Influence of Deposition Strategies on

Residual Stress in
Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured
Titanium Ti-6Al-4V

Ahmad, B., Zhang, X., Guo, H., Fitzpatrick, M. E., Neto, L. M. S.

C. & Williams, S
Published PDF deposited in Coventry University’s Repository

Original citation:
Ahmad, B, Zhang, X, Guo, H, Fitzpatrick, ME, Neto, LMSC & Williams, S 2022,
'Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire + Arc Additive
Manufactured Titanium Ti‐6Al‐4V', Metals, vol. 12, no. 2, 253.
[Link]

DOI 10.3390/met12020253
ESSN 2075-4701

Publisher: MDPI

Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is
an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ([Link]
4.0/).
 metals
Article
Influence of Deposition Strategies on Residual Stress in
Wire + Arc Additive Manufactured Titanium Ti-6Al-4V
Bilal Ahmad 1, * , Xiang Zhang 1 , Hua Guo 1 , Michael E. Fitzpatrick 1 ,
Leonor MacHado Santos Carvalho Neto 2 and Stewart Williams 2

1 Faculty of Engineering, Environment and Computing, Coventry University, Priory Street,

Coventry CV1 5FB, UK; [Link]@[Link] (X.Z.); [Link]@[Link] (H.G.);
[Link]@[Link] (M.E.F.)
2 Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Cranfield University, Milton Keynes MK43 0AL, UK;
[Link]@[Link] (L.M.S.C.N.); [Link]@[Link] (S.W.)
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract: Wire + arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a modern manufacturing process that has
opened new possibilities for rapid builds and reductions in material wastage. This paper explores
residual stress in WAAM Ti-6Al-4V walls built using three different deposition strategies: single
bead, parallel path, and oscillation path. The effect of interlayer hammer peening and interlayer
temperature was investigated for the single bead walls. We also examined the residual stress in
compact-tension (C(T)) coupons extracted from large builds (walls) with crack orientation either
parallel with or perpendicular to the build direction. This type of sample is often used for the
measurement of the fatigue crack growth rate. The contour method was used for experimental





 determinations of residual stress. In addtion, residual stress in the C(T) coupons was estimated
Citation: Ahmad, B.; Zhang, X.; Guo,
by finite element (FE) analysis. A good agreement was achieved between the contour method and
H.; Fitzpatrick, M.E.; Neto, L.M.S.C.; FE analysis. The oscillation-path wall had the lowest residual stress values. For the single bead
Williams, S. Influence of Deposition walls built with various process conditions, residual stress was significantly reduced after removing
Strategies on Residual Stress in Wire the substrate. A interlayer temperature of 110 ◦ C resulted in much higher residual stress values
+ Arc Additive Manufactured in the wall (both tensile and compressive) compared to the continuous build, with much higher
Titanium Ti-6Al-4V. Metals 2022, 12, interlayer temperature.
253. [Link]
met12020253 Keywords: titanium alloy; additive manufacturing; residual stress; contour method; finite element
Academic Editors: Maciej Motyka, analysis
Marcello Cabibbo and João
Pedro Oliveira

Received: 1 January 2022

1. Introduction
Accepted: 25 January 2022
Published: 28 January 2022
Ti-6Al-4V is the most commonly used titanium alloy in the aerospace, energy, and
biomedical industries owing to its high fracture toughness, high strength-to-weight ratio,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
and excellent fatigue and corrosion resistance [1,2]. Conventional manufacturing oper-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
ations (such as forging, rolling, casting, followed by machining) are commonly used to
published maps and institutional affil-
manufacture Ti-6Al-4V. However, these methods are expensive as they cause material
iations.
wastage and require special tools. The typical buy-to-fly ratio of Ti-6Al-4V with conven-
tional manufacturing is 12–25:1 [2,3]. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers an alternative to
conventional manufacturing processes, resulting in material savings, high build speeds,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
the production of complex geometry and larger parts. However, some common drawbacks
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. associated with AM processes are porosity, surface roughness or waviness, residual stress,
This article is an open access article and distortion [2].
distributed under the terms and Additive manufacturing can be divided into two major groups: powder bed fusion
conditions of the Creative Commons (PBF) and directed energy deposition (DED). Each group comprises numerous manufac-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// turing technologies. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) [4] falls under the
[Link]/licenses/by/ Directed Energy Deposition classification [5]. WAAM offers cost savings compared to
4.0/). powder bed fusion and other DED methods [6], and has been investigated for titanium,

Metals 2022, 12, 253. [Link] [Link]

Metals 2022, 12, 253 2 of 20

aluminum and steel alloys, nickel bronze [4,7], tantalum [8], NiTi alloy [9], and steel-copper
based alloy [10]. WAAM uses metal wire and an arc heat source to melt the wire and build
a part layer-by-layer. It enables the production of large components with higher deposition
speed [11], and offers greater material savings and deposition speed than powder-based
AM processes [12]. Typical deposition rates of 1–10 kg/h have been reported [6]. Gas
Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and Plasma Arc Welding
(PAW) are the most commonly used methods in WAAM [7,13,14]. The buy-to-fly ratio is
about 3–12:1 [2,3]. WAAM has also found applications in the construction [15] and nuclear
power [12] industries.
In WAAM, various factors can affect the generation of residual stress such as power
source, deposition parameters and strategy, speed, layer thickness, pre-heating, the sub-
strate material and geometry. [12,16]. The local heating and uneven cooling during the
WAAM process induces large thermal gradients, resulting in residual stress and distor-
tion [2,17], which can in turn reduce the structural strength and cause the final geometrical
dimensions to be incorrect [17]. High levels of residual stress lead to solidification cracking,
which is more common in materials with a high thermal expansion coefficient, such as
aluminum alloys [6]. In WAAM, the heat dissipates through three forms: conduction
to previous deposited layers, substrate and clamps; convection to the shielding air; and
radiation to the atmosphere [12]. In as-deposited components, the peak tensile residual
stress has been seen at the interface of the substrate and the deposit. The thermal gradient is
at maximum when the first WAAM layers are deposited on the substrate, as a faster cooling
rate occurs due to dissipation of heat through conduction into the substrate [3,18]. The
conductive heat transfer, however, decreases with an increase in the deposit height [19]. The
thermal profile changes because of the change in heat dissipation as a result of the evolution
of the geometry during the build, and the cumulative effect of successive thermal cycles.
Moreover, in-wall the heat dissipation is mainly in the form of radiation and convection [6].
Residual stress can be mitigated by reducing the local heat accumulation during
WAAM [12]. To improve heat transfer in the WAAM process, different strategies have
been employed. Preheating the substrate [17,20], reducing power source energy [17], and
interlayer rolling [4] all help to reduce the residual stresses. A high interlayer temperature
can help to reduce the residual stress as well as the dwell time. It has been suggested that
the idle time may be increased as the build height increases to maintain same interlayer
temperature and a constant molten pool size [19]. Interlayer rolling usually requires cooling
of the build before its application, however it reduces the residual stress effectively [6].
Heat treatment, interlayer cold rolling [4,12], and ultrasonic impact treatment have been
shown to reduce the residual stress [7]. Shot and hammer peening are frequently used
in the welding industry. Adaptations are generally required to apply peening to WAAM
components [7]. Interlayer hammer peening was shown to generate high compressive
residual stress up to 1.2 mm depth below the peened surface for WAAM Ti-6Al-4V [21].
WAAM process planning consists of build orientation, path planning, process param-
eters, and desired geometry. For example, regarding build orientation, a deposit can be
built either vertically (most commonly used) or horizontally (suffers from greater thermal
gradients due to dissipation of heat to the substrate, and thus results in much higher resid-
ual stresses: also the substrate material has to be removed from the deposit all along the
build). The substrate used for deposition often undergoes distortion. However distortion
can be reduced by depositing the WAAM layers on both sides of the substrate, which
balances the amount of residual stress on both sides [4,22]. A thick substrate reduces
thermal deformations/distortions, however upon removal of the substrate there will be
stress relaxation which may further result in the part distortion.
Tensile residual stress can be reduced by optimizing the substrate design through
numerical simulations [18] e.g., by changing the substrate thickness, substrate area, making
use of hollow substrate, depositing on both sides of the substrate, or adjustment of the
clamping locations and clamping force. A change in stress distribution of WAAM Fe3 Al was
noticed after cutting off the substrate and after heat treatment [23]. A suitable deposition
Metals 2022, 12, 253 3 of 20

strategy may also help to manage the development of residual stress. A uni-directional
path pattern is commonly used in WAAM. A number of path planning strategies exist for
WAAM e.g., raster, zigzag, etc. [12].
Various numerical techniques have been used to estimate residual stress generated
from the AM process in complex shape parts [20,24]. Long computational time and cost is of-
ten involved for numerical simulations of large WAAM parts. Coupled thermo-mechanical
transient analysis is generally desired for accurate simulation of the arc, heat and mass
transfer, and solidification [25]. In addition, residual stress has been characterized in
WAAM components using experimental techniques (both non-destructive and destruc-
tive). Ultrasonic testing was used to measure residual stresses during and after additive
manufacturing [14]. Neutron diffraction is frequently applied to estimate residual stress
in WAAM builds [23,26–28]. X-ray diffraction has also been used to determine surface
residual stresses, e.g., for WAAM aluminum alloy [29]. The contour method has been
employed to measure residual stresses in WAAM parts [28,30]: for example, axial and hoop
stress were measured in extracts from a circular WAAM steel build [31]. Tensile residual
stress up to 500 MPa was reported at the interface of deposits and substrates, in the case of
as-deposited WAAM Ti-6Al-4V [26]. This paper reports the residual stress measurement
and analysis performed on WAAM Ti-6Al-4V, investigating deposition strategies, the use of
interlayer peening, the effect of substrate removal, and the effect of coupon removal from
the main build. Residual stress was first investigated in large walls built by three different
deposition strategies: single bead, parallel path, and oscillation path. Residual stress was
also estimated in single bead walls with interlayer hammer peening or with a particular
interlayer temperature that was similar to the temperature value at interlayer peening. The
application of peening techniques to WAAM builds is relatively new. The contour method
was used in this study for the determination of residual stress, which is method based
on stress relaxation [32]. The contour method provides 2D stress distribution for a stress
component of interest that is perpendicular to the contour surface and is not affected by the
material microstructure. In addition to attainment of stresses within the thickness, the near
surface residual stresses in certain cases are also comparable to other techniques, such as
the X-ray diffraction (XRD) and hole drilling techniques, which measure the near-surface
residual stresses; e.g., XRD can analyze residual stress up to a few micrometers below the
sample surface. The coarse grain size and texture in WAAM Ti64 materials generally gives
low quality results in XRD. Another source of error can be the wavy surface in WAAM.
The sampled area should be sufficiently flat for the XRD and hole drilling methods. The
incremental hole drilling method can measure stresses up to 1.2 mm in depth.
Residual stress in small compact-tension (C(T)) coupons extracted from the walls was
evaluated using the contour method and by finite element analysis. This evaluation was
necessary for fatigue crack growth rate analysis. Based on the fracture mechanics approach,
the crack tip stress intensity factor should take account of the contribution from residual
stresses [33,34].

2. Materials and Methods

Metals 2022, 12, 253 2.1. Materials and Specimens 4 of 20

Figure 1 shows a schematic of the three deposition strategies studied in this paper.

Figure 1. Deposition strategies for WAAM Ti-6Al-4V walls: (a) single bead, (b) parallel path,
Figure 1. Deposition strategies for WAAM Ti-6Al-4V walls: (a) single bead, (b) parallel path, (c)
(c) oscillation
oscillation pathpath
(LD(LD = longitudinal
= longitudinal direction
direction (torch
(torch movement
movement direction),ND
direction), ND= =normal
normaldirection,
direction,
TD = transverse direction).
TD = transverse direction).

Single bead is generally used to build thin walls and parallel and oscillation paths for
thick walls. The first batch of samples were built with a continuous deposition approach.
The parallel-path wall was composed of four 50% overlapped single beads. The oscillation
path walls were deposited on opposite sides of the substrate (Figure 2a). The thickness of
the single bead, parallel path and oscillation path walls were approximately 10, 25 and 20
Metals 2022, 12, 253 4 of 20

Single bead is generally used to build thin walls and parallel and oscillation paths for
Metals 2022, 12, 253 thick walls. The first batch of samples were built with a continuous deposition approach.5 of 20
The parallel-path wall was composed of four 50% overlapped single beads. The oscillation
path walls were deposited on opposite sides of the substrate (Figure 2a). The thickness of the
single bead, parallel
C(T) coupons. Figurepath and oscillation
2d depicts contour path walls were
cut locations for approximately 10,C(T)
small blocks and 25 and 20 mm,
coupons,
respectively. Walls were removed
as well as cut/crack orientations. from the substrate before residual stress measurement.

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)
[Link]
Figure WAAMwalls
walls(a)(a) oscillation
oscillation path,
path, (b) (b) single
single beadbead
withwith interlayer
interlayer hammer
hammer peening,
peening, (c)
(c) sketch
sketch showing contour cut location on walls and extraction location of C(T) coupons, (d) sketch
showing contour cut location on walls and extraction location of C(T) coupons, (d) sketch depicting
depicting contour cut and crack orientations for small blocks and C(T) coupons.
contour cut and crack orientations for small blocks and C(T) coupons.
The measured perimeter of various walls (single bead, parallel path, and oscillation
path) at the mid-length is illustrated in Figure 3.
Metals 2022, 12, 253 5 of 20

The second batch of samples consisted of single bead walls only, for investigation
of the effects of interlayer tempeature, and interlayer hammer peening (ILP) with and
without the substrate. The length of the walls was about 300 mm. The average interlayer
temperature of these walls was 110 ◦ C. The interlayer hammer peening was begun after the
build cooled to 140 ◦ C. The thickness of the ILP single bead walls was about 7–8 mm. All
walls were removed from the substrate before residual stress measurement, except for one
ILP wall that was measured with the substrate. The thickness of the substrate was 10 mm.
The deposition parameters for the walls are shown in Table 1. Interlayer hammer peening
was performed on each deposited layer along the length of the wall, leaving a distance of
15 mm from the wall-ends unpeened. The interlayer hammer peening parameters for the
single-bead walls are shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Process parameters for the WAAM walls studied in this paper.

Wire Diameter Work Piece Wire Feed Rate Torch Travel Plasma Gas Shielding Gas
Current (A)
(mm) Distance (mm) (m/min) Speed (mm/s) Flow (L/min) Flow (L/min)
1.2 8 145 2.4 5 0.8 8

Table 2. Interlayer hammer peening parameters for single bead WAAM walls.

Tool Impact Energy (J) Insert Radius (mm) Step Size (mm) Peening Speed (mm/min)
Atlas Copco
6 10 4 150
(Model RRH06P)

Compact-tension (C(T)) coupons of 5 mm thickness were extracted from all three build
strategies (single bead, parallel path, and oscillation path), and also from the ILP single
bead wall. All C(T) coupons were extracted from the mid-thickness of the walls near the
wall bottom location using wire electro-discharge machining. The coupons for fatigue crack
growth tests were extracted from both the top and bottom locations of a wall. However,
this paper has only focused on retained residual stresses in these small coupons and for
this purpose the wall bottom location was selected, where the residual stress is much
higher. Two types of C(T) coupons were investigated: one for introducing a crack across
the WAAM layers; and the other for cracking parallel to the WAAM layers. Figure 2a,b
show the as-received walls: in Figure 2a, the oscillation path deposited on both sides of
the substrate is shown; and in Figure 2b the interlayer-hammer-peened single-bead wall
(measured with the substrate) is shown. Figure 2c shows a sketch depicting the contour
cut location of the walls and the extraction locations for the small blocks and the C(T)
coupons. Figure 2d depicts contour cut locations for small blocks and C(T) coupons, as
well as cut/crack orientations.
The measured perimeter of various walls (single bead, parallel path, and oscillation
path) at the mid-length is illustrated in Figure 3.
To examine cutting errors associated with wire electro-discharge machining for the
contour method, the substrate material (a wrought Ti-6Al-4V) used for the deposition
of WAAM walls was measured. The substrate plate was measured in as-received and
stress-relieved conditions. Residual stresses were first evaluated in the walls with the
contour cut position shown in Figure 2c. Afterwards, the compact-tension (C(T)) coupons
were extracted from the walls (oscillation path, parallel path, single bead, and ILP single
bead) to investigate the residual stress levels. The coupons were extracted after the contour
cut of the wall and near the cut location, as shown in Figure 2c,d. The extraction of C(T)
coupons from the walls followed a similar procedure as the single bead, parallel path and
oscillation path walls. Besides the C(T) coupons, two small blocks were machined from
the oscillation path wall: one for contour cuts across the WAAM layers, and another for
cuts parallel to the WAAM layers. These blocks were machined from a similar location
of wall as for the C(T) coupons in Figure 2c,d. The size of the blocks prior to contour cut
 Metals 2022, 12, 253 6 of 20

was the same as the C(T) samples. The purpose of this measurement was to exclude the
notch effect on measured residual stresses in the C(T) samples, because the notch causes
Metals 2022, 12, 253 6 of 20
redistribution of residual stress and local stress concentration. The contour measurement
was expected to give the true residual stress status retained in the C(T) samples.

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure3. 3.
(a) (a)
Sketch andand
Sketch (b) measured perimeter
(b) measured for single
perimeter bead,bead,
for single parallel path and
parallel pathoscillation path
and oscillation
walls.
path walls.

[Link]
Methods
examine cutting errors associated with wire electro-discharge machining for the
contour method,
The contour themethod
substrate material
uses a wire(aelectrical
wroughtdischarge
Ti-6Al-4V) used for(WEDM)
machine the deposition
to cut of
the
WAAM wallstowas
component [Link]
be measured Thetwosubstrate
[Link]
The was
stepsmeasured
involved ininas-received
the contourand stress-
method are:
relieved
• conditions.
Cutting, Residual
for which stresses
a single were
flat cut first evaluated
is desired throughinthethesample
walls with the the
to relax contour
stress
cut position shown in Figure 2c.
component normal to the cut [Link], the compact-tension (C(T)) coupons were
extracted
• from the
Following walls (oscillation
cutting, path, parallel
the cut surfaces path, single
are measured with abead, and ILPmeasuring
coordinate single bead)ma-
to investigate the
chine (CMM). residual stress levels. The coupons were extracted after the contour cut
of• the Data
wallanalysis
and near the cut location,
is performed in which asthe
shown in Figure
measured 2c,d.
contours areThe extraction
averaged of C(T)
and smoothed
coupons from the walls followed
with a curve fitting routine. a similar procedure as the single bead, parallel path and
oscillation
• path walls. Besides the C(T) coupons, two small blocks were
Finally, the reverse of the measured contour is applied as displacement boundary machined from
the oscillation
conditions path
to wall:
a 3D one for contourmodel
finite-element cuts across
of onetheof WAAM layers, and
the cut surfaces. Toanother for
avoid rigid
cuts parallel to the WAAM
body motion, layers.
constraints areThese
appliedblocks
to thewere machined
FE model, andfrom a similar location
a linear-elastic analysisofis
wall asperformed
for the C(T) to coupons
obtain the inoriginal
Figure 2c,d. The stress
residual size ofpresent
the blocks prior
in the to contour
sample [32]. cut was
the sameForas the C(T)
contour samples.
method The purposethe
measurements, of walls
this measurement was to
and C(T) samples wereexclude theanotch
cut with Fanuc
effect on measured residual stresses in the C(T) samples, because
Robocut α-C600i wire electrical discharge machine, Fanuc corporation, Yamanashi, the notch causes
Japan.
redistribution of residual stress and local stress concentration. The
A brass wire of 0.25 mm diameter was used. The samples were symmetrically clamped. contour measurement
was expected
Machine to give
cutting the true residual
parameters stressduration
such as spark status retained
ON time,in the C(T) current,
voltage, [Link] dura-
tion OFF time, wire tension, nozzle injection pressure and feed rate were optimized (based
2.2.
onMethods
trials) for each sample [35]. The chosen machine settings gave the best possible surface
TheFor
finish. contour method
all samples, uses ensured
it was a wire electrical discharge
that the cutting machine
speed remained(WEDM)
below to cut the
1 mm/min.
component
CT coupons to were
be measured into
extracted twoWEDM
with [Link]
The steps involved
the CAD in theand
drawing contour method
machine are:
standard
• cutting parameters. All samples were cut at their mid-length to obtain the longitudinal
Cutting, for which a single flat cut is desired through the sample to relax the stress
stress component
component (the LD
normal component
to the as in Figure 2c). The surface displacement profiles
cut surface.
• Following cutting, the cut surfaces are measured with a coordinate measuring
machine (CMM).
• Data analysis is performed in which the measured contours are averaged and
smoothed with a curve fitting routine.
Metals 2022, 12, 253 7 of 20

of both cut halves of each sample were measured with a Zeiss Contura g2 coordinate
measuring machine (CMM). A touch probe of 3 mm diameter was used. The distance
between the measurement points for both in-plane directions of the sample cut surface and
from the perimeter were set as 0.5 mm (for walls and substrate) and 0.1 mm (for the C(T)
coupons), respectively. The surface displacement data of all samples were post-processed
with Matlab analysis (MATLAB 2020a, MathWorks, Nattick, MA, USA) routines for data
aligning, averaging, cleaning and smoothing with cubic splines [36]. A cubic spline smooth-
ing with suitable knot spacing was used for each sample. For FE analysis, one cut half of
all samples was modelled. A brick element having 8 nodes in Abaqus software was used,
Abaqus 6.14-1, Dassault Systemes, Waltham, MA, USA. The distance between the adjacent
FE nodes on the cut surface was set as 0.5 mm or less. The smoothed displacements were
then applied to the FE model as boundary conditions, constraints were applied to avoid
rigid body motion, and finally linear-elastic analysis was performed to obtain the original
stresses present in sample before the cutting. The following material properties were used:
modulus of elasticity E = 113.8 GPa, Poisson’s ratio v = 0.342.
A 2D finite-element analysis (FEA) of both C(T) coupon types (i.e., crack across the
WAAM layers and crack parallel to the WAAM layers) was performed to obtain residual
stresses along the straight cut/crack path. The FEA was based on the contour method
measurement of the WAAM walls (i.e., single bead, parallel path, and oscillation path), as
investigated and reported previously [37]. The stress distribution changes due to coupon
extraction as well as crack growth, and can be modelled by FEM [34,37–39]. For FEA, a 2D
model of the C(T) coupons was constructed.
From contour measurement of WAAM walls, the stresses over a 5 mm distance around
the mid thickness of the walls were averaged, and this process proceeded along the walls’
height. These averaged stresses were assumed to be uniform along the length of the walls.
The averaged stresses (corresponding to cut locations of the C(T) coupons) were then
applied as initial stresses to an FE model of the C(T) coupons. Constraints were applied
at appropriate corner nodes to avoid rigid body motion. Linear-elastic FE analysis was
performed to obtain the residual stresses in the C(T) coupons. The FE analysis was executed
using Ansys 16.1 software with Plane182 elements, Ansys, Canonsburg, PA, USA and the
mesh size was set as 0.5 mm. Similar E and v values as used for the contour measurement
were employed.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Calibration of Contour Cutting Parameters
To estimate errors in the wire electro-discharge machining cutting associated with
the chosen cutting parameters and conditions, contour cuts were performed firstly on a
reference plate that was the same as the substrate plate used for depositing the WAAM
layers. The reference plate is a wrought Ti-6Al-4V, which was measured in the as-received
condition and also a stress-relieved condition following heat treatment at 600 ◦ C in a
furnace for 3 h, after which it was expected to have minimal residual stress. Figure 4 shows
the through-thickness averaged residual stress. Very little residual stress (±4 MPa) was
present after the stress relief operation. This confirmed that the chosen set of WEDM cutting
parameters and conditions had minimal cutting errors for the contour method used in
this study.

3.2. Residual Stresses in Single Bead Walls with Various Build Conditions
Single bead walls of the following conditions were studied: (a) interlayer peened
(ILP) with substrate plate; (b) interlayer peened (ILP) after removing the substrate plate;
(c) as-deposited (unpeened) with average interlayer temperature 110 ◦ C after removing
the substrate; (d) unpeened, built by continuous deposition (with much higher interlayer
temperature), after removing the substrate. The contour method results of residual stress
are shown in Figure 5.
Metals 2022, 12, 253 layers. The reference plate is a wrought Ti-6Al-4V, which was measured in the as-received 9 of 20
condition and also a stress-relieved condition following heat treatment at 600 °C in a
furnace for 3 h, after which it was expected to have minimal residual stress. Figure 4 shows
the developed
also through-thickness averaged
tensile residual residual
stress at itsstress.
bottomVery littleasresidual
as well the top stress
surface(±4 MPa)
away was
from
present after the stress relief operation. This confirmed that the chosen
the deposit. The single bead unpeened WAAM wall built with an averaged interlayer set of WEDM
Metals 2022, 12, 253 8 of 20
cutting parameters
temperature of 110 °C and conditions
resulted had minimal
in much cutting stress
higher residual errors compared
for the contour
to themethod
other
used in this
unpeened andstudy.
peened single bead walls. A high interlayer temperature not only decreases
dwell/idle time but also the residual stress [6].
The effect of interlayer temperature on residual stress was studied by comparing the
two unpeened conditons. The 110 °C interlayer temperature wall showed higher tensile
residual stress, approaching 500 MPa at the wall bottom location, compared to the
continuous deposited wall. The higher interlayer temperature was found to have a
beneficial effect on the generation of low residual stress as it reduced any thermal
mismatches [40]. High tensile residual stress was not only present at the wall bottom
location but also at the wall top location. The continuous deposit wall showed the lowest
residual stress along the build height. The ILP wall without substrate showed significantly
less tensile residual stresses at the wall bottom and top locations compared to the
unpeened single bead wall prepared with similar interlayer temperature. Interlayer
Figure
Figure 4.
hammering4. Residual
Residual
peeningstress profile
stress
is known (through-thickness
profile
to averaged)
(through-thickness of aofwrought
averaged)
generate compressive residual Ti-6Al-4V
astresses
wrought plate
Ti-6Al-4V
[21]. in as-
plate in
received andand
as-received stress-relieved conditions.
stress-relieved conditions.

3.2. Residual Stresses in Single Bead Walls with Various Build Conditions
Single bead walls of the following conditions were studied: (a) interlayer peened
(ILP) with substrate plate; (b) interlayer peened (ILP) after removing the substrate plate;
(c) as-deposited (unpeened) with average interlayer temperature 110 °C after removing
the substrate; (d) unpeened, built by continuous deposition (with much higher interlayer
temperature), after removing the substrate. The contour method results of residual stress
are shown in Figure 5.
The ILP wall with substrate showed the highest tensile residual stress, approaching
600 MPa at the intersection of the wall and substrate. From the bottom towards the top of
the wall, the tensile stress decreased gradually, and in the mid-height, the stress state was
compressive. Low tensile stress was present in the upper part of the wall, and at the very
top of the ILP wall with the substrate, the stresses were highly compressive (more than
−200 MPa). Within the substrate, compressive residual stresses were seen away from the
deposit, and tensile residual stress of a magnitude greater than 100 MPa was found at the
bottom of the substrate.
In (a) (b)
the single-bead build, in the first few deposited (c) stresses (d)
layers, arose due to
restraint from the clamped baseplate, similar to what occurs in welding processes. High
tensile stress arises at the junction of the baseplate with the build layers, and compressive
residual stress appears away from the deposited bead to balance the tensile peak stress.
In the second stage of the build process, when the build height reaches a certain distance,
restraint stresses do not occur, as there is no restraint from the substrate and clamps.
However, large shrikage stresses appear. This two-stage development results in two
regions of residual stress: (i) high tensile residual stress in the deposition (longitudinal)
directon near the baseplate due to plastic strain mismatch (deposition and restraint); (ii)
compressive stress in the middle of the build height and tensile stress near the top of the
deposit due to elastic strain mismatch (shrinkage).
The ILP wall, after removing the baseplate, showed significant stress relaxation,
particularly near the wall bottom location (i.e., the start of the deposit), as compared to
the wall top location. Stresses were largely relaxed after removing the substrate, but part
of tensile stress near the wall-substrate interface was retained, around 200 MPa, which
was 450 MPa before the substrate removal. At the mid-point of the wall build height, the
compressive residual stress was of similar magnitude for both ILP walls. It was noticed
(e)
that removal of substrate reduced residual stress in the WAAM build [18]. The substrate
Figure
Figure 5. 5.
Residual stress
Residual results
stress ofof
results single bead
single walls
bead wallsofof
different build
different conditions:
build (a–d)
conditions: stress
(a–d) maps,
stress maps,
(e)(e)stress profiles at mid-thickness from the bottom to top of the walls.
stress profiles at mid-thickness from the bottom to top of the walls.

The ILP wall with substrate showed the highest tensile residual stress, approaching
600 MPa at the intersection of the wall and substrate. From the bottom towards the top of
the wall, the tensile stress decreased gradually, and in the mid-height, the stress state was
compressive. Low tensile stress was present in the upper part of the wall, and at the very
top of the ILP wall with the substrate, the stresses were highly compressive (more than
Metals 2022, 12, 253 9 of 20

−200 MPa). Within the substrate, compressive residual stresses were seen away from the
deposit, and tensile residual stress of a magnitude greater than 100 MPa was found at the
bottom of the substrate.
In the single-bead build, in the first few deposited layers, stresses arose due to restraint
from the clamped baseplate, similar to what occurs in welding processes. High tensile
stress arises at the junction of the baseplate with the build layers, and compressive residual
stress appears away from the deposited bead to balance the tensile peak stress. In the
second stage of the build process, when the build height reaches a certain distance, restraint
stresses do not occur, as there is no restraint from the substrate and clamps. However, large
shrikage stresses appear. This two-stage development results in two regions of residual
stress: (i) high tensile residual stress in the deposition (longitudinal) directon near the
baseplate due to plastic strain mismatch (deposition and restraint); (ii) compressive stress
in the middle of the build height and tensile stress near the top of the deposit due to elastic
strain mismatch (shrinkage).
The ILP wall, after removing the baseplate, showed significant stress relaxation, partic-
ularly near the wall bottom location (i.e., the start of the deposit), as compared to the wall
top location. Stresses were largely relaxed after removing the substrate, but part of tensile
stress near the wall-substrate interface was retained, around 200 MPa, which was 450 MPa
before the substrate removal. At the mid-point of the wall build height, the compressive
residual stress was of similar magnitude for both ILP walls. It was noticed that removal of
substrate reduced residual stress in the WAAM build [18]. The substrate also developed
tensile residual stress at its bottom as well as the top surface away from the deposit. The
single bead unpeened WAAM wall built with an averaged interlayer temperature of 110 ◦ C
resulted in much higher residual stress compared to the other unpeened and peened single
bead walls. A high interlayer temperature not only decreases dwell/idle time but also the
residual stress [6].
The effect of interlayer temperature on residual stress was studied by comparing
the two unpeened conditons. The 110 ◦ C interlayer temperature wall showed higher
tensile residual stress, approaching 500 MPa at the wall bottom location, compared to
the continuous deposited wall. The higher interlayer temperature was found to have
a beneficial effect on the generation of low residual stress as it reduced any thermal
mismatches [40]. High tensile residual stress was not only present at the wall bottom
location but also at the wall top location. The continuous deposit wall showed the lowest
residual stress along the build height. The ILP wall without substrate showed significantly
less tensile residual stresses at the wall bottom and top locations compared to the unpeened
single bead wall prepared with similar interlayer temperature. Interlayer hammering
peening is known to generate compressive residual stresses [21].
The residual stress profiles at mid-thickness of all single bead walls along the build
height are compared in Figure 5b. The stress distribution was similar to that discussed
above. The unpeened wall with average 110 ◦ C interlayer temperature had the highest
tensile residual stress among the walls with the substrate plate removed. The ILP wall
without substrate showed the lowest tensile residual stress, almost similar to the as-built
(continuous deposit). The ILP wall with substrate also showed higher compressive residual
stress (more than −200 MPa) at the wall top location than the ILP wall after substrate
removal. The top layer of the ILP wall after substrate removal was not peened, contrary to
the other ILP wall with the substrate, which resulted in higher compressive residual stress
in the case of the ILP wall with the substrate still attached.

3.3. Residual Stresses in the WAAM Walls

The contour method results presented in Figure 6 show residual stress distribution
along the build height for continuous deposits using single bead, parallel path, and oscilla-
tion path strategies. After removing the substrate plate, tensile stress was present at the
bottom and top of the walls, with compressive stress around the mid-height. The oscillation
path wall showed the lowest values of residual stress, and the parallel path wall showed
 3.3. Residual Stresses in the WAAM Walls
The contour method results presented in Figure 6 show residual stress distribution
along the build height for continuous deposits using single bead, parallel path, and
oscillation path strategies. After removing the substrate plate, tensile stress was present
Metals 2022, 12, 253 10 of 20
at the bottom and top of the walls, with compressive stress around the mid-height. The
oscillation path wall showed the lowest values of residual stress, and the parallel path
wall showed the highest values, with the peak tensile stress approaching 280 MPa at the
top the highest
of the wall. values, with
The single the wall
bead peakalso
tensile stresshigh
showed approaching 280 MPa
tensile stress, at the top185
approaching of MPa
the wall.
The single bead wall also showed high tensile
at the wall bottom location (near the substrate plate). stress, approaching 185 MPa at the wall
bottom location (near the substrate plate).

Metals 2022, 12, 253 11 of 20

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
Figure 6. Residual
Figure 6. Residual stresses
stresses in
in the
the single
single bead
bead (10
(10 mm
mm×× 123
123 mm),
mm), parallel
parallel path
path (20
(20 mm
mm × × 150
150 mm)
mm)
and oscillation path (25 mm × 152 mm) walls: (a–c) stress maps, (d) stress profiles (value at the mid-
and oscillation path (25 mm × 152 mm) walls: (a–c) stress maps, (d) stress profiles (value at the
thickness).
mid-thickness).

All
All WAAM
WAAM wallswalls showed
showed high
high tensile
tensile residual
residual stress
stress at
at the
the wall
wall bottom
bottom location
location (i.e.,
(i.e.,
the
the intersection of wall and substrate). The parallel path WAAM wall showed the
intersection of wall and substrate). The parallel path WAAM wall showed the highest
highest
residual stresses: the
residual stresses: the parallel
parallel path
path wall
wall was
was composed
composed of of three single passes
three single passes grouped
grouped
together sideby
together side byside
side(horizontally),
(horizontally),
andand
thethe single
single beadbead
wall wall
showedshowed
higherhigher residual
residual stress
stress than the oscillation path wall. The parallel path build had lateral horizintal
than the oscillation path wall. The parallel path build had lateral horizintal restriant due restriant
due to four
to four passespasses
beingbeing deposited
deposited side
side by by hence
side, side, hence it showed
it showed higherhigher
tensiletensile
residualresidual
stress.
stress. The oscillation path wall was one of the two walls deposited on each
The oscillation path wall was one of the two walls deposited on each side of the substrate side of the
substrate (Figure 2a). The low residual stress in the case of the oscillation path wall may
has been caused by the presence of less steep thermal gradients.

3.4. Residual Stress in Small Blocks Extracted from the Oscillation Path
After performing a contour cut of the wall, two small rectangular blocks were
Metals 2022, 12, 253 11 of 20

(Figure 2a). The low residual stress in the case of the oscillation path wall may has been
caused by the presence of less steep thermal gradients.

3.4. Residual Stress in Small Blocks Extracted from the Oscillation Path
After performing a contour cut of the wall, two small rectangular blocks were extracted
from the bottom of the oscillation path wall (as shown in Figure 2c,d). Figure 7 shows the
residual stresses obtained with the contour method that were retained in the small blocks
after being extracted from the wall, with line profiles presented in Figure 7b. The block
with the contour cut across the build layers indicates residual stress along the layers, and
the block with contour cut parallel to build layers indicates residual stress transverse to the
layers. Both blocks showed tensile stress near the sample surfaces with maximum stress
values of 30 to 50 MPa, and compressive stress in the bulk material at the middle section
with stress values of −10 to −25 MPa. In summary, tensile residual stress in the direction
transverse to the build layers was higher (maximum 50 MPa) than the other direction.
Residual stress in these small test coupons was very low for the high strength titanium alloy.
The maximum compressive residual stress (−25 MPa) was in the transverse direction. The
longitudinal direction (welding direction) had negligible compressive stress (−10 MPa).

3.5. Residual Stresses in Compact-Tension Coupons (Single Bead, Parallel Path and
Oscillation Path)
The compact-tension (C(T)) samples were extracted from the bottom of the walls with
various build conditions (single bead continuous deposit and ILP single bead, parallel path,
and oscillation path). One sample was oriented for crack growth across the WAAM layers
and the other for crack growth parallel to the WAAM layers. The contour results of residual
stress are shown in Figure 8.
The following observations can be made:
1. The peak tensile residual stress was at the notch root with lower tensile stress at the
back face of the sample; compressive residual stress was in the middle of the coupon.
The coupon with crack growth parallel to layers showed higher tensile residual stress
at the notch root than the other crack orientation. Away from the notch root, the
stress values were comparable to those in the small block samples that had the same
dimensions, but without the notch. Therefore, the peak stress at the notch root was
caused by the notch stress concentration: i.e., residual stress redistribution after the
notch cutting. The difference in stress values between the two crack orientations was
also consistent with the stress value difference in the small block samples.
2. C(T) coupons extracted from the oscillation path wall had the lowest tensile residual
stress at the notch root.
3. The unpeened single bead coupon showed higher notch root stress (150 MPa) for the
orientation with crack growth parallel to the layers.
4. The ILP single bead coupons showed a stress distribution along the coupon length
very similar to that of the coupons extracted from the other walls. However, the stress
sign at the mid-length and through the thickness was reversed completely compared
to that of the unpeened coupons: i.e., low tensile residual stress was seen at the
center location and comparatively high compressive residual stress was seen near the
surface on both sides, a contrast to the small blocks presented in Section 3.4 that were
produced without peening.
Metals 2022, 12, 253 1212ofof 20
20

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 7.7. Residual
Residualstress
stressininextracted
extractedsmall
smallblocks from
blocks thethe
from oscillation path
oscillation wall:
path (a) stress
wall: mapmap
(a) stress for cut
for
across the layers (62.5 mm × 20 mm), (b) stress map for cut parallel to layers (62.5 mm × 20 mm), (c) stress
cut across the layers (62.5 mm × 20 mm), (b) stress map for cut parallel to layers (62.5 mm × 20 mm),
profiles.
(c) stress profiles.

3.5. Residual Stresses in Compact-Tension Coupons (Single Bead, Parallel Path and Oscillation Path)
 4. The ILP single bead coupons showed a stress distribution along the coupon length very
similar to that of the coupons extracted from the other walls. However, the stress sign at
the mid-length and through the thickness was reversed completely compared to that of
the unpeened coupons: i.e., low tensile residual stress was seen at the center location and
comparatively high compressive residual stress was seen near the surface on both sides,
Metals 2022, 12, 253 a contrast to the small blocks presented in Section 3.4 that were produced without 13 of 20
peening.

(a)

(b)

Metals 2022, 12, 253 14 of 20

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)
Figure 8. Residual
Figure stress results
8. Residual stress from
resultsthefrom
compact-tension (C(T)) coupons:
the compact-tension (C(T))(a–d) crack across
coupons: (a–d)the
crack across the
layers, (e–h) crack parallel to layers; in various build conditions as indicated.
layers, (e–h) crack parallel to layers; in various build conditions as indicated.
The through-thickness averaged residual stress profiles of all C(T) coupons
(extracted from the oscillation path, parallel path, single bead, and ILP single bead walls)
are compared in Figure 9. The unpeened single bead specimen showed the highest tensile
residual stress at the notch root (about 110 MPa for the crack growth direction parallel to
the build layers and 45 MPa for crack growth across the layers). The distance from the
notch root where the tensile residual stress acts was about 5 mm for the coupon oriented
 Metals 2022, 12, 253 14 of 20

The through-thickness averaged residual stress profiles of all C(T) coupons (extracted
from the oscillation path, parallel path, single bead, and ILP single bead walls) are compared
in Figure 9. The unpeened single bead specimen showed the highest tensile residual stress
at the notch root (about 110 MPa for the crack growth direction parallel to the build layers
and 45 MPa for crack growth across the layers). The distance from the notch root where the
tensile residual stress acts was about 5 mm for the coupon oriented for crack growth across
the layers, and 7 mm for crack growth parallel to the layers. Lower tensile residual stress at
the notch root was found in the case of coupons extracted from parallel pass and oscillation
path walls (about 15 MPa for the crack growth direction across the layers and 45 MPa for
the crack growth direction parallel to the layers). The C(T) coupon extracted from the
parallel pass build wall showed different stress distribution along the crack path compared
to other coupons for the same crack orientation. The ILP single bead coupons showed peak
tensile residual stress at the notch root of 80 MPa for the crack growth direction parallel to
Metals 2022, 12, 253 15 of 20
the layers and 53 MPa for the crack growth direction across the layers. The tensile stress
was present within the distance of 5 mm from the notch root.

(a)

(b)
Figure 9. Through-thickness
Figure 9. Through-thicknessaveraged
averagedresidual stress
residual profiles
stress fromfrom
profiles the the
compact-tension (C(T))
compact-tension (C(T))
coupons: (a) crack across the layers, (b) crack parallel to layers.
coupons: (a) crack across the layers, (b) crack parallel to layers.

Since the the

Since C(T) coupons
C(T) couponswere extracted
were from
extracted thethe
from wall mid-thickness,
wall mid-thickness, residual stress
residual stress
magnitude
magnitudeandanddistribution alsoalso
distribution depended
depended on the stress
on the statestate
stress at and around
at and aroundthe the
mid-mid-
thickness of the
thickness walls.
of the TheThe
walls. notch cutting
notch in the
cutting coupons
in the caused
coupons local
caused stress
local concentration,
stress concentration,
resulting in peak
resulting tensile
in peak stress
tensile at the
stress notch
at the rootroot
notch [41]. TheThe
[41]. C(T) coupons
C(T) couponswith crack
with paths
crack paths
across and parallel to WAAM layers extracted from the single-bead build were tested for
fatigue crack growth life previously [42].

3.6. Finite Element Analysis of C(T) Coupons

Residual stress in the C(T) samples was studied by two-dimensional (2D) finite
Metals 2022, 12, 253 15 of 20

across and parallel to WAAM layers extracted from the single-bead build were tested for
fatigue crack growth life previously [42].

3.6. Finite Element Analysis of C(T) Coupons

Residual stress in the C(T) samples was studied by two-dimensional (2D) finite element
analysis (FEA). The model was based on the measured residual stress data in the larger walls
obtained from the contour method, as presented in Section 2.2, and using the technique
of removing those elements in the wall model that were not part of the C(T) sample.
FEA was performed for C(T) coupons extracted from the single bead, parallel path, and
oscillation path walls. The numerical results of two types of C(T) coupons (crack across or
Metals 2022, 12, 253
parallel to the build layers) are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Along the crack path, the FE
16 of 20
model showed similar stress distribution and stress values to the results obtained from the
contour method.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. FE
FEstress
stressmaps
mapsofofCTCTcoupons with
coupons crack
with across
crack the build
across layers:
the build (a) oscillation
layers: path (60
(a) oscillation path
mm × 62.5 mm), (b) parallel path (76 mm × 80 mm), (c) single bead (76 mm × 80 mm), (d) sketch
(60 mm × 62.5 mm), (b) parallel path (76 mm × 80 mm), (c) single bead (76 mm × 80 mm), (d) sketch of
the crack orientation (unit: MPa).
of the crack orientation (unit: MPa).

The residual stress line profiles obtained from FEA along the crack path for both C(T)
coupon types (i.e., with the crack growth direction across the layers and with the crack
growth direction parallel to the layers) are compared with the contour method results in
Figure 12, where the contour method results are the through-thickness averaged stress
values. A good agreement was found between the FEA and the contour method results. It
should be mentioned here that the residual stress values were low in the compact-tension
coupons studied here, especially for this high-strength titanium alloy.
 (c) (d)
Figure 10. FE stress maps of CT coupons with crack across the build layers: (a) oscillation path (60
Metals 2022, 12, 253 mm × 62.5 mm), (b) parallel path (76 mm × 80 mm), (c) single bead (76 mm × 80 mm), (d) sketch16 ofof 20
the crack orientation (unit: MPa).

Metals 2022, 12, 253 17 of 20

(a) (b)

Metals 2022, 12, 253 (c) (d) 18 of 21

Figure
Figure11. [Link]
FEstress
stressmaps
mapsofofCTCTcoupons
couponswith
withcracks
cracksparallel
paralleltotothe
thebuild
buildlayers: (a)(a)
layers: oscillation path
oscillation path
(62.5
(62.5 mm
mm ××62 62mm),
mm),(b)
(b)parallel
parallelpath
path(80
(80mm
mm××7676mm),
mm),(c)(c)
single
singlebead
bead(80
(80mm
mm× ×76 76
mm), (d)(d)
mm), sketch
sketch
of
of the
the crack
crackorientation
orientation(unit:
(unit:MPa).
MPa).

The residual stress line profiles obtained from FEA along the crack path for both C(T)
coupon types (i.e., with the crack growth direction across the layers and with the crack
growth direction parallel to the layers) are compared with the contour method results in
Figure 12, where the contour method results are the through-thickness averaged stress
values. A good agreement was found between the FEA and the contour method results.
It should be mentioned here that the residual stress values were low in the compact-ten-
sion coupons studied here, especially for this high-strength titanium alloy.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Cont.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Metals 2022, 12, 253 17 of 20

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 12. Comparison of residual stress profiles obtained from FEA and contour method for
Figure 12. Comparison of residual stress profiles obtained from FEA and contour method for
compact-tension (C(T)) specimens; build method and crack orientation are labled in the figures (a–
compact-tension
f). (C(T)) specimens; build method and crack orientation are labled in the figures (a–f).

[Link]
Conclusions
Residual
Residual stress wasestimated
stress was estimated in in WAAM
WAAM Ti-6Al-4V
Ti-6Al-4V wallswalls deposited
deposited withbuild
with three three build
strategies:
strategies: single bead, parallel path, and oscillation path. Single bead walls were further further
single bead, parallel path, and oscillation path. Single bead walls were
investigated
investigatedforforthe
theeffects
effectsofofinterlayer
interlayerhammer
hammerpeening
peeningandandchanges
changesinininterlayer
interlayertemper-
ature. Compact-tension
temperature. (C(T)) coupons
Compact-tension extracted
(C(T)) coupons from the
extracted walls
from theofwalls
the three different
of the three build
different build methods were examined for the presence and effect of
methods were examined for the presence and effect of residual stress on two differentresidual stress on crack
two different crack growth orientations. FE analysis of residual stress in
growth orientations. FE analysis of residual stress in the C(T) coupons was performed the C(T) coupons
based on the measurements of the large walls. The following conclusions were drawn from
this study:
• After removing the substrate plate, the oscillation path wall showed the lowest tensile
residual stress (~100 MPa), and the parallel path wall showed the highest tensile
residual stress (~200 MPa). Peak tensile residual stress was found near the wall bottom
(where the substrate plate was) for the single bead and oscillation path walls, but the
parallel path wall peak tensile stress was at both ends. Compressive residual stress
was found in the mid-height of the wall for all cases.
• For the interlayer peened (ILP) single bead walls, the wall with the substrate plate
showed higher tensile residual stress (~600 MPa) at the intersection of the wall and
the substrate compared to when the wall was removed from the substrate. The wall
with substrate also showed higher compressive residual stress (over 200 MPa) at the
wall top location.
• In the unpeened condition, the single bead wall built with average interlayer tem-
perature 110 ◦ C resulted in much higher tensile residual stress (~500 MPa) at the
wall-substrate intersection, and more compressive residual stress (over 200 MPa) at
the wall mid-height, compared to the continuous built wall. Interlayer hammer peen-
ing reduced tensile residual stress by a factor of 1.5 compared to the unpeened wall
(without substrate) at the average interlayer temperature 110 ◦ C.
Metals 2022, 12, 253 18 of 20

• In all compact-tension (C(T)) coupons, peak tensile residual stress was present at the
notch root and compressive residual stress wsa present in the middle location. Away
from the notch root, residual stress was very low.
• The C(T) coupons built by the oscillation method showed the lowest tensile residual
stress at the notch root, ~15 to 45 MPa, while the single bead samples showed the
highest tensile residual stress at the notch root, ~45 to 110 MPa. Coupons with the
starter crack parallel to the build layers had higher tensile residual stress than coupons
with the starter crack across the layers. C(T) coupons extracted from the interlayer
peened (ILP) single bead wall showed similar residual stress as C(T) coupons extracted
from three different deposition strategies without ILP, because the residual stresses
retained in these small coupons were very low.
• In C(T) coupons, the measured residual stresses with the contour method agreed well
with finite element analysis for both crack orientations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.A., X.Z. and M.E.F.; methodology, B.A., X.Z. and M.E.F.;
formal analysis, B.A.; investigation, B.A.; resources, L.M.S.C.N. and S.W.; data curation, H.G.;
writing—original draft preparation, B.A.; writing—review and editing, X.Z., M.E.F., L.M.S.C.N. and
S.W.; supervision, X.Z. and M.E.F.; funding acquisition, S.W. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
through the NEWAM (New Wire Additive Manufacturing) programme grant (EP/R027218/1).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Available upon request.
Acknowledgments: M.E. Fitzpatrick is grateful for funding from the Lloyd’s Register Foundation,
a charitable foundation helping to protect life and property by supporting engineering-related
education, public engagement and the application of research. We would also like to thank Steve
Damms at the Institute for Advanced Manufacturing and Engineering for his help with the Wire EDM.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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