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Addis College
Department of Civil Engineering

Program: B.S c. in CoTM Chapter 1

Introduction
By: Semere Yilma

Lecture Note Chapter 1-9February 202 5

Brain storming

Ecosphere-biosphere

Antroposphere Man-made

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STRUCTURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT/ ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT/ ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

Antroposphere = Man-made environments like built-up

and working landscapes

FUNCTIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT/ ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

 The atmosphere - provides, shelter, air, rain,

temperature regulation, energy and supports man y
natural and socio-economic processes.
 The Hydrosphere - provides water, habitat for much
of biodiversity, regulates temperature and suppor ts
several other physical, biological and socio-
economic systems.
 The Lithosphere - provides the land, soil,
subsurface for life, minerals, heat sink, water sink ,
is a key component for meteorological processes.
Provides a diversity of resources to human life.
 The Biosphere - ecosphere is the set of all living
organisms, including animals and plants. They are community's appearance, size, functioning, and environmental
temporary accumulators (like lead) and sources fo r
pollutants (natural forest burning) in a very
complex set of relationships with the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.

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Environment
Environment
Landscapes
Working
Natural

Built-up
Areas

TYPES OF RESOURCES
In a very broad sense, environment
system consists of: • Mineral resources
Resources, Land, human and other;  Human Resources •Water resources
 Land resources •Surface Water
Processes, that convert these
 Flora and fauna Resources
resources into various other useable •Ground Wate r
 Soils
products and services; and Resources
 Air
•Energy resources
Effects of these processes, which may
• Finance
be negative or positive. • Reusable and
Recyclable materials

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

 Manufacturing Negative Effects -

 Pollution - air, water, noise
 Transportation
 Waste Generation – solid waste,
 Construction sewage
 Migration  Congestion, overcrowding

 Population Growth Positive Effects

 Products,
 Value-addition

Sustainable Development , Construction & Environment?

 Sustainable construction has not received sufficient attention in developing  Most projects focus on the economic angle, but ignore the aspect of quality of

countries, although it is an important aspect of sustainable development. environment, preservation of green, water, etc.

 Government policies in areas of:  In addition, (for instance infrastructure and services provision), energy and wate r
are constant requirements for the success of the construction sector.
✓ housing,
 The intensive consumption of these by the construction industry generate:
✓ economics,
✓ waste disposal on construction sites,
✓ environment &
✓ disposal of by-products of construction materials &
✓ spatial planning are factors affecting sustainable development.
✓ unused building materials which become an environmental concern.
 These policies are concerned with alleviation of poverty, employment creation,
capacity building, etc.,  Generally, construction and the technology in developing countries like
Ethiopia is not in a position to create sustainable development through
➢ However, methods adopted to enact these policies do not enhance
sustainable construction.
sustainable construction.

 The impact of construction activities on the built environment is also the other
issue.

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What is Planning?
Environmental planning?
❖ Planning is thinking ahead. Planning is a management activity and a continuous process ,
where the following analysis is carried out: it is the process of planning to:

1. Where are we now? ✓ environmental protection and problem solving.

2. Where to go?
 Environmental planning is deciding how to use :
3. What goals and objectives are to be set?
4. How to select best method? ✓ natural resources,
5. What is to be done?
✓ financial capital, and
6. When it is to be done?
7. People Responsible? ✓ people to achieve/maintain healthy communities and
8. How it is to be done?
✓ quality of life.
9. Identifying resources and persons to be consulted.
 Environmental Planning also means avoiding problems before they occur.
❖ “Planning is deciding in advance about what to do, How to do it, when to do it and who is to
do it. It provides the ends to be achieved.”  Environmental planning can help communities to:
(Stephen P. Robbins) ✓ avoid or minimize air and water pollution,
❖ “Planning is the process by which managers define goals and take necessary steps to
ensure that these goals are achieved”.
✓ loss of wildlife,
(Richard Steers) ✓ the conversion of farm and forestlands, and

✓ degradation of the built environment.

 Environmental planning & management may be:

Integrative environmental planning involves:
1. reactive,
✓ early and essential consideration of environmental and social factors
2. proactive, or
in the formulation of development plans and projects,
3. integrative.
E.g. highway, Dams .
Reactive measures try to correct prior environmental damages,
E.g.
✓ remediation of old waste dumps, Planning Approaches
✓ reclamation of abandoned mined lands, or  There are four basic approaches to planning.
✓ cleanup of polluted waterways.
1. The rational-comprehensive approach
Proactive measures are taken explicitly to enhance environmental quality,
2. The Incremental approach,
E.g.
✓ land use controls to preserve wildlife habitats and wetlands, 3. The participatory approach

✓ protect aquifer recharge areas, or 4. The Advocacy approach

✓ restrict future floodplain development.. How each approach is distinguished?

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3. The participatory approach suggests that:

1. The rational-comprehensive approach:
neither rational-comprehensive nor incremental approaches deal explicitly
it is based on the scientific method & has five basic steps of :
with the diverse stakeholder perspectives & conflicting values;
✓ Objectives, it aims to inform & involve the public in planning & decision making.
✓ information, 4. The advocacy approach recognizes that:
✓ alternatives, interested stakeholders do not speak with one voice but often line up in

✓ impact assessment, and evaluation. well-established camps & fight for their special interests;

this situation often requires some advocacy of the under-represented &

2. The Incremental approach:
mediation to resolve differences.
✓ it accepts limitations in human knowledge & understanding, Generally, Environmental planning requires:

➢ and as a result, focuses on short-term goals & objectives & smal l a rational-comprehensive & participatory framework,

sequential actions. with elements of adaptive-incremental management & advocacy

planning as appropriate

What is Engineering and Science?

 Science is improve our understanding of natural processes Environmental Engineering
 It is the application of science and engineering principle s
 Engineer is use this understanding to develop and apply to minimize the adverse effects of human activity on th e
technologies that will maintain or improve environmental environment
quality or
 Environmental Engineering is the integration of science
 What is an engineer? and engineering principles to improve the natural
 Problem solver. environment, to provide healthy water, air, and land for
 Specifically one who uses science to solve real world problems. human habitation and for other organisms, and to
remediate pollution sites.
 What about an environmental engineer?
 Solves environmental problems using scientific tools

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Top 10 Environmental Issues Population growth continues to grow across the world,

This population growth needs the expansion of infrastructures,

Climate Change
All infrastructure development passes through construction,

Construction disturbs the natural environment,

If such trends continues the whole environment will be covered by impervious

layers & the natural environment will be lost.

All these human activities poses considerable problems on the environment,

Thus, as a proactive measure construction activities should be performed with

Environmental planning.

Thank you Chapter 2

Concepts of Ecology

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Environment component Interaction Ecosystem

 Ecology can be defined as the study of
relationships between organisms and their
environment.
◦ chemistry of solids to which a particular plant
species is restricted
◦ between the number of eggs a bird lays and
the amount of food available for its chicks to
eat
Environment: ◦ the changes occurring in a lake or river when
• “physical, chemical, biological, and social entities, untreated sewage is added to it.
conditions and dynamics that surround us” Erikson 1994

Ecosystem Structure of an ecosystem

• Ecosystem = ‘ecological system’ • biotic and abiotic
• An ecosystem is a group of plants and • Biotic components
animals, along with the physical environment
with which it interacts. – Producers or Autotrophs
• autotrophic organisms -- manufacture their own
• Ecology examines the life histories, food material
distribution and behavior of individual
• capture solar energy + simple inorganic substances
species, as well as the structure and (water, carbon dioxide, salts)
functions of a natural system in terms of • Food synthesized → growth, survival, and stored.
populations, communities, ecosystems and
• E.g. Green plants, Photosynthetic bacteria, and
landscapes. Chemosynthetic bacteria

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Structure of an ecosystem Structure of an ecosystem

• Consumers or Heterotrophs  Decomposers/Microconsumers/Red
– heterotrophic organisms (nourished by others) ucers
consume the producers directly or indirectly. ◦ heterotrophic organisms which are
• Primary consumers/herbivores: consume the producers saprotrophs
directly ◦ consume the food by absorption but not by
• Secondary consumers/carnivores (flesh eaters): feed upon ingestion.
the primary consumers. Omnivores: feed on both flesh
and plants
◦ mainly fungi, bacteria and certain protozoans
• Secondary carnivores/tertiary consumers: Carnivores which ◦ Decompose by excreting enzymes and
feed upon the secondary consumers, they are also called absorbtion → energy + inorganic nutrients,
secondary carnivores, e.g. lions which feed upon cats and minerals and gases ( used again by
dogs, etc. autotrophs)

Structure of an ecosystem Abiotic components

 Abiotic components A. Physical Factors
• Light (sun as the main energy source),
◦ non-living constituents of the environment i.e. • temperature (controls the climate)→Organism
the habitat. distribution,
◦ A habitat is a specific set of physical and chemical • evaporation and precipitation (control climate),
conditions (space, substratum and climate) that modulate
• gravity (controls rock material and hydrological
surrounds a single species, a group of species or a cascade system, movement of matter, and
large community. orientation and distribution of animals),
• pressure (limits distribution of organisms),
• humidity (Transpiration and absorbtion of water)
• air and water currents. (weathering)

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Structure of an ecosystem Functions of an ecosystem

b) Chemical Factors  Production and flow of energy
◦ Oxygen → Pulse of the environment  Nutrient recycling
◦ Carbon dioxide → Raw material
 Food web
◦ Minerals (micro- and macro-nutrients)
 Food Chain
◦ Organic matter (Carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids)  Ecological pyramids
 Biogeochemical cycles

Energy flow in the Ecosystem Trophic Levels

• The sun is the primary source of energy Type Energy Source Electron Donor Carbon Source

Phototrophs Light
• Primary producers →sunlight-using organisms Chemotrophs
Organic or inorganic

• Photosynthesis →convert energy from compounds

sunlight into chemical energy Lithotrophs Reduced inorganic

(chemotrophs) compounds
• 6CO2 + 6H2O +2800 kJ energy from sun
chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 Organotrophs ( Organic
• Net primary productivity (NPP). The rate chemotrophs) compounds
of production of biomass glucose, cells, and other Autotrophs
Inorganic compounds
organic chemicals by the primary producers (e.g., CO2)
Heterotrophs Organic carbon

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Energy flow in the Ecosystem Flow of Energy

• controlled by two laws of thermodynamics
– Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
– Every transfer of energy is accompanied by its
dispersion.
• depends on the following factors:
– Efficiency of producers to trap solar energy and
convert it into chemical energy
– Use of chemical energy present in the producers by
the consumers
– Amount of energy present in the producers by the
consumers
– Loss of energy in the form of unused energy dead
organism and heat during respiration.

Food Chain Food Chain

“The transfer of energy and nutrients from  Two major food chains
one feeding group of organisms to another
 Grazing food chain: Starts from living plants,
in a series.”
• It is the sequence of eater being eaten, or
goes through herbivores and ends in
who eats whom. carnivores.
• Trophic level: successive level of nourishment  Detritus food chain: Starts from dead
• In each transfer some energy is lost. organic matter and ends in inorganic
• → the shorter the food chain, or the nearer compounds.
the organism to the beginning of the chain,
the greater the energy available

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Food Webs Ecological Pyramids

• Food web: Interconnected food chains
• Ecological pyramids are the graphic representation of
• Food webs maintain the stability of an the number, biomass and energy of the successive
ecosystem trophic levels of an ecosystem.
• The loss of energy occurs
• Complexity  the diversity of species
– energy is not used efficiently
and their interconnectivity. – energy dissipates as kinetic energy and heat
• Diversity of species food habits
• Interconnectivity → alternatives
• Complex food webs are more stable than
simple food webs.

Biogeochemical Cycles Biogeochemical Cycles

 Biogeochemical cycle is the complete  We are interested to know
pathway that a chemical element follows ◦ The major chemical cycles
through the Earth system. ◦ The importance of these cycles to life
◦ chemical cycle because chemical elements are ◦ The factors that control these cycles
the form that we consider ◦ The rate of these cycles
◦ bio- because these are the cycles that involve ◦ How each components of the Environment
life. are involved
◦ geo- because these cycles include atmosphere, ◦ The impact of humans on these cycles
water, rocks, and soils

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The Carbon Cycle The Carbon Cycle

 Backbone of life
Carbon Stored in the  Fossil fuel burning 5.5 GtC / year
atmosphere
 land-use changes 1.6 GtC / year
 Totally due to human activities 7.1 GtC /
year
 3.2 GtC remains in the atmopshere
Carbon stored in the Carbon stored in the
land biota, rocks, soil, ocean biota, water  2 GtC diffuses in to the ocean
and fossil fuels and sediment
 1.9 GtC is unaccounted

The Carbon Cycle The nitrogen cycle

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The phosphate cycle The phosphate cycle

Phosphates
 (PO4) → bones and teeth
Organo-phosphates
 → cell division (DNA &
RNA)
The
 phosphate cycle doesn’t include gas
phase
Affected by agricultural run-off →

eutrophication

The phosphate cycle The Sulfur Cycle

 Sulfur (S), the tenth most abundant element in
the universe
 Sulfur (compounds) →to synthesis certain amino
ac ids and proteins
 Hu mans impact by burning of fossil fuels and the
processing of metals.
 90% of sulfur dioxide due to human activities.
 Ultimately→ sulfate salts → acid rain/offset global
warming

The phosphate cycle in water

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The Sulfur Cycle Impacts on the Environment

 The Earth has limited resources to

support populations of humans and other
organisms.
 Ever increasing human numbers is
depleting many of our planet's resources
and placing severe stress on the natural
processes that renew many of our
resources.

Some Detrimental Human

Ecosystem Processes Activities
Ecosystem Process Human Influence Human Influence Effect on Ecosystems
Agricultural practices have exposed soil to the weather resulting in great loss
Generation of Soils Population growth We are using excessive amounts of the Earth's limited resources.
of topsoil.
Control of the Water The cutting of forests and other human activities have allowed increased Industrialized societies are using more resources per person from our
Cycle uncontrolled runoff leading to increased erosion and flooding.
Overconsumption
planet than people from poor nations.
Untreated sewage wastes and runoff from farms and feedlots have led to Ad vancing Often we introduce technology without knowing how it will influence
Removal of Wastes
increased water pollution. Technologies the environment
Some industries and nuclear plants have added thermal pollution to the
Direct Harvesting resulted in a large loss of rainforest and its biodiversity.
environment. The release of some gases from the burning of fossil fuels may
Energy Flow
be slowly increasing the Earth's temperature.
(Greenhouse Effect).
Pollution have had many adverse influences on ecosystems.

The use of packaging material which does not break down, burning of refuse, Greenhouse gases mostly due to the burning of fossil fuels and
Atmospheric
Nutrient Recycling and the placing of materials in landfills prevents the return of some useful depletion of our stratospheric ozone layer and negative effects on
materials to the environment. Changes
living things.

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Positive Influences of Humans Major Global Environmental Hazards

on the Ecosystem
 Sustaining endangered species → habitat protection methods
 Population growth
(wildlife refuges and national parks.)  Urbanization
 Passing wildlife management laws →game laws and catch
restrictions.  Industrialization
 Design new products →without generating pollution.
 Inspection of all materials before entering a country to prevent  Loss of biodiversity
pest introduction.
 Increased use of biodegradable packaging materials which will  Global warming
recycle themselves quickly to the environment.
 Use fuels which contain less pollutants, such as low sulfur coal and
 Inversion
oil.
 Acid rain
 Remove pollutants by using such devices as afterburners or
catalytic converters before they enter the air.  Ozone depletion in the stratosphere

Population growth and Population growth and

standard of living standard of living
 impact of human standard of living (needs
and desires) and the efficiency with which Environmental Impact (Population) x (Ideal Per Capital Resource Usage)
these needs can be met. α (Environmental Efficiency)

 The ideal per capita resource usage is the

minimum amount of resources and
environmental degradation required to
achieve that standard of living.
 The minimum ideal per capita resource
usage: the actual per capita usage multiplied
by an environmental efficiency.

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Population growth and

standard of living
Impact of Population

Environmental Impact (Population) x (Ideal Per Capital Resource Usage) I = PxAxT

α (Environmental Efficiency)

three factors of population, ideal resource usage,

 I is environmental impact,
and environmental efficiency are not
independent.  P is population (including size, growth,
Environmental engineers focus is on and distribution),
environmental efficiency → minimizing the  A is the level of affluence (consumption
environmental impact per unit resource usage or per capita), and
standard of living.
 T is the level of technology.

Average per-capita
Rich Vs. Poor
consumption of energy
 In a hunting society →20 megajoules per
day Industrialized Less-developed
Population 25% 75 %
 In a primitive agricultural society → 48
MJ/d, Average Citizen Energy (GJ/yr) 199 17
Total Energy Utilized 80% 20%
 In advanced agriculture →104 MJ/d,
 In industrializing society →308 MJ/d, and
 In an advanced industrial society→1025
MJ/d.

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Urb anization Urbanization

 Ag ricultural land can decrease

Employment opportunities, educational,  he avy demand for housing, water supply systems,
medicare, and infrastructural facilities. waste treatment & disposal facilities, transportation,
an d other public facilities like: commerce, hospitals,
hotels, educational facilities

Urbanization: Effects Urbanization: Remedies

 more vehicles →traffic congestion and
pollution
 Solid wastes → unhygienic and
unsanitary conditions Implement effective methods of reducing
the migration trends to urban areas
 less open space → temperature increase Developing satellite townships
and disappearance of surface water Zoning city's master plan
bodies Provide basic facilities for slum areas
 Quality of life → more strenuous (tiring) Provide alternate energy sources
Focus on pollution control

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Industrialization Industrialization :Wastes

 A Goal pursued by all nations → standard
of living →more demand → resource
depletion → more environmental
degradation
 driven by energy consumption from coal,
petroleum, and natural gas.
 GNP (Growth Net Product): the sum of
all personal and governmental expenditures
on goods and services within a country,  Liquid wastes, gaseous, solid
including the value of net exports. wastes and nuclear waste.
 GEI: a component of the GNP that includes
the cost of environmental improvements.

Inversion Inversion
 Atmospheric temperature normally
decreases with altitude.  gaseous pollutants are
 If a parcel of air is warm, it moves up until minimized at source;
its own density equals with its  the stack height is
surroundings. → air circulation → adequately increased; and
dispersion of pollutants  care is taken at the time
 If no movement of air→ pollutant of locating the industries
accumulation the ground level

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Acid Rain
Be nice to Earth
as you are to yourself!

• causes damage materials

• H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 •reduces soil fertility & crop yield
• affects aquatic organisms
• 2SO2 + H2O + O2 →2H2SO4 •irritation to skin and respiratory tract
• 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 →4HNO3 •toxic chemicals
• Corrodes ancient monuments

Presentation Content

Brain Storming what is

water Resource?
Chapter 3
Soil Resources?

Natural Resources Air Resources?

Construction activities on Water, Soil, Air ??

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2.1 Water Resources

what are soil, water & air?

what are the impacts of construction on water, Introduction

✓ Water resource, generally, divided in to two:
soil & air?
1. surface water: the availability of water on the surface
what possible solutions are at hand to prevent the
of the earth such as in rivers, streams, lakes, seas,
negative impacts of construction on water, soil & --- etc.
air? 2. Ground/sub-surface water: water that occurs below

the surface of earth such as in wells, bore holes-- etc.

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Differences between surface and Ground water resources:

 Surface water:
easily accessible,
need less/minimal pressure to utilize it but need high cost,
(Reservoir canal (supply lines from source to main reservoirs)
reservoirs, …)
exposed for evaporation,
travels faster than ground water,
the majority of the water is not fresh, and vulnerable for pollution.

 Ground water:
o need high pressure to utilize it, but less cost (we can use it directly)
o confined within the soil,
o not exposed for evaporation,
o relatively fresh than surface water,
o less polluted and take longer time to be polluted,
o not accessible on the earth surface. Table.1: Estimates of Relative Volumes of Water of Various Kinds on Earth
(source:The hand book of Ground water Engineering, 1987)
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Availability of water:
✓ oceans = 97.2%

✓ Glaciers = 2.15%

✓ Ground water = 0.62%

The attainable water resource in the Globe comprises of:

10,530,000 km3 of groundwater,

1,000 km3 of fresh water in lakes, and

2,120 km3 of water in rivers are considered as attainable for use

and comprise a total of 10,623,120 km3.

✓ (see the table, above, and chart, below).

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 The main source of groundwater is infiltration.

1. Ground Water: water below the ground surface: wells, boreholes, ….
 The infiltrated water after full saturation percolates deeply and

becomes groundwater.

 The groundwater has minimal probability for pollution and is very

useful for domestic use in small towns and isolated farms.

 It can be made available at a small capital cost and also in least

possible time.

 In arid regions, groundwater is often the only reliable source

water for irrigation.

 Alike other natural resources, groundwater is limited.

 Thus, it must be wisely managed and protected against undue

exploitation and contamination by pollutants or salt water.

Fig-1: The relation ship b/n Hydrology cycle and Ground water reserve.
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The selection, preparation and control of catchment areas,

2. Surface water resource
the choice and treatment of reservoirs sites and operation of
It is water found on the surface of the ground including river, reservoirs,

streams, lakes etc. the design, construction and maintenance of dams,

There exists a variation in the yield of the sources from The design, construction & maintenance of intake and outlet
structures.
season to season.
✓ These water resources are vulnerable to degradation &/or pollution
The development of surface water supplies depends on the through human activities.
nature of their sources and involves: ✓ One of the human activities which degrades the water resources is
construction.

✓ Construction (Road, Housing, Water resource devt, & others)

pollutes the water resources. (Examples are presented next
slides)

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. Housing Construction 2.2 Soil Resources

✓ The word 'soil' has different meanings for different
✓ the excavated materials from
construction sites joins the water professions.
resources & pollute them, To the agriculturist:
➢ reversing the effects will be soil is the top thin layer of earth within which organic
disastrous,
forces are predominant & which is responsible for the
✓ the uncontrolled storm water
support of plant life.
Drainage line Construction from storm water drainage lines
To the geologist:
or
✓ drainage lines without proper soil is the material in the top thin zone within which roots
outlets are the causes of water occur.
resources pollution. From the point of view of an engineer:
➢ solution: Pro-active measures
i.e. Envtal Planning soil includes all earth materials, organic & inorganic,
occurring in the zone overlying the rock crust.

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Soil is a very important material for all human activities to take

Process of Erosion: Detaching Transportation Deposition

place such as: Soil erosion may cause:

✓ Farming, infrastructure development

But if these activities are carried out improperly this basic

resource which is core for all human activities will be degraded.

Improper or bad construction management leads to soil erosion.

Soil erosion removes the top soil which is important for

agriculture and construction.
Mountain degradation
➢ Therefore a proactive measure will help to prevent such a critical

resource before a problem happens.

sedimentation/siltation (on dams, reservoirs/water supply sources,
drainage structures, irrigation canals,--- )
➢ Thus, including environmental planning/Engineering as part of

construction management is a best remedy.

Downstream effect: Reservoir sedimentation is a common negative

effect of erosion in the catchment.
✓ A damaged bridge as a downstream impact of runoff and erosion.
Expensive rehabilitation by de-silting the reservoir only helps in the
long run, when the catchment is protected.

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Erosion on Earth dam

 Note: Erosion not only degrades the soil resource

but also affects/deteriorates infrastructures

constructed with huge investments.
(pictures on previous slides are notable examples)

Construction activities can contribute to erosion of soil that may impact on water
quality downstream of the site and cause siltation of watercourses.
Water including surface, groundwater or marine areas should not be
contaminated by activities on the site.

Gully erosion ✓ Reha bilitating/restoring the previous soil/land resources requires huge
investm ent.
✓ If a p ro-active measures were put in to practice, such devastating effects
would no t occur.

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2.3 Air Resource & Quality Air pollution from road construction
✓ it is one of the basic resources to living things.

Construction activities can lead to dust emissions from traffic,

cleared areas, stockpiles, and blasting.

Dust can cause a nuisance to neighbors & impact on the

environment by contaminating plants and watercourses.

Other air emissions are related to the exhaust fumes of

equipment.

Stone crushing is also the other air quality degrading activity.

➢ Such air quality degrading activities can generally be controlled by

including environmental planning. (see next examples)

Air quality degradation from Stone Crushing

Air emissions from exhaust fumes

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Conclusion
✓ Soil , water & air besides their support to life, they are important raw
mat erials/inputs for construction activities. For example soil, water & air
are important for the construction to stand-on, the construction materials
to be produced from, …. (consult the knowledge of soil mechanics,
con struction Materials…etc)

✓ The refore, these very crucial, scarce & basic resources which guarantees
Thank you
the existence of life on earth should be prevented from any degrading
acti vities.

✓ For such preventive measures the knowledge of Environmental planning

for construction managers & engineers is paramount & thus should be

inco rporated in each construction activities.

Presentation Content

Environmental Quality and Pollution Management

Chapter 3 Introduction
Pollution, sources and its impact
Human activities on water resources,
Protection of surface & ground water resources from
Environmental Quality and Pollution Management point & diffuse sources of pollution,
Environmental impacts of dams & Reservoirs

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Introduction
Pollution? The process of degrading the quality of a given natural
Brain storming resource with unwanted materials or particles.
Generally Pollution sources categorized in to two:

1. Point source- with defined source e.g. septic tanks, WWTPs

What is Pollution?
2. Non-point sources- with no defined source e.g. Storm water
Which are Major Pollution Sources?
Sources of Pollution?
what Construction activities pollute the Env’t?
1. Domestic activities
Is Construction Management part of Pollution mgt?
2. Institutions
If so How and if not why?
3. Commercial activities

4. Industries

5. Agriculture

✓ Principles of Pollution Management (Best Approach)

Reduction at the source Re-use Recycle Disposal

Impacts of Pollution Human activities on water resources

Impacts on: • Environment - the complex web of inter-relationships between

abiotic and biotic components which sustain all life on earth,
water resource degradation- e.g. water borne diseases,
reduce the strength of concrete/mortar (cement + water + including the social/health aspects of human group existence.

aggregates) Thus, this complex nature easily affects the water resource if care
is not given.
Air resource degradation- degrading air quality e.g.
• The combination of construction (dams, wing dams, and other river
Respiratory diseases
training structures) and operations and maintenance continue to affect
soil resource degradation- e.g. reduce soil productivity, soil
the water resource systems.
structure failures, reduce the strength of concrete/mortar
(cement + water + aggregates)

✓ Generally, it leads to Global warming.

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• The major threats to water resources in lakes, rivers and wetlands come in
several forms, among them: • Besides:

• eutrophication, o the introduction of unknown/new fish species,

• salinization and o de-vegetation of catchment areas,
• pollution from industrial effluents and chemical spills, and o use of pesticides, and
• extend to broader ecosystem concerns, including: o disposal of wastes driven by a variety of competing human
✓ exotic weed infestation, needs, have severely impacted the water resource of a
✓ loss of fish population, given area.
✓ habitat destruction, and

✓ loss of biodiversity.

➢ Most of these caused by human activity.

• The fundamental issue facing water resources does not appear to be one of
water availability only, but also of human factors.

• These human factors are related to: • The following factors causes serious quality degradation
❖ the governance of the available water resources,
of surface and groundwater:
❖ legislative and institutional frameworks,

❖ overexploitation and pollution of the resources, ✓ The fast population growth,

❖ conflict and political instability, ✓ uncontrolled urbanization and industrialization,
❖ inadequate technical know-how and institutional capacity, and ✓ poor sanitation situation,
❖ low priority given to water in terms of human resources and budgetary ✓ uncontrolled waste disposal
allocations.
✓ etc.
o For example, certain water-scarce regions in northern Africa have succeeded in
providing water resources to large segments of their population,

o while other parts of Africa with abundant water occurrence, such as Central
Africa, have limited water supply coverage (<50% of the population).

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Table-Summary of human activities on water resources.

Distribution category: P – point; D – diffuse; L – linear

Main types of pollutant: F – faecal pathogens; N – nutrients; O – organic compounds including chlorinated
solvents or aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX); P – pesticides; M – metals; S – salinity; A – acidification
Relative hydraulic loading: + to ++ (increasing importance; relative volume or impact of water entering with pollution load
By-pass of soil zone: + to ++ (with completeness of by-pass of soil and depth of penetration into unsaturated
and saturated zones)

Protection of surface and ground water resources from point &

diffuse sources of pollution
• Groundwater pollution can be described as degrading of water quality
for any usage. Sources of pollution are grouped into two as natural
pollution and man-made pollution.

I. Naturally Occurring Groundwater Pollution includes:

1. Sea Water Intrusion: if groundwater is overexploited, sea water moves

to the aquifer and quality of groundwater starts to deteriorate. Salt
concentration increases.

2. Lake – River- Aquifer Relations: In hydraulic cycle, lake, river and

aquifer affect each other. That’s why, if any of them is polluted, that
pollution makes negative impact on the others.

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II. Groundwater Pollution Produced By Human Activities

B. Industrial Disposal
• Pollution sources produced by human activities can be grouped into
three general categories. These are: • Because many factories have been constructed on the aquifer systems
and unfiltered waste water has been infiltrated to groundwater, heavy
municipal,
metals released in to the groundwater.
industrial and
• In order to minimize water pollution, waste water treatment plants have
agricultural disposal.
to be constructed.
A. Municipal disposal
• Besides, waste water should be stored in the waste water dam.
• Pollution sources may be point sources or non-point sources.
• So, seepage to the aquifer should be prevented or after treatment
• In developing country, point sources are mainly municipal disposal due
polluted water can be conveyed to disposal area.
to fewer services such as poor sewerage systems.

c. Agricultural Pollutants • Groundwater contamination

• The use of pesticide and fertilizer is growing due to agricultural activities. When compared to surface water pollution, ground water pollution occurs in the
➢ This causes water pollution (surface as well as ground water). long run.

• To prevent pollution, the sources of pollution should be controlled. ✓ ground water contamination is the degradation of natural water quality
as a result of human activities, and
• Especially, groundwater recharge area must be protected and the usage
✓ pollution occurs when contaminant concentration levels restrict the
of chemicals must be prohibited in that area.
potential use of groundwater.
• Non-point pollution caused by fertilizers and pesticides used in
✓ Groundwater remediation aims to reduce contaminant concentrations
agriculture, often dispersed over large areas, is a great threat to fresh
to below the threshold standard for the intended use.
groundwater ecosystems.

• Intensive use of chemical fertilizers in farms and indiscriminate disposal

of human and animal waste on land result in leaching of the residual
nitrate causing high nitrate concentrations in groundwater

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• Point source of pollution: a pollution where their source or origin of

contaminants is known such as:

treatment plants,

domestic activities,

toilets,

sewerage systems,

industries,

Health centers,

Garages.

➢ that is, these are some of the point source contaminants of

water resources.
Fig-Human, Human activities and Environmental pollution

Non-point (diffuse source pollution): Environmental impacts of Dams and Reservoirs

✓ These are those pollutants whose source/origin is not known such as storm ✓ Dams or reservoirs are temporary water storing structures either
water drainage because it has no defined origins. for domestic, Energy or Agricultural purposes.

Water pollution have continued to generate unpleasant implications for Environmental effects
health and economic development, • Environmental effects are of increasing concern in the planning and
The concern for increases in the level of pollutants in surface and
management of water-resources projects during construction.
groundwater is justified since a large proportion of rural and urban dwellers
obtain domestic water, and: • The creation of reservoirs usually has a very important influence on
✓ sometimes drinking water from ponds,
ecology.
✓ streams and

✓ shallow wells. • In the case where the storage volume is large in relation to annual runoff,

leachates from such waste dumps may contain organic and eutrophication can have a significant impact on the quality of the water in
inorganic toxic pollutants which may flow laterally or percolate through
the reservoir because of long residence times.
permeable soil strata and pollute surface or groundwater.

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• However, reservoirs also cause changes that have beneficial effects. In

• The reservoir exerts a great influence on the temperature many cases, the environment in the vicinity of reservoirs and
downstream has been greatly improved by providing:
and oxygen content of the release water.
✓ recreation,
• The regulation of flow will also change the nature of land
✓ aesthetic,
use downstream of the reservoir.
✓ ecological and
• The increase in water use usually results in an increase in ✓ health benefits.
the amount of waste water that may lower the quality of • It is of primary importance to assess continuously all environmental
water in the receiving river. effects of storage reservoirs and dams to provide monitoring facilities
for measuring environmental factors both before and after construction.

Poor land use practices (e.g. unmanaged high construction) have resulted in
Environmental degradation
sedimentation of river channels, lakes and reservoirs and changes in
For countries relying on hydropower generation for their electricity
hydrological processes.
supply, environmental degradation is a serious concern.
Deterioration of the quality of water resources resulting from further
Hydropower generation requires the reliable water for most of the time
increases in nutrient loads from irrigation (irrigated agriculture) and
(wet and dry seasons).
the domestic, industrial and mining sectors has also significantly depleted
Degradation of the catchment area’s environment results in the decline available fresh water resources and increased water scarcity.
of springs, streams and rivers with catastrophic consequences for
Increased human activities lead to the exposure of the water environment to
human welfare and environmental integrity. a range of chemical, microbial and biological pollutants, as well as micro-
Pollution of water resources is also a great concern as it is a threat to pollutants.
both the environment as well as availability of freshwater. The mining and industrial sectors in particular produce high concentrations
of waste and effluents that act as non-point sources of water quality
degradation, including acid mine drainage which pollutes groundwater
resources.

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Africa’s water resources are thus already facing serious risks from prevention
development pressures. Water wells protected by adequate seal can not be polluted.
Large dams (over 60 meters high) have been built on many basins such At the same time, this protection is useful for well casing.
as the Nile, Volta and Zambezi rivers for water supply and power Properly located, designed, constructed and maintained wells can be
generation, and used for water supply.
The construction of dams has caused significant changes in the flow Integrated water shed management
regimes of rivers resulting in negative impacts on the environment and
Pollution control at the source.
loss of ecosystems functioning.

Hence there is need for a balance between water resources

development and ecosystems degradation due to water resources
development.

Pollution Prevention Hierarchy - Pollution should be prevented or

reduced at source whenever feasible.

Pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an

environmentally safe manner whenever feasible.

Pollution that can not be prevented or recycled should be treated in an

environmentally safe manner whenever feasible, and
Thank you
Disposal or the release into the environment should be employed only as
a last alternative and should be conducted in an environmentally safe
manner.

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Water Quality Management

The control of pollution from human activities so that

the water is not degraded to the point that it is no
longer suitable for intended uses.
Chapter 4 How much is too much?

WATER QUALITY ENGINEERING

Effects of Pollutant in Rivers Water pollutants and their sources

According to their physico-chemical or biological

Point ources Non-point sources
s
Domestic Industrial Agricultural Urban
the addition of toxic substances; Pollutant sewage wastes runoff runoff
category
the addition of suspended solids;
Oxygen-demanding material X X X X
deoxygenation; Nutrients X X X X
the addition of non-toxic salts; Pathogens X X X X
Suspended solids/sediments X X X X
heating the water; Salts X X X
the effect on the buffering system; Toxic metals X X
Toxic organic chemicals X X
the addition of human, animal and plant pathogens.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals X X X
Heat X

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Water quality management in Rivers Effect of pollutants on river

The effect of pollutants on river communities depends

on:
The objective: to control the discharge of pollutants so
The type of pollutant
that water quality is not degraded to an unacceptable
extent below the natural background level. Its concentration in the water
The length of exposure to the community
To control we need to:
The characteristics of the river
measure the pollutants
predict the impact of the pollutants
determine the background water quality, and
decide the acceptable levels

Total maximum daily loads (TMDL) Effects of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes on

A TMDL specifies the maximum amount of pollutant Cause depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO)
that a water body can receive and still meet water Oxygen replenished from the atmosphere and from
quality standards. photosynthesis by algae and aquatic plants
Computed on a pollutant-by-pollutant basis consumed by organisms
TMDL=WLA + LA + MOS
WLA = waste load allocation for point sources
LA = waste load allocation for nonpoint sources
MOS = margin of safety

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Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Factor Affecting DO in Rivers

Oxygen in air Algae in water

Reaeration Photosynthesis Respiration

Dissolved oxygen (DO) in water

Sediment Deoxygenation
Oxygen Carboneceous Nitrogeneous
demand

CBOD NH4+

Settling NO2-

SBOD NO3-

Example Solution
Write balanced equation for the reaction
Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of C6H12O6+6O26CO2 + 6 H2O
glucose (C6H12O6). Compute the molecular weight
Glucose (6C+12H+6O)=72+12+90=180
Oxygen (12O)=192
Thus, it takes 192 g of oxygen to oxidize 180 g of
glucose
The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is

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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
If the oxidation of an organic compound is carried out by
microorganisms using the organic matter as a food
source.
Microorganisms
Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + New Cells + Stable
Products

BOD Curve Nitrogen Oxidation

Proteins contain nitrogen that can be oxidized with
L
Lo - Lt the consumption of molecular oxygen.
Carbonaceous BOD (CBOD): oxidation of carbon
Nitrogenous BOD (NBOD): nitrogen oxidation.
BOD

Lt BOD Remaining

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time, d

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Nitrification BOD Curves

NH4+

Nitrosomonas

NO2-
Nitrification
Nitrobacter

NO3-

Microorganisms
NH4 + 2O2

DO Sag Curve DO Sag Curve

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Mass-Balance Approach DO and BOD after mixing

Three conservative mass balances may be used to

account for initial mixing of the waste stream and
the river.
DO, CBOD, and temperature all change as the result
of mixing of the waste stream and the river. Where Qw = volumetric flow rate of wastewater, m3/s
Qr = volumetric flow rate of river, m3/s
DOw = dissolved oxygen concentration in the wastewater, g/m3
Mass of DO in Wastewater DOr = dissolved oxygen concentration in the river, g/m3
Lw = ultimate BOD of the wastewater, mg/L
Lr = ultimate BOD of the river, mg/L
Mass of DO Mass of DO in River La = initial ultimate BOD after mixing mg/L
in River after mixing

Example The temperature after mixing

It is found by solving a heat balance equation rather

than a mass balance
Loss of heat by hot bodies = gain of heat by cold
bodies).
The final river temperature after mixing is thus
calculated as:

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Oxygen Deficit Initial Deficit (Da)

The oxygen deficit is the amount by which the actual

dissolved oxygen concentration is less than the The initial deficit = the difference between saturated
saturated value with respect to oxygen in the air: DO and the concentration of the DO after mixing:
D = DOs – DO
Where D = oxygen deficit, mg/L
DOs = saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen at the
temperature of the river after mixing, mg/L
DO = actual dissolved oxygen concentration, mg/L

Example Solution

Saturation dissolved oxygen can be read from table.

Thus at 10oC DOs = 11.33 mg/L
From the previous example DOmix = 4.75 mg/L
Therefore, initial deficit DO, Da = 11.33-4.75
Da=6.58 mg/L

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DO Sag Equation DO Sag Equation

Taking a mass balance of DO as a reactive substance By integrating the previous Eq., and using the initial
expressed as the deficit we get the Streeter-Phelps conditions (at t = 0, D = Da) we obtain the DO sag
oxygen sag curve equation:
Rate of increase Rate of Rate of
Of the deficit deoxygenation oxygenation

D = oxygen deficit in river water after exertion of BOD for time, t, mg/L
La = initial ultimate BOD after river and wastewater have mixed, mg/L
dD/dt = the change in oxygen deficit (D) per unit time, mg/L.d
t = time of travel of wastewater discharge downstream, d
kd = deoxygenation rate constant, d-1
kr = reaeration rate constant, d-1
L = ultimate BOD of river water, mg/L
D = oxygen deficit in river water, mg/L

DO Sag Equation Example

Determine the deoxygenation rate constant for the reach

When kd = kr we have a reduced equation:
of the river (For the previous examples) below the
wastewater outfall (discharge pipe). The average speed of
the stream flow in the river is 0.03 m/s. The depth is 5.0 m
Deoxygenation Rate Constant. It difference from the BOD rate constant
because there are physical and biological differences between a river and a
and the bed-activity coefficient is 0.35.
BOD bottle.

Where kd = deoxygenation rate constant at 20oC, d-1

v = average speed of stream flow, m/s
k = BOD rate constant determined in laboratory at 20oC, d-1
H = average depth of stream, m
η = bed-activity coefficient (from 0.1 to 0.6 or more.)

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Solution Reaeration

From the previous examples we have k = 0.12d-1 The value of kr depends on the degree of turbulent
The deoxygenation constant at 20oC is mixing, which is related to stream velocity, and on the
amount of water surface exposed to the atmosphere
compared to the volume of water in the river.
A narrow, deep river will have a much lower kr than a
The deoxygenation constant is at 20oc, but the wide, shallow river.
Stream temperature is 100c. Thus we must correct it
kr = reaeration rate constant at 20oC, day-1
v = average stream velocity, m/s
H= average depth, m

The Critical point Example

The lowest point on the DO sag curve, which is called

the critical point, indicates the worst conditions in the
river.
The time to the critical point (tc) can be calculated by
differentiating and setting DO sag equation to zero

when kd = kr:

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Stratification and Turn over

Water Quality in Lakes
Lakes in temperate zone become stratified during
summer and overturn (turnover) in the fall.

Eplimnion (Warm, aerobic,

well mixed)
Thermocline

Hypoplimnion (Cool, poorly mixed,

Summer Temperature anaerobic)
profile

Stratification and Turn over Biological Zones

Determined by availability of oxygen and light

During winter there is turnover at 4oC

Ice
0oC
Eplimnion
4oC Euphotic Zone
Thermocline
Profundal Zone
Hypolimnion Winter Temperature Bentic
profile Zone

Light compensation level

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Lake Productivity Eutrophication

Lake productivity is a measure of its ability to support a

Eutrophication is a natural process in which lakes
food web.
gradually become shallower and more productive
Generally measured by algal growth through the introduction and cycling of nutrients.
Increased productivity reduces water quality
Based on productivity we can classify lakes as
Oligothrophic: low level of productivity
Eutrophic: high level of productivity
Mesotrophic: intermediate productivity
Senescent: old and shallow lakes with thick organic sediment
and rooted plant Cultural Eutrophication is caused by human activity by
speeding up the natural process

Algal Growth Requirement The limiting Nutrient

Carbon: from dissolved CO2 in water Justin Liebig’s law of the minimum: “growth of a plant is
Nitrogen: usually as NO3-, comes from atmosphere or dependent on the amount of foodstuff that is presented
industrial waste to it in minimum quantity.”
Phosphorus: from external sources as inorganic form Phosphorus is the limiting nutrient in lakes.
(PO43-) Should be below 0.010 to 0.015 mg/L to limit algae.
Trace elements

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Control of Phosphorus A simple phosphorus model

Reducing the input from the source

Rate of addition of P = Rate of removal of P
Rock weathering
QC + S = QC + vsAC
S (g/s)in
Human activity
Precipitating with alum
Removing phosphorus-rich sediments by dredging. Q (m3/s) Area, A(m2)
Cin (g/m3) Concentration, C

Q
Q
A
Well-mixed lake phosphorus mass balance
Settling rate

A simple phosphorus model Example: Phosphorus loading

A phosphorus-limiting lake with surface area equal to 80 x

106 m2 is fed by a 15.0 m3/s stream that has a phosphorus
QCin + S = QC + vsAC concentration of 0.010 mg/L. In addition, effluent from a
The steady-state concentration becomes point source adds 1 g/s of phosphorus. The phosphorus
settling rate is estimated at 10 m/yr.
Estimate the average total phosphorus
concentration.
What rate of phosphorus removal at the wastewater
The settling rate, vs,is empirically determined quantity. treatment plant would be required to keep the
Usually it is around 10 to 16 m/yr. concentration of phosphorus in the lake at
acceptable level of 0.010 mg/L?

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Solution Solution

a. Phosphorus loading from the incoming stream b. To reach 0.010 mg/L, the phosphorus loading from the
QCin = 15 m3/s x 0.01 mg/l x (1g/L)/(mg/L)=0.15 g/s point source must be
The estimated settling rate: S = C(Q + vsA) – QCin

The steady-state concentration of phosphorus:

The point source efficiency currently supplies 1.0 g/s, so 75

% removal of phosphorus is needed.

What is Air ?

A continuous, compressible, ideal fluid. It is a

Chapter 5 mixture of gases, with numerous suspended
particles, some solid and some liquid.

AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL

Chap 5 Chap 5

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What is Air Pollution ? How to control pollution?

The presence in the air of one or more air
contaminants in sufficient quantities, of such
characteristics, and of such duration as to be or to
threaten to be injurious to human, plant, or animal
life or to property, or which reasonably interferes
with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property.

Chap 5 Chap 5

Composition of the Atmosphere

Gas Conc., by volume Conc., % by volume
Nitrogen 280,000 78.09
Oxygen 209,000 20.95
Atmosphere
Structure of

Argon 9,300 0.93

Carbon dioxide 320 0.032
Neon 18 0.0018
the

Helium 5.2 0.00052

Methane 1.5 0.00015
Krypton 1.0 0.0001
Hydrogen 0.5 0.00005
Dinitrogen Oxide 0.2 0.00002
Carbon monoxide 0.1 0.00001
Ozone 0.08 0.000008

Chap 5 19
Chap 5 192

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Basic Calculations Units of Measure

Ideal Gas Law:
PV = nRT
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + …..

Chap 5 Chap 5

Units of Measure Example

Converting ppm to g/m3
At standard condition (0oC and 101.325 kPa)

sample was taken. What was the SO2 concentration

For temperatures (T2) and pressures (P2) other than

standard conditions

ppm = Vp/Va
Chap 5 Chap 5

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Solution Air pollution

Determine GMW of SO2
GMW of SO2 = 32.07 + 2(16.00) = 64.07 Sources Transport
Convert temperature to absolute temperature
Types of sources Climatology Man
25oC + 273 K = 298 K Natural Turbulence and Animals
Man-made diffusion Plants
Location Topography Materials
Pollution type visibility
Gaseous
Particulate
Strength
= 0.0300 ppm of SO2

Chap 5 Chap 5

Sources of pollutants Classification by state of matter

Natural air pollutant sources Major classes Subclasses Typical members of subclasses
Particulates Solid Dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash
plant pollens
Liquid Mist, spray
wind-blown dust Gases

volcanic eruptions Organic Hydrocarbons Hexane, benzene, ethylene,

Inorganic Aldehydes and ketones methane, butane, butadiene
lightning-generated forest fires
Other organics Formaldehyde, acetone
Manmade sources
Oxides of carbon Chlorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols
transportation vehicles Oxides of sulfur Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
industrial processes Oxides of nitrogen Sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide

power plants Other inorganics Nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide

Hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen fluoride,
municipal incinerators ammonia

Chap 5
Chap 5

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Classification by Origin Air Pollution Regulations

Primary air pollutants are pollutants in the atmosphere that The Clean Air Act established two types of air quality
exist in the same form as in source emissions. standards.
Primary standards set limits to protect public health,
including the health of "sensitive" populations such as
Secondary air pollutants are pollutants formed in the asthmatics, children, and the elderly.
atmosphere as a result of reactions such as hydrolysis, Secondary standards set limits to protect public welfare,
oxidation, and photochemical oxidation. including protection against decreased visibility, damage
to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings.
Air quality management → source control of primary air
pollutants.

Chap 5 Chap 5

Criteria Air Pollutants Adiabatic Expansion and Compression

The Clean Air Act characterizes five primary pollutants and
one secondary pollutant as criteria air pollutants.
Primary criteria pollutants include the gases sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO) and
solid or liquid particulates (smaller than 10 µm, PM-10) and
particulate lead.
Secondary criteria pollutant Ozone (O3) is the regulated zero
(adiabatic process)
under Clean Air Act.

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Air Pollution Meteorology Highs and lows

Air pressure is the weight of air resting on a given area of the
Earth's surface
Low pressure occurs when air is warm, expands, gets lighter
and rises.
High pressure occurs when air gets cold, contracts, becomes
heavier (denser) and sinks (falls).
Air flows from regions of high pressure (highs) to low
pressure (lows) as it tries to equalize the difference between
the two, known as the pressure gradient.
This movement of air is wind.

Chap 5 Chap 5

Highs and lows Cyclone and Anticyclone

The greater the difference between the high and the low
pressure, the greater the wind speed. Foul weather
Good weather
The closer the isobars on a weather map are together, the Tornadoes
Hurricanes
stronger the winds.
Chap 5 Chap 5

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Turbulence Stability
Turbulence: the addition of random fluctuations of wind The tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical
velocity to the overall average wind velocity. motion/turbulance.
Mechanical Turbulence Lapse rate: The rate at which air temperature changes with height.
Shearing of the atmosphere → Eddies Dry adiabatic lapse rate: The rate at which dry air cools as it rises.
The greater the wind speed the larger the turbulence dT/dz = -1.00oC/100 m
Thermal Turbulence Three categories of stability:
Caused by heating/cooling of the Earth’s surface ➔Neutral
➔Unstable
➔Stable

Chap 5 Chap 5

Stability and Lapse rate Lapse Rates

Superadiabatic, Strong, Unstable Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Temperature Reduction > 1 oC/100m 100 m

Subadiabatic, Weak, Stable

Temperature Reduction < 1 oC/100m
Neutral Elevation
Temperature Reduction = 1 oC/100m (m)

Inversion (Extreme Subadiabatic)

Temperature Increase with Height
Temperature (oC)

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Superadiabatic – Unstable Subadiabatic – Stable

Chap 5 Chap 5

Example Solution
Given the following temperature and elevation data, Determine the existing lapse rate

Elevation, m Temperature, oC
2.00 14.35
324.00 11.13 ➔The atmospheric stability is neutral

Chap 5
Chap 5

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Strong Lapse Condition (Looping) Weak Lapse Condition (Coning)

Wind Wind

Chap 5 Chap 5

Inversion Condition (Fanning) Inversion Below, Lapse Aloft

(Lofting)
Wind Wind

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Weak Lapse Below, Inversion Aloft Terrain Effects

(Trapping) Heat Islands
➢ Absorbs or radiates heat at a greater rate than the
Wind
surrounding
➢ The atmosphere becomes more stable

Chap 5 Chap 5

Terrain Effects-Land Breath Terrain Effects-Sea Breath

➢ During night , the land cools more rapidly than the water. ➢ During the morning the land heats faster than water.

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Atmospheric Disperssion Atmospheric Disperssion

Dispersion is the process by which contaminants move
➢ The plume spreads both horizontally and vertically.
through the air and a plume spreads over a large area, thus
reducing the concentration of the pollutants it contains. ➢ If it is a gaseous plume, the motion of the molecules
follows the laws of gaseous diffusion.

Chap 5 Chap 5

Gaussian Dispersion Model

Wind Rose

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Dispersion Model Assumptions Dispersion Model Construction

Plume travels horizontally in x-direction
The predominant force is the wind. Plume disperses horizontally (y) and vertically (z)
The greatest concentration of the pollutant Concentration inside the plume follows Gaussian
molecules is along the plume centerline. Distribution
The process is a steady state process. Concentration (C(x,y,z)) is proportional to:

Chap 5 Chap 5

Plume Dispersion Coordinate System

Gaussian Dispersion Model

At ground level, we have z=0, thus

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Gaussian Dispersion Model Maximum ground level conc.

The greatest value of the ground level concentration in any For a release above ground level the maximum downwind
direction, and this is the concentration along the plume ground level concentration Occurs along the plume
centerline; that is, for y = 0. We have centerline when the following condition is satisfied:

Chap 5 Chap 5

Key to Stability Categories Horizontal

Dispersion
Coefficients

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Vertical Effective Stack Height

Dispersion Carson and Moses Equation
Coefficients Superadiabatic
Stability

Nuetral Stability

Subadiabatic
Stability

Chap 5 Chap 5

Effective Stack Height

Holland Formula
EXAMPLE 1 . An oil pipeline leak results in emission of 1OOg/h
of H2S. On a very sunny summer day, with a wind speed of
3.0m/s, what will be the concentration of H2S 1.5 km directly
downwind from the leak?
Solution
We may assume Class B stability. Then, from Fig., at x = 1.5 km,
y is approximately 210m and, from Fig., z is approximately
160m, and
Q = 100g/h = 0.0278 g/s.

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Example 2 . A coal-burning electric generating plant emits 1.1 Exercise

kg/min of SO2 from a stack with an effective height of 60m. On
a thinly overcast evening, with a wind speed of 5.0 m/s , what ▪ It has been estimated that the emission of SO2 from a cola-
will be the ground level concentration of SO2 500 m directly fired power plant is 1,656.2 g/s. At 3 km downwind on an
downwind from the stack? overcast summer afternoon, what is the centerline
concentration of SO2 if the wind speed is 4.50 m/s? (Note:
solution “centerline” implies y =0)
We may assume Class D stability. Then, from Fig., at x = 0.5 km, ▪ Stack parameter:
y is approximately 35 m and z is approximately 19 m, and  Height = 120.0 m
 Diameter = 1.20 m
Q = [Link]/min = 18g/s.
 Exit velocity = 10.0 m/s
In this problem, the release is elevated, and H = 60 m.  Temperature 315 oC
▪ Atmospheric conditions:
 Pressure = 95.0 kPa
 Temperature = 25.0oC

Chap 5 Chap 5

Air Pollution Source Correction

Control
Changing or eliminating a process that produces a
polluting air effluent
Elimination of lead from gasoline
removal of sulfur from coal and oil before the fuel is burned
Controls: raw material substitution, and equipment
modification to meet emission standards
Abatement : devices and methods for decreasing the
quantity of pollutant reaching the atmosphere, once it
has been generated by the source.

Chap 5 Chap 5

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COLLECTION OF POLLUTANTS COOLING

The exhaust gases to be treated are sometimes too hot
for the control equipment, and must first be cooled.

Collection of pollutants for treatment is the

most serious problem in air pollution control.

Chap 5 Chap 5

Air Pollution Control Technologies Cyclone

Control particulates
Control of Particulate Emission
Used as precleaners
Settling
Cyclone separation >90% efficiency for > 5m
Wet scrubbing In expensive and maintenance free
Baghouse filtration
Electrostatic precipitation
Control of Vapor-phase Emissions
Wet scrubbing
Activated carbon adsorption
Incineration

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Cyclones Fabric Filters

known as baghouses
Control particulates
efficient and cost
effective
99% efficient for
very fine particulates
(<1m).

Chap 5 Chap 5

Bughouses Wet Collectors

The spray tower or scrubber
Remove larger particles
effectively
can remove both gases and
particulate matter.
A venturi scrubber is a
frequently used high-energy
wet collector.
100% efficient in removing
particles >5 pm

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Wet collectors Electrostatic Precipitators

Chap 5 Chap 5

Electrostatic Precipitators CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS

Wet scrubbers: can remove pollutants by dissolving

them in the scrubber solution. Ex. SO2 and NO2 in
power plant .
Packed scrubbers, spray towers packed with glass
platelets or glass frit, more efficient. Ex. removal of
fluoride from aluminum smelter exhaust gases.

Chap 5 Chap 5

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Activated Carbon Adsorber Incinerator

Removal of organic Incineration, or flaring, is used

compounds with an adsorbent when an organic pollutant can be
like activated charcoal. oxidized to CO2 and water, or in
oxidizing H2S to SO2.
Catalytic combustion is a variant of
incineration in which the reaction is
facilitated energetically and carried
out at a lower temperature by
surface catalysis,

Chap 5 Chap 5

Effectiveness of Technologies
Chapter 6

Chap 5

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Waste SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

ACTIVITIES INFRASTRUCTURE

Planning Collection

Design Transport

Financing Processing

Construction Recycling

Operation Disposal

Addis Ababa Waste

Sources of Solid Wastes

Commercial

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Characteristics of MSW
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

Refuse Trash
moisture content
Garbage
chemical composition
Rubbish

Routine A periodic
Collection Collection
Waste processing
Energy Recovery Final Disposal
Recycling (Land Fill)

Composition of MSW

Yard wastes

Ashes, dirt
Other rubbish

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Moisture Content of MSW

Typical components of solid waste
Weight % of the Moisture (% by weight)
Components
total Range Typical
Paper and cardboard 41 4-10 7
Food wastes 17 50-80 70
Yard wastes 10 30-80 60
Metal 7 2-6 3
w−d
M= 100% M = moisture content, percent,
w = initial, wet weight of sample, and
Glass 5 1-4 2
w d = final, dry weight of sample. Plastic 5 1-4 2
Ashes, dirt 8 6-12 8
Other rubbish 7 5-30 20

Example Solution
Components % M/M % water For 100 kg moisture
generated. Determine the total moisture content on
Paper 40 6 2.4
Cardboard 33 6 1.98
Glass 5 0.5 0.025
Components % M/M % water Others 22 60 13.200
Total 100 17.605
Paper 40 6
Cardboard 33 6 Assuming we have 100 kg solid waste the last column shows the
Glass 5 0.5 moisture content in weight.
Others 22 60 Thus, % moisture on wet basis = 17.605 %

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Collection

Example Solution
Population served:
 Single family at 4 residents per unit = 1600 people
 Multiple family at 50 residents per hectare = 400 people
Total = 2000 people
Waste quantity: Assume the residential per capital waste
generation is 1.1 kg/[Link] the amount each collection day is

2000 x 1.1 x 7/2 = 7700 kg = 7.7 tones

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Solid Waste Processing

Landfills
reduces the volume and weight
changes its form and improves its handling characteristics.
to recover natural resources and energy in the waste
material for reuse, or recycling.

incineration, shredding, pulverizing, baling, and composting.

Sanitary Landfills Common Landfill Methods

Designed, controlled and managed disposal sites for MSW

spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh Trench Method
layer of soil each day to minimise pest, aesthetic, disease,
air pollution, and water pollution problems
Canyon Depression Method

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Trench Method Area Method

Canyon Depression Method Completed Landfill

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Landfill gases Leachate

methane fermentation process:

CaHbOcNd + nH2O → x CH4 + y CO2 + w NH3 = z C5H7O2N + energy

Recovery
Reuse, Recycling, and Resource Recovery

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Shredding Screens

Size reduction , or shredding, is brute force breaking of

particles of refuse by swinging hammers in an enclosure.
two types of s hredders : the vertical and horizo ntal Trommel screen
hammermills. Cascading
The specific e nergy W required to reduce a uni t weight of Cataracting
material 80%finer than some diameter LF to aproduct 80% Centrifuging
finer than some diameter Lp, where both LF and Lp are in
micrometers(pm), is expressed as

Wi Bond wor

Air Classifiers Magnets

Materials separated by their aerodynamic properties.
Hea vier, most inert (metals, glass, dense platics,rubbe
nes, and organics)
Ligh ter combustible (paper, film plastic, fabric, and so
od)
minal settling velocity difference
Th e fraction escaping with the air stream is the product o r
overflow,
the fraction falling out the bottom is the reject or underflo w.

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Centralized Recycling Flowsheet

THE END

“We are born of all the things we know

And we are forms of all the things we love.”

Presentation Contents

✓ Br ain storming

Chapter 7 ✓ Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Introduction

EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Procedures in EIA

EIA and Construction

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INTRODUCTION
Bear in mind that:
Whenever any:
Brain Storming
program
o wh at do you understand from EIA or any experience to share? Policy
construction activity or
o wh at is the linkage b/n Construction & EIA?
site development is introduced in to a country, society or specific area,
o wh at is the significance of EIA in construction industry?
Two new things will be injected in to the Environment & the Society.
o wh at do you expect to gain from EIA? Positive +ve = Encourage them
Negative -ve = Mitigate them with appropriate measures

e.g. Road Construction ------------------ Discussion??

In the light of this all the fore-coming discussions under this part will spin
around on such issues

 EIA was first employed by industrialized countries in the early 1970s.

 Since that time, most countries have adopted EIA processes to examine
 Economic development in developing countries has been
focused: the social and environmental consequences of projects prior to their

✓ on immediate economic gains. execution.

➢ environmental protection has not been a priority in these countries;  The purpose of these processes is to provide information to decision
makers and the public about the environmental implications of proposed
✓ because the economic losses from environmental degradation
actions before decisions are made.
often occur long after the economic benefits of development have
been realized. Development & Environment

 The past failure of development planning processes to take adequate ✓ Agriculture expansion, urbanization & infrastructure development are

account of the detrimental impacts of economic development activities the major causes of environmental degradation.

led to: For example;

✓ the advent of environmental impact assessment (EIA) processes with Agr’al expansion: Deforestation, pollution (water, Air & Land)
occurs

with Urbanization: Deforestation, pollution (waste generation) occurs

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Pollution is widespread.

Existing air pollution is being aggravated by increases in the use Aims & objectives of EIA
of low quality petroleum and coal for transportation and energy. EIA can:
Consequently, ambient levels of suspended particulates and modify and improve design
other forms of pollution in most large cities far exceed ensure efficient resource use
recommended public health criteria. enhance social aspects
The amount of toxic and hazardous material discharged into the identify key impacts and measures for mitigating
them
ambient environment is also rapidly increasing.
inform decision-making and condition-setting
Urban populations are being exposed to un-quantified or qualified
avoid serious and irreversible damage to the
levels of toxic pollutants because of industrial growth. environment
➢ All these are the bad faces of development. protect human health and safety
➢ It is these negative impacts on the environment that calls ESIA to be
considered before any project, program or policy is enacted.

The EIA process addresses the following

environmental effects:
The EIA process should be
Biophysical and resource use purposive – meeting its aims and objectives

Social and cultural focused – concentrating on the effects that matter

adaptive – responding to issues and realities
Health and safety
participative – fully involving the public
Economic and fiscal transparent – clear and easily understood
Landscape and visual rigorous – employing ‘best practicable’ methodology
practical – establishing mitigation measures that work
Indigenous peoples’ rights and traditional area
credible – carried out with objectivity and professionalism
efficient – imposing least cost burden on proponents

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EIA & Development Planning

Key operating principles of good EIA practice  EIA has an important role to play in resolving the aforementioned
environmental problems through its ability to:
EIA should:
✓ contribute to environmentally sound and sustainable development.
be applied to all proposals with significant impacts EIA Inputs to the Project Cycle
 Increasingly, countries are enacting laws requiring EIAs for all major
begin early in the project cycle
projects.

address relevant environmental, social and health impacts  A generalized project cycle can be described in terms of six main stages:

1) project concept;
identify and take account of public views
2) prefeasibility;

result in a statement of impacts and mitigation measures 3) feasibility;

4) design and engineering;
facilitate informed decision making and condition setting
5) implementation; and
6) monitoring and evaluation.
✓ EIA has a role to play at each stage in the cycle,

Outputs of the EIA Process Analysis of Environmental Effects

 The main goal of EIA is:  EIA analysis has three sequential phases:

✓ to influence development decision-making by providing sound ✓ identification,

information on environmental and Social impacts and the means ✓ prediction, and
for preventing or reducing those impacts. ✓ assessment.
 Three major outputs of the EIA process provide the primary means for  Identification involves characterizing the existing physical, social,
integrating the results of a specific EIA into the development planning economic, & ecological environment & identifying components of a
decision process. development project which are likely to impact that environment.
1. An identification & analysis of the environmental effects of For example Results of an analysis of the environmental effects of a
proposed activities, highway project may include:
2. An environmental management plan which outlines the mitigation 1. Noise: The planned highway may to pass through residential areas
measures to be undertaken; which will disturb the surrounding residents.
3. An environmental monitoring program which outlines the data that 2. Social Impacts: Social impacts includes the interference of the highway
must be collected in conjunction with the project. with pedestrian traffic routes.

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3. Water Resources Impacts: The flood which will be discharged in to the Environmental Management Plan
nearby water resources will degrade the water quality. ✓ Environmental protection measures are taken to:

✓ While the impervious highway surface would increase run-off during & 1. mitigate environmental impacts;
after rain, the steep gradients of the small watercourses which drain the
2. provide in-kind compensation for lost environmental resources;
highway would make significant flooding.
or
4. Air Impacts: Air pollution from vehicle exhaust will pollute the air
resource.
3. enhance environmental resources.
5. Traffic Impacts: The impact on traffic during the construction phase is
✓ One of the goals of the EIA processes is to develop an
expected to increase congestion, particularly at the entry and exit points,
implementable set of environmental protection measures.
and the presence of maintenance vehicles, machinery and staff on the
road.  These measures are normally set out in an environmental

6. Erosion & Slope Stability Impacts: Erosion is expected to continue management plan.
through the construction phases on embankments & cut slopes,
especially where vegetation cover was incomplete.

Environmental Monitoring Program Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

✓ Environmental monitoring involves the systematic collection of  It refers to the need “to identify & predict the impact on:

data to determine: the environment and

1. the actual environmental effects of a project; on man’s health and

2. the compliance of the project with regulatory standards; or well-being of legislative proposals, policies, programs, projects &

3. the degree of implementation of environmental protection measures operational procedures, and to interpret & communicate information

& success of the environmental protection measures. about the impacts”,

✓ The information generated by monitoring programs provides the  “The term ‘environmental assessment’ describes:

feedback necessary to: a technique & a process by which information about the
environmental effects of a project is collected, both:
ensure that environmental protection measures have been
effective in helping achieve an environmentally sound ✓ by the developer & from other sources, and

project. ✓ taken into account by the planning authority in forming their

judgments on whether the development should go ahead.”

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Benefits of EIA include ACTORS INVOLVED IN THE EIA PROCESS

environmentally sound and sustainable design ➢ Project Proponent

➢ Consultant
better compliance with standards
➢ Interested & affected parties
savings in capital and operating costs ➢ Decision Maker (e.g. EPA)

reduced time and costs for approvals ➢ elders

➢ women
increased project acceptance
➢ youths
better protection of the environment and human health ➢ disables

The EIA process comprises

screening - to decide if and at what level EIA should be
applied

scoping - to identify the important issues & prepare terms

of reference

impact analysis - to predict the effects of a proposal &

evaluate their significance

mitigation - to establish measures to prevent, reduce or

compensate for impacts

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reporting - to prepare the information necessary for decision-

making

review - to check the quality of the EIA report.

decision-making - to approve (or reject) the proposal & set

conditions EIA Process Flowchart
follow up – to monitor, manage and audit the impacts of project
implementation

public involvement - to inform and consult with stakeholders

SCREENING

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What is screening?

➢ The screening process determines: Screening outcomes

▪ whether or not EIA is required for a ➢ Full or comprehensive EIA required

particular project ➢ Limited EIA required

➢ No EIA required
▪ what level of EIA is requir ed
✓ not required
✓ partial or
✓ full

Typical proposals requiring a full EIA

Screening tools (methods) ➢ dams and reservoirs

➢ legal/policy definition ➢ resettlement and urban development

➢ Project lists: ➢ infrastructure (e.g. transport and sanitation)

▪ Inclusive — listed projects must undergo EIA ➢ industrial facilities (e.g. manufacturing plants)

▪ Exclusive — listed projects exempted from EIA ➢ energy and minerals extraction (e.g. oil & gas, coal)

➢ Case-by-case examinations: ➢ waste management and disposal of hazardous and

▪ determine whether projects may have significant toxic materials

environmental effects ➢ energy development (power stations, transmission

▪ if so, project should undergo EIA lines, pipelines)

➢ Combination of above

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An Initial Environmental Examination

(IEE) Recommended elements for effective screening in Ethiopia
➢ Mandatory application of EIA should be based on the list
describes the proposal
established in Annex I of the EIA Guideline Document
considers alternatives

addresses the concerns of the community ➢ Case-by-case screening should be applied, based on criteria

defined in the Procedural EIA Guideline

identifies potential environmental effects

(get the doct & keep it for your future use)

establishes mitigation measures

includes monitoring and follow up (as necessary)

What is scoping?
➢ An early stage of the EIA process

➢ begins once screening is completed

➢ identifies key issues and impacts

SCOPING to be considered

➢ establishes the content and scope of

an EIA report

➢ It is the most important step in EIA lays the foundation of an effective

process, saves time and money, and reduces conflict

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Guiding principles to conduct scoping

Emphasis to be given during scoping phase
sc oping is a process not an activity or event
early step:- begins once screening completed design the scoping process for each proposal

open, interactive process: – involves the public start early, as soon as information permits

lays the foundation of an EIA: – by identifying pr epare information package on what is expected

sp ecify the role of the public in decision-making

▪ boundaries of the EIA study
a pproach should be systematic; implementation should be
▪ the information necessary for decision-making
flex ible
▪ key issues and significant impacts to be considered document the results to guide preparation of EIA

re spond to new information and issues as necessary

Elements of scoping
Consideration of alternatives
de fine the parameters of the EIA study
demand alternatives
Identify & inform stakeholders
supply or input alternatives
identify stakeholder concerns
activity alternatives
ag ree on the means of public involvement & methods of
anal ysis location alternatives

identify the main issues & impacts to be studied process alternatives

consider feasible & practical alternatives

scheduling alternatives
establish ‘Terms of Reference’ for the EIA

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EIA ‘ToR’ to be included in outline

Who should be involved in scoping? study area and boundaries

o proponent al
ternatives to be examined

o EIA consultant impacts and issues to be studied

o supervisory authority for EIA approach to be taken

o other responsible agencies requirements for mitigation and monitoring

o affected public information and data to be included in the EIA report

o interested public timetable and requirements for completion of the EIA process

opportunities for wider public involvement

Screening and scoping compared

➢ Scr eening

▪determines the requirement for EIA

▪establishes the level of review necessary

REVIEW
➢ Scoping

▪identifies the key issues and impacts

▪establishes the Terms of Reference

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Goals of an EIA review

➢ The purpose of the review process is to: Considerations during an EIA review

The review complies with terms of reference for the EIA Report.
✓ establish if the information in an EIA report is sufficient
for decision-making. Infor mation is correct and technically sound.

➢ Key objectives are to: Pub lic comments are taken into account.

The re is a complete and satisfactory statement of key findings

▪ Re view the quality of the EIA report.
Infor mation is clear and understandable.
▪ Take public comments into account.
Infor mation is sufficient for decision-making.
▪ De termine if the information is sufficient.

▪ Identify any deficiencies to be corrected

EIA review types

➢ Internal review

Features:

▪ low operating costs

▪ can lack rigour and transparency

▪ often no documentation of result.

➢ External review
Features:

▪ independent, expert check on EIA quality

▪ more rigorous and transparent

▪ report on sufficiency or deficiency

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Why is monitoring needed?

Monitoring is an essential but

MONITORING
ne glected component of EIA

implementation & follow up.

Other components include

supervision, auditing & ex-post evaluation.

Aims of monitoring

Ensure the implementation of conditions attached to a When is monitoring needed?

decision. ➢ Monitoring and auditing should be undertaken when:

Verify that impacts are as predicted or permitted. ▪ potential impacts are significant or uncertain; and/or

Co nfirm that mitigation measures are working as ▪ mitigation measures are untried and outcomes
expected. uncertain.

Take action to manage any unforeseen changes

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Design considerations of EIA monitoring

Key components of monitoring What is required?

Establish baseline conditions. ▪ Identify the scope and components.

Who will carry out the activities?

Measure impacts of a project as constructed.
▪ Specify roles and responsibilities.

Verify conformity with established with conditions and How will these be implemented?

acceptable limits. ▪ Allocate resources.

Establish links to environmental management plans. ▪ Define procedures and arrangements.

Who can access outcomes of monitoring?

Carry out periodic checks and third-party audits.
▪ Only decision-maker and the wider public may access monitoring
outcomes.

Purposes of EIA
1. An aid to decision-making
 EIA is a process with several important purposes.

 It is an aid to decision-making.

 For the decision-maker it provides a systematic examination of the

envi ronmental implications of a proposed action, program or project and
som etimes alternatives, before a decision is taken.
Impact Analysis
2. An instrument for sustainable development (SD)
 SD is the central and ultimate role of EIA as one of the instruments to achieve
sust ainable development: “development that does not cost the Earth”

 Exi sting environmentally harmful developments have to be managed as best

the y can.

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The 'impact analysis'

✓ It is the detailed study phase of EIA which involves

identifying the impacts more specifically

predicting the characteristics of the main impacts

evaluating the significance of the residual impact

For Water Supply and Sanitation Projects

Methods for identifying environmental impacts

checklists

matrices

networks

overlays & geographical information systems (GIS)

expert systems

professional judgement

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Main advantages and disadvantages of impact identification methods Impact characteristics can vary in

nature (positive/negative, direct/indirect)

magnitude (severe, moderate, low)

extent/location (area/volume covered, distribution)

timing (during construction, operation etc, immediate, delayed)

duration (short term/long term, intermittent/continuous)

reversibility/irreversibility

likelihood (probability, uncertainty)

significance (local, regional, global)

Health impacts
Impact characteristic summary table
IMPACT TYPE
Communicable Non Nutrition Injury Psychosocial
disease communicable disorder and
IMPACT
CHARACTERISTIC air quality health etc disease loss of well-
being
Mining Tuberculosis Dust induced Crushing Labour migration
nature lung disease

magnitude Agricu lture Parasitic Pesticide Loss of

infections poisoning subsistence
extent/location Indust ry Poisoning by Occupational Di sempowerment
pollu tants injury
timing Forest ry Loss of food Occupational
product ion injury
duration
Dams and Water borne Poisoning by Increased food Drow ning Involuntary
irrigation diseases pollu tants product ion displaceme nt
reversibility schemes

likelihood (risk) Transportation HIV/Aids Heart disease Traffic injury Noise and
induced stress
significance Energy In door air El ectromagnetic Community
pollu tion radiation displaceme nt

Source: Birley, 2000

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Factors affecting economic impacts

du ration of construction and operation

workforce requirements for each period

skill requirements (local availability)

MITIGATION

ea rning

raw material and other input purchases

cap ital investment

ou tputs

the characteristics of the local economy

Pu rpose of mitigation
Pr oponents have a responsibility to:
 Defi ned as “measures envisaged in order to avoid, reduce and, if

poss ible remedy significant adverse effects”. o av oid, minimise and remedy adverse impacts

✓ A measure before any problem/impact occurs. o internalise the environmental & social costs of the
pr oposal
fi nd better ways of doing things
o pr epare plans for managing impacts
to avoid, minimise or remedy adverse impacts
o repair or make compensation for environmental damages
to ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable levels

to enhance environmental and social benefits

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Impact avoidance can be achieved by:

Framework for impact mitigation
➢ not undertaking certain projects or elements

➢ avoiding environmentally sensitive areas

Common (desirable)
Alternative sites or
Avoidance technology to
eliminate habitat loss ➢ use of measures to prevent impacts from occurring

Actions during ▪ site remediation bonds

design, construction and
Mitigation operation to minimise
or eliminate habitat
loss ▪ resettlement plans

Used as a last resort

▪ in kind measures and offsets
Compensation to offset habitat loss
Rare (undesirable)

Impact compensation can be achieved by

r ehabilitation of resource or environmental components

Public Participation
r estoration of the site to its previous state

r eplacement of the environmental values lost at another

lo cation

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Public participation:- is the direct involvement/consultation of the public

Key stakeholders
in any devt activities, programs or policies.

✓ Thi s is to inform the public about these activities & include their lo cal people affected by a proposal/activity, policy, program

idea s/knowledge in those devt activities, programs or policies.

proponent and project beneficiaries
Purp ose & objectives of public involvement
government agencies
inf orming stakeholders
NG Os
ga ining their views, concerns and values
others, e.g. donors, the private sector, academics
ta king account of public inputs in decision making

inf luencing project design

ob taining local knowledge

Pub lic involvement in key stages of the EIA process

scr eening Principles for successful application of public involvement techniques

determining the need for, and level, of EIA provide the right information
sc oping
allow sufficient time to review & respond
identifying the key issues and alternatives
imp act analysis provide appropriate opportunities/means for stakeholder involvement
identifying the significant impacts and mitigating measures
respond issues & concerns raised
re view
commenting on/responding to the EIA report feed back the results of public input

imp lementation and monitoring choose venues and times of events to suit stakeholders
checking EIA follow up

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Conclusion
Principles for minimising conflict ✓ EIA is an important tool to conduct a healthier construction & hence it should be included
in e ach construction activity once in which category the concerned activity is categorized
involve all stakeholders (EIArequiring, partial or not)

✓ The refore as a construction manager, do not forget to:

establish communication channels
o “Consider EIA as part of environmental planning for any construction activity”.
describe the proposal & its objectives ➢ Because EIA is a tool which helps to encourage positive impacts & discourage negative
impacts.
listen to the concerns & interests of affected people
✓ Dur ing Rural Road construction & provision:
treat people fairly & impartially ➢ Possible +ve impacts: facilitating transportation, economic devt, social devt,

➢ Possible -ve impacts: Land degradation, Water resources pollution, Relocation of

be flexible
residents, Forest destruction,

mitigate impacts & compensate for loss and damage ✓ Hence, there is a need to include mitigation measures for the negative impacts.
Note: The EIA processes & procedures must be considered to prepare a sound EIA
acknowledge concerns & provide feed-back. document.
The EIA Guide lines can be obtained from the Ethiopian Environmental Protection
Authority or from its web-site.

Thank you Chapter 8

Environmental Laws and Regulations

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Contents of the Presentation

o Br ain Storming Brain Storming

o Env ironmental Laws and Regulations wha t do you understand from Envt’al Laws & Regulations?
✓ Introduction wha t is the significance of acquainted with environmental laws?
✓ Environmental Laws The contribution of Environmental Laws in Construction
✓ Environmental Regulations Indus try?

o Env ironmental Laws and Regulations in Ethiopia wha t would happen if there were no such laws?

o App lications of Environmental Laws and Regulations

Environmental Policy  En vironmental issues generally addressed by environmental policy

 A p olicy is a rule or decision about how to act or deal with problems. incl ude (but are not limited to):
 Environmental policy refers to: ✓ air and water pollution,

✓ official rules & regulations concerning the environment that are ✓ waste management,

adopted, implemented & enforced by some government agency, as ✓ ecosystem management,

well as to general public opinion about environmental issues . OR ✓ biodiversity protection, and the protection of natural resources, wildlife

 En vironmental policy: is any (course of) action deliberately to manage and endangered species.

hu man activities with a view to prevent, reduce or mitigate harmful  Thu s, environmental policy focuses on problems arising from human

effects on nature & natural resources, and ensuring that man-made imp act on the environment, which retroacts onto human society by
changes to the environment do not have harmful effects on humans hav ing a (negative) impact on human values such as good health or the
'cle an and green' environment.

Retroa ctive (esp. of law): having effect on the past and as well as on the future

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The need for environmental policy development

 Nat ural Resources are the basis of economic development Situation Analysis and Identification of Policy Issues (problem
definition)
 Hu man intervention in the natural environment, causes negative impact Problem definition

on the environment Formulation of Policy:

Formulation of Policy
 Dev elopment on the other hand are basis for economic development vision, Goals, Objectives, …
and quality of life
Policy Formulation
 Sus tainable Development is the solution for this paradox and can be Policy Formulation: Solutions development,
add ressed through environmental policy of Nations . Solutions comparison, Policy selection
Implementation
➢ Thu s, the need of environmental policy formulation is quite
Implementation: Supporting Institutions, Laws,
imp ortant to limit or guide the effect of development on the regulations, guidelines, Standards Policy Analysis
Env ironment.
Policy analysis: Monitoring, Evaluation & Review

Environmental Law
Environmental Policy Cycle  En vironmental planning and management is based on technical
prin ciples and public values, but it operates through the legal system.
Situation Analysis  En vironmental law encompasses those legal principles and prescripts
and Identification
of Policy Issues
(problem tha t have been used through the judicial system to protect human health
definition)
and environmental quality.
Monitoring Formulation of Policy
 Acc ording to Findley and Farber (2000):
Evaluation Vision, Goals,
Objectives and

and Review Guiding Principles ✓ It is a composite discipline drawing from a number of legal subjects,
including

common law,
Policy
Implementation Formulation property law,
Institutions, laws, Solutions
regulations, development
guidelines, Solutions co
nstitutional law,
standards comparison
Policy selection
administrative law and the writing and interpretation of legislation.

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Object ives of Environmental Policy/Laws

✓ To li mit/avoid the ever increasing environmental problems including:

 En vironmental law includes official rules, decisions, and actions
co ncerning environmental quality, natural resources, and ecological ➢ Water pollution, Radiation & radioactivity, Solid waste disposal,

su stainability. H
azardous air pollutants, Ambient air quality, Acid rain, Stratospheric

 Co untries across the world have a variety of environmental laws set by ozone depletion, & Global climate change (greenhouse effect), & Damage

the respective country. to ecosystems.

✓ to enable professional & all interested parties to take it in all activities

whe re necessary (e.g. construction industry )

✓ To c reate awareness,

✓ to prevent environmental degradation,

✓ to c onserve natural resources.

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Regional Conventions & agreements:

 the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

 The three most significant documents produced
(196 8),
thr ough international conventions includes:
 the Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976),
1. the 1972 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment
 the Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation (1978),

 the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 2. the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
(1979),
3. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in
 the Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution (1979), which was
Johannesburg in 2002
follo wed by specific protocols to the 1979 convention in 1984, 1985, and 1988,

 the ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(198 5),

 the Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of
Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa (1991), and

 the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Trans-boundary Context

(1991)

Ethiopian Environmental policy

Env ironmental Policy in Ethiopia
Procl amations :

 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia  Env ironmental Protection Organs Establishment Proclamation (Proclamation
No. 295/2002),
National legislative framework for the sustainable  Env ironmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (Proclamation No.
299/ 2002),
management of natural and physical resources
 Env ironmental Pollution Control Proclamation (Proclamation No. 300/2002),

Various regulations and strategies are being  Draf t Industrial Pollution Prevention and Control Regulation,

 Draf t Industrial Environmental Policy and Strategy,

developed
 Indu strial Sector Strategy, together with

 Ethiopia is signatory to many international treaties on  Env ironmental Policy of Ethiopia

✓ The se are important stepping-stones for the improvement of

theenvironment the environment.

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Environmental Policy Implementation Environmental Policy Implementation

Problems in Ethiopia in Ethiopia
Lack of appropriate: problems of policies and regulations in Ethiopia

The policies and regulations are too general and lack clear
Institutions, and specific guidelines, technical and operational standards

laws, The regulation/policy failed to indicate the way of involvement

of the community, private and informal sectors
regulations
Sectoral in nature without broad framework that would
guidelines, enable to examine cross-sectoral and cumulative impacts of
various activities.

standards

Environmental Laws, Regulations, Guidelines & Standards of Ethiopia

 The absence of an institutional body that coordinates or oversees Environmental protection adopted in Ethiopia since1992

It has started through the incorporation of environmental issues into the supreme law
cross-sectoral issues would lead to conflicts and ambiguity
of the country.
ther eby creating appropriate conditions for incapable institutions
The 1994 Constitution of Ethiopia under Articles 44 and 92 proclaims that :
and offenders to avoid the rules and regulations Article 44: Environmental Rights

The institutional framework that could help to enhance public All citizens shall have a right to live in a clean and healthy environment.

part icipation is not yet established Article 92: Environmental Objectives

Government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean and healthy
The policies lack legislative frameworks and strategies so as to environment
ease their implementation. The design and implementation of programs and projects of development shall not damage
or destroy the environment.

People have the right to full consultation and to the expression of views in the planning and
implementation of environmental policies and projects that affect them directly.

Government and citizens shall have a duty to protect the environment.

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Cont ents of Environmental policy of Ethiopia 3. Sectoral Environmental Policies

1. T he Resource Base and the Need for a Policy Soil husbandry and sustainable agriculture

✓ The natural Resource base and the rural environment Forest, woodland and tree resources

✓ The urban Environment Genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity

Water resources
✓ Natural and cultural heritage
Energy resource
✓ The need for a policy on natural resources and the environment
Mineral resources
2. T he Policy Goal Objectives and Guiding Principles
Urban environment and environmental health
✓ The overall policy goal
Control of hazardous materials and pollution from industrial waste
✓ Specific policy objectives
Atmospheric pollution and climate change
✓ The key guiding principles
Cultural and natural heritage

4. Cro ss-Sectoral Environmental Policies

Population and the environment Solid Waste Management Proclamation
Community participation and the environment
Objective of the Proclamation
Tenure and access rights to land and natural resources
Land use plan  The objective of this proclamation is to enhance at all levels
Social and gender issues
cap acities to prevent the possible adverse impacts while creating
Environmental economics (Environmental management, Environmental Engineering)
Environmental information system
eco nomically and socially beneficial assets out of solid waste.
Environmental research
Environmental impact assessment (auditing)
Environmental education and awareness
5. Polic y Implementation
Institutional framework, responsibilities and mandates

Legislative framework
Monitoring, evaluation and policy review

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Standards ✓ Presently there are eight major sectors in which the majority of industrial
activity within Ethiopia is focused. Provisional Standards were set for the
 Env ironmental standards include emission limit values for fol lowing Specified Industrial Sectors

disch arges to receiving waters in the case of effluents, to 1. Tanning and the production of leather goods;

atm osphere for gaseous emissions for manufacturing industry and 2. The manufacture of textile;
3. Extraction of mineral ores, the production of metals and metal
noise levels.
products;
 Rece nt data collected by Addis Ababa Environmental Protection 4. The production of food products including beverages, meat and
on ndustrial establishments indicates that over three thousand meat products;
5. The manufacturing of cement and cement products.
indus trial establishments exist in the country.
6. Preservation of wood and the manufacture of wood products
 The industries operating in the country vary considerably in terms including furniture;
of process technology, size, nature of produces, characteristics of 7. The production of pulp, paper and paper products;

the wastes discharged and the receiving environment. 8. The manufacture & formulation of chemical products including
pesticides.

Urban En vironmental Management Programs in Ethiopia: The case of Addis Urban Environmental Management Programs in Ethiopia: The
Ab aba City

Objectives of environmental management case of Addis Ababa City

to restrict and regulate the exploitation and utilization of natural A. Poll ution control: air, water, soil
resources, mainly non-renewable natural resources;
to regenerate degraded environment and to renew natural resources  Waste (solid, liquid, hazardous)
(re newable);
 Ind ustrial Pollution
to control environmental degradation and pollution;
to reduce the impacts of extreme events and natural disasters;  Poll ution from transport Sector
to make optimum utilization of natural resources by recycling and reusing
waste materials produced from one activity to another economically and  Ind oor Air pollution
environmentally viable activity;
 Clim ate Change due to Air Pollution
to assess the impacts of proposed projects and activities on the environment;
to review and revise the existing technologies of production in terms of their  Miti gating Noise Pollution
ad verse effects on the environment; and B. Re generation of degraded environment
to formulate laws and regulations for the implementation of environmental  Re clamation and rehabilitation of quarry sites
pr otection and conservation programs to maintain the environmental quality ;
and  River bank rehabilitation
awareness creation and Environmental Education  Soi l and water conservation and plantation to rehabilitate degraded lands

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Conclusion
C. Mitigation of man-made and natural Environmental threats: risks and
Env ironmental Policies are backbones to Sustainable development,
hazards
Env ironmental policies guide every developmental activity to run within the
flooding, fram e work of countries ‘ Environmental laws & regulations,
landslides, Env ironmental Policies raises the knowledge of countries’ citizens & others
there by helps to protect natural resources and the human health pro-actively.
earthquake,
Con struction industry (Road, Dam, Water Supply, Mining, Housing
land subsidence,
deve lopment, ….) should give due attention to prevent the Environment & the
groundwater hazard, Hum an health.
soil erosion, Tha t is, Environmental Policies particularly benefits the Construction Managers
& Engineers to prepare construction activities within the frameworks of Existing
wind hazards, etc..
Env ironmental Policies.
✓ Th ese will help to wisely use their resources: Time, Money, Human Labor &
N atural Resources.

All these fundamentally contributes to sustainable development.

Chapter 9 Presentation Content

Ethics, Environmental Planning & Construction
Introduction
Ethics, Environmental Planning & Construction Ethics & Envt’al Planning

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• Introduction
• Environmental planning has been characterized as a decision-making process
Brain storming where the planner attempts to achieve a sustainable balance between human
needs and environmental protection.

• This planning specialization places a high priority on environmental matters

concerning land use, policy, and design, and
what Ethical values are expected from Construction • as a decision process, encourages decisions that maximize benefits to both
managers and Engineers in keeping out environment alive ??? people and the environment in which they reside.

• Yet, any decision-making process is confronted with the larger issues of not
simply making decisions, but with the more daunting responsibility of having
made the correct decisions.

• construction industry is one of the disciplines which needs a prioritized

Environmental planning intervention b/c the majority of its activities work against
nature. If it is guided by environmental planning good built- environment can be
created.

• Ethics and values Ethics are the values, standards, and philosophies that people live by.
• Whether we realize it or not, each of us possesses a set of values and Ethics help individuals established codes of personal behavior, and,
calls upon those values as we make judgments and decisions in our daily
collectively, ethics become translated into institutional, business,
lives.
and governmental policies and programs.
• In the practice of planning those values often introduce themselves in
Ethics form the basis of legal systems, economic systems, political action,
ways we may not be aware of, yet their influence can be undeniable.
and public policy on the environment. Yet, what one person values
• Situations we encounter constantly ask us to make choices, and when
we choose we are expressing our values, rating things as better or about the environment may not mesh with someone else's beliefs.

Hence, there are almost always competing interests for using natural
worse, important or unimportant, good or bad.
resources, the working landscape, and the built environment.
• Enviromental ethics is a search for moral values and ethical principles in
human relations with the natural world.

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• There are three ethical approaches to environmental planning: • Environmental ethic becomes a working hypothesis that links humans,

1. the cornucopias, nature, and values to include:

2. the alarmists, and ❑ A theory about what nature is and what kinds of objects and processes
it contains.
3. the cautionaries.

The main differences among the three groups are: ❑ A theory about human beings, providing some overall perspective on
human life, the context in which it lives, and the problems it faces.
o their ethical beliefs,
❑ A theory of value and an account of the evaluation of human action with
o how they interpret data,
reference to nature.
o their faith in technological advances, and
❑ A theory of method, indicating by what standards the claims made
o the amount and pace of change they feel can be accommodated
within the overall theory are to be tested, confirmed, or rejected
consistent with a sustainable environment.

Entities involved in deciding planning issues. • As a type of decision-making, environmental planning requires a
sensitivity to the issues that underlie any given planning problem and the
• Landowners and landholders
decisions that must be made that concern them.
• Builders and land developers
• The ethical principles planners may call upon to provide insight and
• Users of public lands
guidance centered around fundamental questions of right and wrong
• Community interests groups
and the ability to understand good versus bad decisions.
• Elected and appointed government officials
• The treatment of root ethical principles led to a discussion of
• Planning and environmental professionals
contemporary environmental thought and introduced new directions that
• Banks and lending institutions are challenging traditional point of views.
• Homeowners

• Environmental and conservation groups

• Engineers and Construction Managers & Technologists

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Conclusion
✓ Environmental Planning and Protection is not a responsibility of a single
profession but of multidisciplinary.

✓ In the view of this particularly Construction Technology and managers,

and Engineers should have special attention to protect the Environment. Thank you for your attention
✓ Thus, they need to include environmental planning in all their designs End…
and should be consulted and should consult environmentalists for better

achievements and mutual benefits.

✓ Ethics is thus including in our design what is needed from us and what
we have learnt in school & hear it from different sources about our
environment which serves as a home for us and will serve our
generation too.

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