Transistor Biasing
Voltage Divider Biasing
The figure 8.1a shows the voltage divider biasing circuit.
Notice that the base circuit contains a voltage divider (R1 and
R2) because of this circuit is called voltage divider bias
(VDB).
VDB Analysis
In any well designed VDB circuit the base current is very
negligible compared to current through voltage divider circuit
and hence equivalent circuit at base is shown in figure 8.1b.
To analyse VDB circuit we need follow the steps given below.
1. Calculate the base voltage VBB out of voltage divider
bias which is given by
With VBB as a dc source the equivalent circuit for figure 8.1a is
given in figure 8.1c.
2. Subtract 0.7V to get the emitter voltage.
VE = VBB-VBE
3. Divide the VE by R E to get emitter current.
IE = V E / R E
4. Assume the collect current is equal to emitter current.
IC ≈ I E
5. Calculate collector voltage using following equation.
VC = VCC - ICRC
6. Then calculate collector emitter voltage (VCE) by
subtracting emitter voltage from collector voltage.
VCE = VC - VE
VDB load line and Q point
The Q point
From the example 8.1 the Q point is calculated which is at the collector current of
1.1mA and a collector emitter voltage of 4.94 V. These values are plotted to get the Q
point shown in Figure 8.6. S0ince the voltage divider bias is derived from emitter
bias, one way to move the Q point of figure 8.6 is by varying the emitter resistor.
Two Supply Emitter Bias
Two supply emitter bias of figure 8.8 shows a transistor circuit with two
power supplies +10V and -2V. The negative supply forward biases the emitter diode.
The positive supply reverse biases the collector diode. This circuit is derived from the
emitter bias. Hence we refer this as two supply bias(TSEB).
The circuit in figure 8.8 is redrawn in figure 8.9 for simplicity. The steps for analysing circuit
above as follows
1. If this circuit is correctly designed the base current I B is very small and hence
considered as approximately zero. Voltage V B is approximately zero
VB =0
2. Calculate the VE which is obtained by analysing the circuit at emitter
VE = VB - VBE
3. Find the emitter current I E
IE = (VE –(-VEE)) / RE
4. Assume the collect current is equal to emitter current.
IC ≈ I E
5. Calculate collector voltage using following equation.
VC = VCC - ICRC
6. Then calculate collector emitter voltage (VCE) by subtracting emitter voltage from
collector voltage.
VCE = VC - VE
Other types of Bias
Emitter feedback bias
In base bias circuit of figure 8.12a the Q point is varies
all over the load line due to replacement of transistor
and change in temperature. Hence to stabilize Q point
the emitter feedback bias of circuit shown in figure
8.12b used. Noticed that the emitter resistor is added at
the circuit to stabilize the Q point.
Here are the equations for analysing the Q point
VCE = VC - VE
Looking at equations above it is clear that when IC
increases, VE increases causing VB to increase. Which
gives more VB hence less voltage across RB reduces
base current IB which opposes original increase in IC.
In this way change in IC due to variation in temperature
will be opposes by emitter feedback bias circuit. It is
called feedback because of change in emitter voltage is
being feedback to the base circuit.
Collector – Feedback Bias
The figure 8.14a shows the collector feedback bias also called self-bias. Here feedback the
voltage to the base from the collector to neutralize any change in collector current. For a
instance suppose the collector current increases. This decreases the collector voltage VC
which decreases the voltage across the base resistor. In trun, this decreases the base current,
which opposes the original increase in collector current IC.
Here are the equations for analysing collector feedback bias.
VCE =VC
The Q point is set near the middle of load line by using base resistance of
Collector and Emitter Feedback bias
Collector and emitter feedback bias used to set more stable bias for transistor circuits.
The figure 8.15 shows the collector – emitter feedback bias. Combining both types of
feedback in one circuit helps to stabilize Q point but still production.
Here are the equations for analysing it
Base Biased Amplifier
DC biasing circuit
Figure 9.4 shows a base biased circuit, looking the circuit.
IB = (30v-0.7)/1M = 30µA
With current gain ∙=100
IC = IB x 100 = 3mA
And the collector voltage
Vc = VCC – IC x RC = 30 – (3m)(5K) = 15v
Hence the Q point is located at 3mA and 15V of IC and VC respectively
Amplifying circuit
Figure 9.4 shows base bias amplifier circuit with an ac source voltage is 100uV. Since
the input coupling capacitor is an ac short, all the ac of source voltage appears between the
base and the ground. For coupling capacitor work properly, its reactance must be 10 times
less than input resistance of amplifier at the lowest frequency of the ac source (Xc < 0.1R).
The ac voltage produces an ac base current that is added to the existing dc base current.
Figure 9.3 a illustrates the ac component is super imposed on the dc component of 30uA. The
ac base current produces an amplified variation in collector current because of the current
gain. In figure 9.3 b shows the amplified the ac collector current superimposed on dc
collector of 3mA
Since this amplified collector
current flows through the collector
resistor, it produces a varying voltage
across the collector resistor. Which is
subtracted from the supply voltage we
get the collector voltage shown in
figure 9.3c.
Voltage waveforms
The voltage gain of an amplifier is
defined as the ac output voltage divided
by the ac input voltage.
Figure 9.4 shows the waveforms for a base
biased amplifier. The ac source voltage is small
sinusoidal voltage. This is coupled into the base,
where it is superimposed on the dc component of +0.7V. The variation in base voltage
produces sinusoidal variation in base current, collector current and collector voltage. The
total collector voltage is an inverted sine wave superimposed on the dc collector voltage of
+15v. The coupling capacitor at the load blocks all dc component and hence the load voltage
is pure ac signal.
Emitter Biased Amplifier
VDB(Voltage divider bias) Amplifier
Figure 9.8 shows a voltage
divider biased (VDB) amplifier.
To calculate the dc voltages and
currents, mentally open all
capacitors. The quiescent or dc
values for this circuit are
VB= 10 x 2.2k/12.2k = 1.8V,
VE =VB-VBE= 1.8 – 0.7 =
1.1V,
IC=IE = VE/RE = 1.1/1K = 1.1mA,
VC=VCC – IC x RC= 10-1.1m x 3.6k= 6.04V,
With coupling capacitors it is also use a bypass capacitor between the emitter and
ground without this capacitor the ac base current would be much smaller. With this capacitor
we get a much larger voltage gain. To work bypass capacitor properly its reactance must be
minimum 10 times less than the resistance at lowest frequency of ac signal (Xc<0.1R).
VDB Waveforms
Notice the voltage waveforms in figure 9.8. The ac source voltage is a small
sinusoidal voltage with an average value of zero. The base voltage is an ac voltage
superimposed on a dc voltage 1.8 V. The collector voltage is an amplified and inverted ac
voltage superimposed on the dc collector voltage of +6.04V. The load voltage is the same as
the collector voltage except that it has an average value of zero. It is also note that voltage at
emitter is pure dc of +1.1V because of bypass capacitor.
Two- supply emitter bias (TSEB) amplifier
Figure 9.9 shows TSEB amplifier, The dc analysation of this circuit shown in figure 8.10.
Figure shows a two supply emitter bias (TSEB) amplifier. By analysing the dc part of the
cirucit and calculate these quiescent voltages
VB= 0V , VE = VB-VBE = -0.7V,
IC = IE =VE-(-2)/RE = -0.7-(-2)/1k = 1.3mA,
VC = VCC-IC x RC= 10-1.3m x 306k= 5.32 V
Figure 9.9 shows two coupling capacitors to block ac at input and output side and a bypass
capacitor to bypass ac component through emitter resistor RE so that it does not disturbe the
operating point.
Notice waveform that the ac source voltage is a small sinusodial voltage. The base voltage
has a small ac component riding on a dc component of approximately 0v. The total collector
voltage is inverted sine wave riding on the dc the dc collector voltage of +5.32V. The load
voltage is the same amplified signal with no dc component.
1. Small Signal Operation
When an ac voltage is coupled into the
base of a transistor, an ac voltage appears across
the base emitter [Link] produces the
sinusodial variation in VBE shown in figure 9.10.
When the voltage increases to its positive peak,
the instantaneous operating point moves from Q
to the upper point. On the other hand when the
sine wave decreases to its negative peak, the
operating point moves from Q to the lower point.
Distortion & Reducing distortion
The ac emitter current is not a perfect
replica of the ac base [Link] the graph is
curved upward, the positive half cycle of ac emitter current is stretched and the negative half
cycle is compressed. This stretching and compressing is called distortion.
One way to reduce this distortion is by keeping the ac base voltage small. When you
reduce the peak value of base voltage, you reduce the movement of the instantaneuos
operating point. Using 10 percent rule to minimize the distortion, the peak to peak ac value
of ie must be small comparted to I EQ i.e (ie(pp) < 0.1IEQ ). Where ie is ac emiiter current and
IEQ is dc emitter current.
AC Beta
The dc current gain (dc beta) is
βdc = IC /I B
Where ac current gain is (ac beta) equal the ac
collectr current divided by the ac base current.
β = ic/ib
Graphically, β equals the slope the curve at point Q
AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode
When a small ac voltage vbe change at the
emitter and base junction produces the ac
emitter current as shown in figure 9.13
The ac emitter resistance of the emitter diode is
the ac base emitter voltage divided by the ac
emitter current.
re’ = vbe/ie
The ac emitter resistance is also 25mV divided by dc emitter current IE
re’ = 25 mV / IE
Two Transistor Models
To analyse the ac operation of a transistor amplifier, we need an ac equivalent circuit(ac
model) for a transistor that simulates how it behaves when an ac signal is present.
The T Model
The T model also called Ebers-Moll model shown in figure 9.16. Here the emitter diode of a
transistor acts like an ac resistance re’ and the collector diode acts like a current source ic.
Since it looks like T shape so it is called T model.
When an ac input signal is applied this gives an ac base emitter vbe across emitter base and
produces ac base current ib as shown in figure 9.17a. Hence Looking at base the input
impedance Zin(base) as shown in figure 9.17b is
The π Model
Figure 9.18a shows the π model of transistor. This model is easier to use than the T model
shown in figure 9.18b beacause the input impdance is not bovious in T model.
Applying ohm’s law to the emitter diode of fig. 9.17a, we can write.
Equating vbe = ibre’ into equation 9.11 will give
Hence π model shown in figure 9.18a having input impendance of βre’
Analysing an Amplifier
The simplest way to analyse an amplifier is to split the analsis into two parts, 1) dc analysis
b) ac analysis
In dc analysis we calculate the dc voltages and currents to do this we need to open all
capacitors. The circuit that remains is dc equavalent circuit.
In ac analysis short all capacitors and dc voltage sources and then trasistor can be replaced by
either the π model or the T model.
Analysis of Base bias amplifier
Figure 9.20a shows base biased amplifier. For dc analysation open all capacitors and analyse
the dc equavalent cicuit which means calculate the operating point values I C and VCE.
For ac analysation the figure 9.20b shows the ac equivalent circuit. Which we got after
shorting all capacitors and dc source +VCC and then repalce the transitor with its π model.
As you can see in the base circuit, the ac input voltage appears across RB in parllel with βre’.
In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current of ic through RC in parllel with
RL
Analysis of Voltage divider bias amplifier
Figure 9.21a is VDB amplifier and figure 9.21b is its ac equavalent cicuit. As you can see.
All capacitors have been shorted, the dc supply point has become an ac ground and the
trasnsistor has been replaced with R2 in parllel with βre. In the collector cicuit, the current
source pumps an ac current of ic through R C in parllel with R L
Analysis of Two supply emitter bias amplifier
The two supply emitter biasing is shown in figure 9.22a. The equivalent for TSEB is shown
in figure 9.22b to get it again all capcitors and dc voltage source are shorted and the trasisitor
is replaced by its π model. In the base circuit, the ac input voltage appears across RB in
parllel with Bre’. In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current of ic through
Rc in parallel with R L
H parameters
When trasistor was first invented, an approach used to analyse and design the trasistor circuit
is known as h parameters. The more practical approach is the one using π model which is
called r, parameter method, which uses the quantity like β and re’ but h parameters are sill
survived on data sheet. There are h parameters which gives very usefull information are hfe,
hie, hre and hoe
Relation between R and H parameters
1. The hfe in H parameter is nothing but a current gain β in R parameters
β = hfe
2. Similarly the quantity hie in H parmeter equaivalent to the input impedance which is
relate to R parameter’s re’ like this
3. The another two parameters hre and hoe are not needed for troubleshooting and basic
design
Voltage Amplifiers
Voltage gain
Figure 10.1a shows a voltage divider biased amplifier. Here voltage gain was defined as the
ac output voltage divided by the ac input voltage. Let us derive the voltage gain equation
using both T and π model
From the figure 10.1b The total load resistance seen by the collector is parallel combination
of RC and R L. This is called the ac collector resistance r c.
Derived from the T model
The figure 10.c shows the ac equavalent circuit using the T model of the transistor. The input
voltage vin appears acros re’. With Ohm’s law we can write:
The loading effect of input impedance
Input impedance :
In figure 10.30a, an ac voltage source vg has an internal resistance RG. Some of the ac source
voltage is dropped across its internal resistance. As a result, the ac voltage between the base
and ground is less than ideal.
The ac generator has to drive the input impedance of the stage Zin(stage). Ac equaivalent
circuit of figure 10.3a shown in figure 10.3b. Looking from the input circuit of fig 10.3b
input impedance Zin(stage) is given by.
Therefore equation for input voltage Vin looking at figure 10.3c will be
CC (Common Collector Amplifier)
The emitter follower is also called a common collector (CC) amplifier. Figure 11.1a shows an
emitter follower at which input voltage is coupled to the base and output produces at the
emitter. The figure 11.1b shows the total voltage between base and ground. It has a dc
component quiescent voltage VBQ and an input voltage ac component rides on VBQ. Similarly
figure 11.1c shows the voltage between the emitter and ground. This time, the ac input
voltage is entered on a quiescent emitter voltage VEQ. The ac emitter outpu voltage coupled to
the load resistor as shown in figure 11.1d. This output voltage is approximatly equal to the
input voltage. Because the output voltage follows the input voltage this circuit is called
emitter follower.
Voltage gain of CC amplifier:
As shown the figure 11.1a the total ac emitter resistance is
Input impedance of the CC amplifier :
The figure 11.2b shows the ac equavalent circuit of CC amplifier looking in this figure input
impedance of the base is
Hence the total input impedance of the input stage looking from the source Vin in figure
11.2b is
Output impedance of the CC amplifier
Figure 11.8 shows ac equivalent circuit for emitter follower. Looking from the output load
resistor R L and by considering the emitter current ie is flowing through the total resistor
RG||R1||R2 at the input side, we have output impendace Zout is