transmitter to
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receiver.
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• Propagation Attenuation: Signal loss as it travels through the
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environment.
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• Mobile Radio Channel: Time-varying nature due to movement and
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obstacles.
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
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➢ Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflection: Occurs when signals bounce off surfaces (e.g., buildings).
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• Diffraction: Bending around sharp edges or corners.
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• Scattering: Caused by small objects like trees or lamp posts.
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➢ Fading Effects VT
• Fast Fading: Rapid changes due to small movements (multipath
interference).
• Slow Fading (Shadowing): Gradual signal strength variation due to large
obstacles.
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
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➢ Path Loss Models
• Free-Space Model: Ideal case with line-of-sight.
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• Two-Ray Model: Considers direct and ground-reflected paths.
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• Empirical Models:
• Hata Model (Urban/Rural)
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• Okumura Model VT
• Log-distance Path Loss Model
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
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➢ Indoor vs Outdoor Environments
• Indoor: Complex due to walls, furniture; dominated by
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reflection/scattering.
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• Outdoor: Impacted by terrain, buildings, foliage, and atmospheric
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conditions.
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➢ Doppler Shift & Mobility
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• Doppler Shift: Frequency change due to relative motion.
• Affects signal coherence and communication reliability in mobile
scenarios.
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The Wireless Communication Environment:
➢ Challenges in Wireless Environments
• Signal Degradation due to multipath and fading.
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• Interference from other users/devices.
• Coverage gaps and dead zones.
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• Dynamic resource allocation needed to adapt to changing conditions.
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➢ Summary
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• Wireless environment is complex and dynamic.
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• Understanding propagation and channel behavior is essential for system
design.
• Accurate modeling ensures reliable communication and efficient spectrum
use.
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Modelling of wireless systems:
➢ Introduction to Wireless System Modelling
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• Purpose: To mathematically represent the behavior of a wireless
communication system.
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• Helps in:
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• Performance analysis
• Simulation and optimization
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• System design and development
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Modelling of wireless systems:
➢ Key Components of Wireless System Model
• Transmitter (Tx): Source of the signal
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• Channel: Wireless medium (free space, urban, indoor)
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• Receiver (Rx): Receives and decodes the transmitted signal
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• Noise and Interference: Real-world impairments affecting the signal
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Modelling of wireless systems:
➢ Types of Wireless Channel Models
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• Deterministic Models:
• Based on physical parameters and environment geometry
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• Example: Ray Tracing
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• Stochastic Models:
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• Use random variables to model fading and mobility
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• Example: Rayleigh, Rician fading models
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• Empirical Models:
• Based on measurements in specific environments
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Modelling of wireless systems:
➢ Common Wireless Impairments
• Path Loss: Signal strength decreases with distance
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• Shadowing: Signal blockage by large objects
• Multipath Fading: Multiple delayed versions of the signal arrive at the
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receiver
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• Doppler Effect: Frequency shift due to relative motion
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➢ Fading Models VT
• Rayleigh Fading: No line-of-sight (LOS); used in urban settings
• Rician Fading: LOS plus scattered signals
• Nakagami-m Model: Generalized fading model for flexible environments
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Modelling of wireless systems:
➢ Importance of Modelling
• Enables:
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• System simulation
• Performance evaluation under various conditions
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• Design of robust communication techniques (e.g., diversity, coding)
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➢ Summary
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• Wireless system modelling is essential for understanding real-world
performance.
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• Different models are used based on environment, frequency, and
mobility.
• Accurate modelling leads to better design, capacity planning, and
coverage analysis.
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System model for narrowband Signals
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➢ Baseband System Model
• The received signal can be modeled as:
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• r(t)=h(t)⋅s(t)+n(t)
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• Where:
• s(t): transmitted baseband signal
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• h(t): complex channel gain (includes amplitude fading + phase shift)
• n(t): additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
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System model for narrowband Signals
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➢ Channel Characteristics
• Fading: caused by multipath components arriving with different
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delays and phases.
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• Doppler Shift: due to mobility, causes phase variations in h(t)h(t)h(t).
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• Assumption: No intersymbol interference (ISI) due to narrow
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bandwidth. VT
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System model for narrowband Signals
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➢ Key Assumptions in Narrowband Modeling
• Single-tap channel: only one path is considered, or all multipaths are
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assumed to combine into one.
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• Coherence bandwidth Bc≫B : ensures flat fading.
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• Channel varies slowly with time: quasi-static or slow-fading channel.
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VT
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
➢ Introduction to Rayleigh Fading
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• Rayleigh fading occurs when multiple reflected paths (multipath)
exist without a dominant line-of-sight (LOS) path.
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• Common in urban environments, especially when the receiver is
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moving.
• The amplitude of the received signal follows a Rayleigh
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distribution. VT
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
• Rayleigh Probability Distribution
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• The envelope of the received signal r has the PDF:
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• Where:
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• σ2: variance of in-phase or quadrature components
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
➢ Channel Model
• Channel gain h(t) is a complex Gaussian random process with:
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• Zero mean
• Uncorrelated real and imaginary parts
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• Received signal:
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• r(t)=h(t)⋅s(t)+n(t)
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• Characteristics VT
• Rapid amplitude fluctuations due to constructive and destructive
interference
• Phase changes due to motion or environmental dynamics
• Doppler spread from mobility causes frequency broadening
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
➢ Key Parameters
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• Doppler Shift (fDf_DfD): Caused by relative velocity between Tx
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and Rx
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• Coherence Time (TcT_cTc): Time duration over which channel
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remains roughly constant
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• Level Crossing Rate (LCR) and Average Fade Duration (AFD):
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Measure fading dynamics
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
➢ Use in Wireless System Design
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• Used to simulate non-LOS channels
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• Helps evaluate:
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• Bit Error Rate (BER)
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• Performance of diversity schemes (e.g., MRC, selection combining)
• Adaptive modulation and coding
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• When to Use Rayleigh Model
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• No direct path (LOS)
• Dense scattering environment
• Common in mobile scenarios: city streets, indoor environments, and tunnels
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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
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➢ Summary
• Rayleigh fading is fundamental in wireless modeling.
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• Models signal strength variations due to multipath interference.
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• Critical for designing robust receivers in mobile and urban
environments.
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VT
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The Wireless Channel: Basics of Wireless Channel
Modelling
➢ Introduction to Wireless Channels
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• The wireless channel represents the medium through which radio
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signals propagate from transmitter to receiver.
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• Affected by various phenomena like:
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• Reflection
• Diffraction
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• Scattering
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• Fading and shadowing
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Basics of Wireless Channel Modelling
➢ Why Channel Modelling?
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• Helps understand how signals degrade or distort.
• Crucial for:
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• Performance prediction
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• Design of modulation and coding schemes
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• Simulation of real-world environments
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➢ Wireless Channel Characteristics
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• Time-varying: Due to motion of transmitter, receiver, or objects.
• Random: Channel gain and phase vary due to multipath.
• Bandwidth-dependent: Wideband vs narrowband response varies.
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Basics of Wireless Channel Modelling
➢ Types of Channel Models
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• Deterministic Models
• Based on physical environment geometry (e.g., ray tracing)
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• Stochastic Models
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• Use statistical descriptions of environment (e.g., Rayleigh, Rician)
• Empirical Models
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• Based on measurement data (e.g., Hata, Okumura)
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Basics of Wireless Channel Modelling
➢ Key Channel Parameters
• Delay spread: Causes intersymbol interference (ISI)
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• Doppler spread: Frequency variation due to motion
• Coherence time & coherence bandwidth
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➢ Summary
• Wireless channel modelling is fundamental for designing efficient wireless
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systems. VT
• It captures the impact of the propagation environment on signal
transmission.
• Different models are used depending on the application, frequency, and
environment.
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Average Delay Spread in Outdoor Cellular Channels
➢ What is Delay Spread?
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• Delay Spread (τ): Measures the time dispersion of multipath signals
arriving at the receiver.
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• It reflects the difference in arrival times between the earliest and latest
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significant multipath components.
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➢ Relevance in Outdoor Cellular Channels
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• Outdoor environments, especially urban and suburban areas, involve:
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• Buildings, trees, and terrain causing reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
• Result: multiple delayed signal copies reach the receiver.
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Average Delay Spread in Outdoor Cellular Channels
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➢ Average Delay Spread (ADS)
• ADS quantifies the average time dispersion of the channel:
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Average Delay Spread in Outdoor Cellular Channels
➢ Impact on System Performance
• Delay spread affects:
• Inter-symbol interference (ISI) in digital systems
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• Coherence bandwidth: Inversely proportional to delay spread
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• Equalizer design and guard interval requirements in systems like OFDM
➢ Summary
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• Outdoor cellular channels typically experience moderate to high delay
spread.
• Affects system bandwidth efficiency, equalization, and data rate.
• Accurate modeling is essential for reliable system design.
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Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
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• Coherence Bandwidth (Bc) is a statistical measure of
the frequency range over which the channel's
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frequency response is flat (i.e., the channel does not
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cause significant distortion).
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VT
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Coherence Bandwidth (Bc)
➢ Relationship with Delay Spread
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• Coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to the RMS delay spread
(τrms):
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➢ Interpretation VT
• If signal bandwidth B < Bc:
→ Channel is flat fading (no frequency-selective distortion).
• If signal bandwidth B > Bc:
→ Channel is frequency-selective, causing inter-symbol interference
(ISI).
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Relation between ISI and Coherence Bandwidth
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➢ What is ISI (Inter-Symbol Interference)?
• ISI occurs when multiple delayed copies of a signal interfere with
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subsequent symbols.
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• Caused by multipath propagation where reflections arrive with
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delays.
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Relation between ISI and Coherence Bandwidth
➢ Relationship Between ISI and Coherence Bandwidth
• If signal bandwidth B<Bc :
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• The channel behaves as flat fading.
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• All frequency components are equally affected.
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• ISI is negligible.
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• If signal bandwidth B>Bc :
• The channel exhibits frequency-selective fading.
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• Different frequency components of the signal undergo different fading.
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• ISI becomes significant due to time dispersion caused by multipath.
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Doppler Fading (Time-Selective Fading)
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➢ What is Doppler Fading?
• Doppler fading occurs due to relative motion between the
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transmitter, receiver, or scattering objects.
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• Causes a shift in frequency of the received signal known as the
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Doppler shift.
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VT
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Doppler fading, Doppler Impact on a wireless
Channel, Coherence Time
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• Doppler Shift Formula
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Doppler fading, Doppler Impact on a wireless
Channel, Coherence Time
➢ Doppler Spread
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• Doppler Spread (Δf): Range of Doppler shifts due to multipath
components.
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• It causes frequency broadening of the received signal spectrum.
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➢ Coherence Time (Tc)
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• Time duration over which the channel impulse response is considered
constant.
• Inversely related to Doppler spread:
• Tc≈1/fD
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Doppler fading, Doppler Impact on a wireless Channel,
Coherence Time
➢ Types of Doppler Fading
• Fast Fading: Channel changes within one symbol duration (when
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Ts>Tc ).
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• Slow Fading: Channel remains constant over many symbols (when
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Ts<Tc ).
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➢ Impact on Wireless Systems
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• Causes time variation of channel amplitude and phase.
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• Degrades performance of systems like OFDM and coherent detection.
• Requires adaptive equalization, channel estimation, or diversity
techniques.
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