Total Quality Management

This book has been developed to provide signifcant information about the usage and
application of the Total Quality Management (TQM) concept in a construction pro-
ject environment. The content spans from the inception through to the closing of the
project focusing on the TQM approach in each phase of the project.
Total Quality Management: Applications and Concepts for Construction Projects
focuses on the application of the TQM concept in construction projects and contains
many quick-reference fgures and tables for easy comprehension. It offers a concise
and complete implementation process for the application of TQM and helps achieve
competitive advantages in the global marketplace resulting in the construction project
being qualitatively competitive and economical. The book highlights the standards
for TQM and gives a brief introduction to the quality management system along
with providing an overview of the project, the quality, the types of project delivery
systems, and the principles involved. Discussions of quality and the different steps it
moves through within the project setting including inspection, statistical quality con-
trol, and quality assurance round out the book’s offerings.
Construction and quality professionals, industrial engineers, project managers,
students, academics, and trainers will fnd that this book satisfes their needs and meets
their requirements for a book that specifcally uses TQM in construction projects.
Quality Management and Risk Series
Series Editor: Abdul Razzak Rumane, Senior Engineering
Consultant, Kuwait

This new series will include the latest and innovative books related to quality man-
agement and risk related topics. The defnition of quality relating to manufacturing,
processes, and the service industries, is to meet the customer’s need, satisfaction,
ftness for use, conforms to requirements, and a degree of excellence at an acceptable
price. With globalization and competitive markets, the emphasis on quality manage-
ment has increased. Quality has become the most important single factor for the sur-
vival and success of any company or organization. The demand for better products and
services at the lowest costs have put tremendous pressure on organizations to improve
the quality of products, services, and processes, in order to compete in the market-
place. Because of these changes, the ISO 9001 now lists that risk-based thinking must
be incorporated into the management system by considering the context of the organ-
ization. Quality management and risk management now play an important role in
the over all quality management system. This means that books which cover quality,
need to also cover risk to update practices/processes, tools, and techniques, per ISO
9001. The goal of this new series is to include the books that will meet this need and
demand.

Quality Management in Oil and Gas Projects

Abdul Razzak Rumane

Risk Management Applications to Sustain Quality in Projects: A Practical Guide

Abdul Razzak Rumane

Quality Management: How to Achieve Sustainability in Projects

Abdul Razzak Rumane

Total Quality Management: Applications and Concepts for Construction Projects

Abdul Razzak Rumane

For more information on this series, please visit: [Link]/Quality-

Management-and-Risk-Series/book-series/CRCQMR
Total Quality Management
Applications and Concepts for
Construction Projects

Abdul Razzak Rumane

Designed cover image: Shutterstock – PIXEL to the PEOPLE and Abdul Razzak Rumane
First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
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© 2024 Abdul Razzak Rumane
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ISBN: 978-1-032-58637-3 (hbk)
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003451464
 Dedication
To
My Parents
For their prayers and love
My prayers are always for my father and my mother
who encouraged and inspired me all the time.
I wish they would have been here to see this book and
give me blessings.

To
My Wife
I miss my wife, who stood with me all the time during the
writing of my earlier books.
Contents
Foreword ...................................................................................................................xi
About the Author.....................................................................................................xiii
Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................xix
List of Abbreviations...............................................................................................xxi
Synonyms..............................................................................................................xxiii

Chapter 1 Overview of Quality .............................................................................1

1.1 Quality History...........................................................................1
1.2 Quality Defnition ......................................................................2
1.3 Evolution of Quality Management System................................3
1.3.1 Quality Inspection ........................................................4
1.3.2 Quality Control.............................................................6
1.3.3 Quality Assurance.........................................................8
1.3.4 Quality Engineering .....................................................8
1.3.5 Quality Management ....................................................9
1.3.6 Total Quality Management...........................................9
1.3.7 Changing Views of Quality ..........................................9
1.4 Quality Gurus and TQM Philosophies.......................................9
1.4.1 Philip B. Crosby .........................................................10
1.4.2 W. Edwards Deming...................................................11
1.4.3 Armand V. Feigenbaum..............................................14
1.4.4 Kaoru Ishikawa...........................................................15
1.4.5 Joseph M. Juran..........................................................17
1.4.6 John S. Oakland..........................................................17
1.4.7 Shigeo Shingo ............................................................18
1.4.8 Genichi Taguchi..........................................................18
1.4.9 Summary of Philosophies...........................................19
1.5 Birth of Total Quality Management .........................................19

Chapter 2 Overview of Quality in Construction Projects ...................................24

2.1 Construction Projects ...............................................................24
2.1.1 Types of Construction Projects...................................25
2.2 Project Delivery Systems in Construction Projects .................28
2.2.1 Types of Project Delivery Systems.............................29
2.2.2 Types of Contracting/Pricing......................................43
2.2.3 Selection of Project Delivery System.........................50
2.3 Quality Information System.....................................................52
2.3.1 Quality in Use of CAD Software ...............................53

vii
viii Contents

2.4 Building Information Modeling...............................................56

2.5 Six Sigma in Construction Project...........................................56
2.5.1 Six Sigma Methodology.............................................57
2.5.2 Six Sigma Analytic Tool Sets .....................................59
2.5.3 Application of Six Sigma DMADV Tool for
Design of a Building ..................................................64
2.5.4 Application of Six Sigma DMADV Tool for
Construction Schedule................................................72
2.5.5 Application of Six Sigma DMAIC Tool for
Concrete Works ..........................................................78
2.6 Quality Defnition of Construction Projects ............................86
2.6.1 Quality Principles in Construction Projects ...............88
2.7 Quality Management in Construction Project..........................89
2.7.1 Total Quality Management in Construction
Projects .......................................................................92

Chapter 3 Quality Standards ...............................................................................97

3.1 Quality Standards.....................................................................97
3.1.1 Importance of Standards.............................................97
3.2 Standards Organizations ..........................................................98
3.3 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) .............99
3.4 ISO 9000 Quality Management System ................................101
3.4.1 Quality System Documentation ...............................102
3.4.2 Quality Management System Manual ......................104

Chapter 4 Applications of Total Quality Management Concepts .....................121

4.1 Introduction............................................................................121
4.2 Project Lifecycle Phases ........................................................127
4.3 Total Quality Management in Construction Phases...............131
4.3.1 TQM in Conceptual Design Phase ...........................135
4.3.2 TQM in Preliminary Design Phase ..........................176
4.3.3 TQM in Detail Design Phase....................................202
4.3.4 TQM in Construction Document Phase ...................233
4.3.5 TQM in Bidding and Tendering Phase.....................261
4.3.6 Construction Phase...................................................281
4.3.7 TQM in Testing, Commissioning, and
Handover Phase ........................................................415

Appendix Content of Contractor’s Quality Control Plan..................................435

A.1 Introduction............................................................................435
A.2 Description of Project ............................................................435
A.3 Quality Control Organization.................................................436
A.4 Qualifcation of QC Staff .......................................................437
A.5 Responsibilities of QC Personnel ..........................................437
Contents ix

A.6 Procedure for Submittals........................................................439

A.6.1 Submittals of Subcontractor(s).................................439
A.6.2 Submittals of Shop Drawings...................................440
A.6.3 Submittals of Materials ............................................440
A.6.4 Modifcation Request ...............................................440
A.6.5 Construction Program ..............................................440
A.7 Quality Control Procedure .....................................................440
A.7.1 Procurement..............................................................440
A.7.2 Inspection of Site Activities (Checklists) .................441
A.7.3 Inspection and Testing Procedure for Systems.........447
A.7.4 Off-Site Manufacturing, Inspection, and Testing .....447
A.7.5 Procedure for Laboratory Testing of Materials ........448
A.7.6 Inspection of Material Received at Site....................448
A.7.7 Protection of Works ..................................................448
A.7.8 Material Storage and Handling.................................448
A.8 Method Statement for Various Installation Activities ............449
A.9 Project-Specifc Procedures for Site Work Installations
Remedial Notice.....................................................................452
A.10 Risk Management ..................................................................454
A.11 Quality Control Records ........................................................454
A.12 Company’s Quality Manual and Procedures..........................455
A.13 Periodical Testing of Construction Equipment ......................455
A.14 Quality Updating Program.....................................................455
A.15 Quality Auditing Program......................................................455
A.16 Testing, Commissioning, and Handover ................................455
A.17 Health, Safety, and the Environment......................................456

Bibliography .........................................................................................................457
Index......................................................................................................................458
Foreword
If you have read any of Dr. Rumane’s previous books, you will know that he is
able to convey his knowledge and experience in a manner that provides a founda-
tion together with potential roadmaps and frameworks to enable adoption. This is
important because the reader needs to be able to understand the fundamentals and
how they could tune improvements to ft their situation and organization. Having
talked with Dr. Rumane on various topics over the years, I know that his depth and
breadth in quality makes him one of our foremost experts in the world. This time
around, Dr. Rumane has focused on helping construction organizations adopt TQM
by providing a comprehensive introduction to the subject and multiple examples of
how it could be applied during a project’s life cycle.
Construction organizations are complex entities in that they are organizations within
organizations—unique projects within companies—delivering unique products in an
environment with constant variability. This reinforces the need to instill a culture of
operational excellence in order to assure proftability and a sustainable future. The
American Society of Quality (ASQ) defnes Total Quality Management (TQM) as
“a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. TQM
is based on all members of an organization participating in improving processes,
products, services and the culture in which they work.” In other words, TQM is about
leadership engaging everyone in continuously improving the organization to satisfy
their customers and assure long-term proftability.
In this book, Dr. Rumane provides an understanding of TQM’s roots and frame-
work for operational excellence in construction. The roots provide the reader with
an understanding of how its forefathers sought to raise the bar of organizational per-
formance and challenge the way that things have always been done. Although the
forefathers contributed elements that overlapped, the reader should note that they
were united in not only chasing excellence but also in advocating that leadership and
people are a critical part of making it happen.
It’s important to recognize that TQM’s principles are universal to any organiza-
tion but how those principles are achieved could be different between industries.
Dr. Rumane’s book therefore provides multiple examples of how TQM could be
applied within a project-based organization to provide guidance for the reader. To
dive deeper into specifc tactics of how to improve performance in a given scenario,
I would direct the reader to Dr. Rumane’s previous books on Quality Tools and other
approaches.
Successful organizational and cultural change will seem hard but persevere and
keep questioning and learning. As someone once said, the road to success is paved
with failure!

Hasan Salih, MSc CPM, CQP MCQI.

(Chair Elect ASQ Design and Construction Division)
January 2024

xi
xii Foreword

Hasan is a project manager with more than 25 years of experience in the construction
of mega projects across three continents with knowledge in project management, con-
struction, commissioning, quality, safety, and manufacturing. His areas of expertise
include performance leadership, change management, behavioral change, and con-
tinuous improvement strategies and tools including Kaizen and Six Sigma. He holds a
Masters in Construction Project Management and is a certifed Six Sigma Black Belt.
He is a chartered member of the Chartered Quality Institute and the current chair elect
for the ASQ Design and Construction Division.
About the Author
Abdul Razzak Rumane, PhD, is a chartered quality
professional fellow of the Chartered Quality Institute
(UK) and a certifed consultant engineer in the feld
of electrical engineering and project management. He
obtained a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) degree
from Marathwada University (now Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar Marathwada University), India, in 1972
and received his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) from
Kennedy Western University (now Warren National
University), USA, in 2005. His dissertation topic was
“Quality Engineering Applications in Construction
Projects.”
Dr. Rumane has been honored by the International
University of Ministry and Education, Missouri, USA, with honorary degree of
Doctor of Philosophy ([Link].) for expertise in quality management in the year
2021, and the Yorker International University, USA, awarded an honorary Doctorate
of Engineering in the year 2007. The Albert Schweitzer International Foundation
honored him with a gold medal for “Outstanding contribution in the feld of Quality
in Construction Projects” and the World Quality Congress awarded him with “Global
Award for Excellence in Quality Management and Leadership.”
Dr. Rumane is an accomplished engineer. He is associated with a number of pro-
fessional organizations.
Dr. Rumane has attended many international conferences and has made technical
presentations at various conferences. He is the author of eight useful books entitled
Quality Management in Construction Projects, First Edition (2010); Quality Tools
for Managing Construction Projects (2013); Quality Management in Construction
Projects, Second Edition (2017); Quality Management in Oil and Gas Projects (2021);
Risk Management Applications Used to Sustain Quality in Projects: A Practical
Guide (2022); Quality Management: How to Achieve Sustainability in Projects
(2023), and editor of book titled Handbook of Construction Management: Scope,
Schedule, and Cost Control (2016). All of these books were published by CRC
Press (Taylor & Francis), USA. A book entitled Quality Auditing in Construction
Projects: A Handbook (2019) was published by Routledge (Taylor & Francis), UK.
His book Quality Management in Construction Projects is translated into Korean.
Presently he is Treasurer of ASQ Kuwait Section and International Liaison
Committee Chair ASQ (Design and Construction Division) for the year 2023–24. He
served as Secretary ASQ GC for the year 2019, Secretary ASQ LMC, Kuwait, for the
years 2017 and 2018, and Treasurer for the years 2022 and 2023. He was honorary

xiii
xiv About the Author

chairman of the Institution of Engineers (India), Kuwait, chapter for the years 2016–
17, 2013–14, and 2005–07.
Dr. Rumane’s professional career exceeds 50 years, including 10 years in
manufacturing industries and over 40 years in construction projects. Presently he
is associated with SIJJEEL Co., Kuwait, as advisor and director of Construction
Management.
Preface
Quality is a universal phenomenon which has been a matter of great concern
throughout the recorded history of humankind. It was always the determination of
builders and makers of the products to ensure that their products meet the customer’s
desire. Those were the days when products were of a “Customized nature.” With the
advent of globalization and competitive market, the emphasis on quality management
has increased. Quality has become the most important single factor for the survival
and success of the companies.
Quality has different meanings for different people. The quality has a historically
important background that has evolved through different forms, periodical changes
and cultural shifts such as inspection, statistical quality control, quality assurance,
and quality engineering, leading to the development of Total Quality Management
(TQM). Quality management resulted from the work of quality gurus and their the-
ories. Extension of quality management gave birth to TQM.
The TQM concept was born following World War II. It was stimulated by the need
to compete in the global market where higher quality, lower cost, and more rapid
development are essential to market leadership. Today TQM is considered a funda-
mental requirement for any organization to compete, let alone lead, in its market. It
is a way of planning, organizing, and understanding each activity of the process and
removing all the unnecessary steps routinely followed in the organization. TQM is
a philosophy that makes quality values the driving force behind leadership, design,
planning, and improvement in activities.
Quality actually emerged as a dominant thinking since World War II, becoming
an integral part of overall business system focused on customer satisfaction and
becoming known in the twentieth century as “Total Quality Management” (TQM)
with its three constitutive elements:

Total: Organization-wide
Quality: Customer satisfaction
Management: Systems of managing

TQM involves everyone in the organization in an effort to increase customer satisfac-

tion and achieve superior performance of the products or services through continuous
quality improvement. TQM helps in

• Achieving customer satisfaction

• Continuous improvement
• Developing teamwork
• Establishing vision for the employees
• Setting standards and goals for the employees
• Building motivation within the organization
• Developing corporate culture

xv
xvi Preface

Construction projects are mainly capital investment projects. They are customized
and non-repetitive in nature. Construction projects have become more complex
and technical, and the relationships and the contractual grouping of those who are
involved are also more complex and contractually varied.
Construction projects have the involvement of many participants including owner,
designer, contractor, and many other professionals from construction-related indus-
tries. Each of these participants is involved in implementing quality in construction
projects. These participants are both infuenced by and depend on each other in add-
ition to “other players” involved in the construction process. Therefore, the construc-
tion projects have become more complex and technical, and extensive efforts are
required to reduce rework and costs associated with time, materials, and engineering.
Quality in construction projects is different from that of manufacturing. Quality
in construction projects is not only the quality of products and equipment used in
the construction, it is the total management approach to complete the facility as per
the scope of works to customer/owner satisfaction to be completed within specifed
schedule and within the budget to meet owner’s defned purpose. This is achieved
through a complex interaction of many participants in the facilities development
process.
TQM is an organization-wide effort centered on quality to improve performance
that involves everyone and permeates every aspect of an organization to make quality
a primary strategic objective. It is a way of managing an organization to ensure sat-
isfaction at every stage of the needs and expectations of both internal and external
customers.
TQM focuses on participative management and strong operational accountability
at the individual contributor level. TQM is the implementation of a quality system by
an organization to satisfy the customer needs/requirements by developing a system
that will make the project qualitative, competitive, and economical. A collaborative
effort in the construction project is required among all the participants in order to
improve alignment and misunderstanding during the execution of project. This is
achieved through complex interaction of many participants in the facilities develop-
ment process by application of TQM concept in the construction project.
TQM in construction projects typically involves ensuring compliance with min-
imum standards of material and workmanship in order to ensure the performance
of the facility according to the design. TQM in a construction project is a coopera-
tive form of doing business that relies on the talents and capabilities of both labor
and management to continually improve quality. The important factor in construction
projects is to complete the facility per the scope of works to customer/owner satis-
faction within the specifed schedule and approved budget and to complete the work
to meet the owner’s defned purpose. TQM will help reduce the overrun of schedule
and cost.
The book contains many valuable fgures and tables that make understanding of
the subject easy.
For the sake of proper understanding, the book is divided into four chapters, and
each chapter is divided into a number of sections covering quality-related topics that
Preface xvii

have importance or relevance for understanding TQM concept in the construction

project.
Chapter 1 is about the birth of TQM. It discusses the overview of quality that
has moved in different forms such as inspection, statistical quality control, quality
assurance, quality engineering, quality management to the concept of TQM.
Chapter 2 is about an overview of quality in construction project. It discusses types
of construction projects, types of project delivery systems, and types of contracting/
pricing. It covers a brief defnition of construction projects, quality of construction
projects, principles of quality in construction projects, and quality management
systems in construction projects.
Chapter 3 is about quality standards. It gives a brief introduction to the quality
management system, ISO and ISO 9001 standards.
Chapter 4 is about the application of TQM concept. It discusses the systems engin-
eering approach to divide lifecycle phases of construction projects to conveniently
manage and control. The chapter discusses application of TQM concept that can be
applied from inception of the construction project through to all phases of the pro-
ject to the substantial completion of the project considering involvement of related
stakeholders in each of the phases.
The book, I am certain, will meet the requirements of construction professionals,
quality professionals, project owners, students, and academics and satisfy their needs.
Acknowledgments
Share the knowledge with others is the motto of this book.
Many of my colleagues and friends extended help while preparing the book by
arranging reference material; many thanks to all of them for their support.
I thank the publishers and authors, whose writings are included in this book, for
extending their support by allowing me to reprint their material.
I thank reviewers, from various professional organizations, for their valuable input
to improve my writing. I thank members of ASQ Audit Division, ASQ Design &
Construction Division, the Institution of Engineers (India), IEI, Kuwait Chapter,
Kuwait Society of Engineers, and ASQ Kuwait Section, for their support to bring out
this book.
I thank Mr. Hasan Salih, Chair Elect ASQ (Design and Construction Division), for
his nicely worded and thought-provoking Foreword and support and best wishes all
the time.
I thank Cindy Renee Carelli, Executive Editor of CRC Press, Senior Editorial
Assistant, and other CRC staff for their support and contribution to make this
construction-related book a reality.
I thank Mr. Collin Sutt, Chair, ASQ (Design and Construction Division), Mr.
Raymond R. Crawford, Past Chair ASQ (Design and Construction Division), Mr.
Cliff Moser (Former Chair, ASQ Design and Construction Division), and Dr. Adedeji
Badiru of Airforce Institute of Technology for their best wishes all the time.
I thank Engr. Adel Kharaf, Former Chairman Kuwait Society of Engineers, and
former President of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO),
for his good wishes all the time. I thank Engr. Ahmad Alkandari, Director, Kuwait
Municipality, for his support and good wishes. I thank Engr. Ahmad Almershed, former
Undersecretary, MSNA, Kuwait, for his good wishes all the time. I thank Dr. Ayed
Alamri, President, Saudi Quality Council, KSA, for his support and good wishes all
the time. I thank Dr. Fadel Safer, Former Minister of Public Works, Kuwait, for his
support and good wishes. I thank Engr. Faisal D. Alatal, Chairman, Kuwait Society of
Engineers, and President of the Federation of Arab Engineers for his support and good
wishes. I thank Prof. Mohammed Aichouni, University of Hail, KSA, for his support
and good wishes all the time. I thank Dr. Mohammad Ben Salamah, Chair, ASQ
Kuwait Section, for his support and best wishes. I thank Dr. N. N. Murthy of Jagruti
Kiran Consultants for his support and good wishes. I thank Dr. Othman Alshamrani,
Imam Abdulrehman Bin Faisal University, KSA, for his support and good wishes all
the time. I thank Maj. Gen. R. K. Sanan, VSM, (Retd), former Secretary Director
General, the Institution of Engineers (India), for his support and best wishes all the
time. I thank Ms. Rima Al Awadhi, former Chair, ASQ Kuwait Section, and Team
Leader at Kuwait Oil Company for her support and good wishes. I thank Engr. Wael
Aljasem of Kuwait Project Management Society for his support and good wishes.
I thank Engr. Yaseen Farraj, former Director, Ministry of Public Works, Kuwait, for
his support and good wishes.

xix
xx Acknowledgments

I thank Mr. Bashir Ibrahim Parkar of Dar SSH International and Engr. Ateeq Mirza
of KOC for their valuable input and support.
I extend my thanks to Dr. Ted Coleman, Professor and Department Chair,
California State University, San Bernardino, and former Chancellor, KW University,
for his everlasting support.
My special thanks to H.E. Sheikh Rakan Nayef Jaber Al Sabah for his support and
good wishes.
I thank my well-wishers whose inspiration made me complete this book.
Most of the data discussed in this book is from the author’s practical and profes-
sional experience and is accurate to the best of the author’s knowledge and ability.
However, if any discrepancies are observed in the presentation, I would appreciate
communicating them to me.
The contribution of my son Ataullah, my daughter Farzeen, and daughter-in-law
Masum is worth mentioning here. They encouraged me and helped me in my prepara-
tory work to achieve the fnal product. I thank my brothers, sisters, and all the family
members for their support, encouragement and good wishes all the time.

Abdul Razzak Rumane

Abbreviations
AACE American Association of Cost Engineers
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
Engineers
ASQ American Society for Quality
BIM Building Information Modeling
BMS Building Management System
BOM Bill of Materials
BOQCAD computer-aided drafting
CCS contractor’s construction schedule
CDM Construction (Design and Management)
CEN European Committee for Standardization
CII Construction Industry Institute
CMAA Construction Management Association of America
CPM critical path method
CQCP contractor’s quality control plan
CSC Construction Specifcations, Canada
CSI Construction Specifcation Institute
EPC Engineering, Procurement, and Construction
FEED Front End Engineering Design
FIDIC Federation International des Ingeneurs-Counceils
GMP Guaranteed Maximum Price
HAZID Hazard Identifcation
HAZOP Hazard and Operability
HSE Health, Safety and Environment
ICE Institute of Civil Engineers (UK)
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IPD Integrated Project Delivery
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IPD Integrated Project Delivery
IoT Internet of Things
IP Ingress Protection
ISO International Organization for Standardization
OH&S Occupational Health and Safety
PCM Planning and Control Manager
PERT program evaluation and review technique
PHSER Procedure for Project HSE Review
PMBOK Project Management Book of Knowledge
PMC Project Management Consultant
PMI Project Management Institute
QCP Quality Control Plan
QIS Quality Information System
QMS Quality Management System

xxi
xxii List of Abbreviations

QS Quantity Surveyor
RE Resident Engineer
SPC Statistical Process Control
SQC statistical quality control
TIC Total Investment Cost
TQM Total Quality Management
WBS work breakdown structure
Synonyms
Consultant Architect/Engineer (A/E), Designer, Design Professionals,
Designer, Consulting Engineers, Supervision Professional,
Specialist Consultant
Contractor Constructor, Builder, EPC Contractor
Engineer Resident Project Representative
Engineer’s Representative Resident Engineer
Owner Client, Employer
Project Charter Terms of Reference (TOR), Client Brief,
Defnitive Project Brief
Project Manager Construction Manager
Quantity Surveyor Cost Estimator, Contract Attorney, Cost Engineer, Cost and
Works Superintendent

xxiii
 1 Overview of Quality

1.1 QUALITY HISTORY

Quality issues have been of great concern throughout the recorded history of humans.
During the New Stone Age, several civilizations emerged, and some 4000–5000 years
ago, considerable skills in construction were acquired. The pyramids in Egypt were
built approximately 2589–2566 bce. Hammurabi, the king of Babylonia (1792–1750
bce), codifed the law, according to which, during the Mesopotamian era, builders
were responsible for maintaining the quality of buildings and were given the death
penalty if any of their construction collapsed and their occupants were killed. The
extension of Greek settlements around the Mediterranean after 200 bce left records
showing that temples and theaters were built using marble. India had strict standards
for working in gold in the fourth century bce.
China’s recorded quality history can be traced back to earlier than 200 bce. China
had instituted quality control in its handicrafts during the Zhou dynasty between 1100
and 250 bce. During this period, the handicraft industry was mainly engaged in pro-
ducing ceremonial artifacts. This industry survived the long succession of dynasties
that followed up to 1911 ce.
During the Middle Ages, guilds took the responsibility for quality control upon
themselves. Guilds and governments carried out quality control; consumers, of
course, carried out informal quality inspection throughout history.
The guilds’ involvement in quality was extensive. All craftsmen living in a par-
ticular area were required to join the corresponding guild and were responsible for
controlling the quality of their own products. If any of the items was found defective,
then the craftsman discarded the faulty items. The guilds also initiated punishments
for members who turned out shoddy products. They maintained inspections and audits
to ensure that artisans followed quality specifcations. The guild hierarchy consisted
of three categories of workers: apprentice, journeyman, and master. The guilds had
established specifcations for input materials, manufacturing processes, and fnished
products, as well as methods of inspection and testing. They were active in man-
aging quality during the Middle Ages until the Industrial Revolution marginalized
their infuence.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003451464-1 1
2 Total Quality Management

1.2 QUALITY DEFINITION

Quality has different meanings for different people. The American Society for Quality
(ASQ) glossary defnes quality as a subjective term for which each person has his or
her own defnition. In technical usage, quality can have two meanings:

1. The characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy

stated or implied needs.
2. A product or service free of defciencies.
It further states that it is
• Based on customers’ perceptions of a product’s design and how well the
design matches the original specifcations.
• The ability of a product and service to satisfy stated or implied needs.
• Achieved by conforming to established requirements within an organization.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 1994a) defnes quality as

“the totality of characteristics of an entity that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or
implied needs.”
The quality defnition is further be based on the following criteria:

1. Product based
2. User based
3. Manufacturing based
4. Value based
5. Customer’s perception based

The above defnitions can further be summarized under the names of those contributors
to the quality movement whose philosophies, methods, and tools have been proven
useful in quality practices. They are called the “quality gurus.” Their defnitions of
quality are as follows:

1. Philip B. Crosby—Conformance to requirements not as “goodness” nor “elegance.”

2. W. Edward Deming—Quality should be designed into both the product and
the process.
3. Armand V. Feigenbaum—Best for customer use and selling price.
4. Kaoru Ishikawa—Quality of the product as well as after-sales services,
quality of management, the company itself, and the human being.
5. Joseph M. Juran—Quality is ftness for use.
6. John S. Oakland—Quality is meeting customer’s requirements.

Based on these defnitions, it is possible to evolve a common defnition of quality,

which is mainly related to the manufacturing, processes, and service industries as
follows:

• Meeting the customer’s need

• Fitness for use
• Conforming to requirements
Overview of Quality 3

1.3 EVOLUTION OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Industrial Revolution began in Europe in the mid-nineteenth century. It gave birth
to factories, and the goals of the factories were to increase productivity and reduce
costs. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, items were produced by individual craftsman
for individual customers, and it was possible for workers to control the quality of
their products. Working conditions then were more conducive to professional pride.
Under the factory system, the tasks needed to produce a product were divided among
several or many factory workers. Under this system, large groups of workmen were
performing similar types of work, and each group was working under the supervision
of a foreman who also took on the responsibility of controlling the quality of the work
performed. Quality in the factory system was ensured by means of skilled workers,
and the quality audit was done by inspectors.
The broad economic result of the factory system was mass production at low costs.
The Industrial Revolution changed the situation dramatically with the introduction of
a new approach to manufacturing.
The beginning of the twentieth century marked the inclusion of process in quality
practices. During World War I, the manufacturing process became more complex.
Production quality was the responsibility of quality control departments. The intro-
duction of mass production and piecework created quality problems as workmen
were interested in earning more money by the production of extra products, which in
turn led to bad workmanship. This situation made factories introduce full-time quality
inspectors, which marked the real beginning of inspection quality control and thus
the introduction of quality control departments headed by superintendents. Walter
Shewhart introduced statistical quality control (SQC) in the process. His concept was
that quality is not relevant to the fnished product but to the process that created the
product. His approach to quality was based on continuous monitoring of process vari-
ation. The SQC concept freed manufacturers from the time-consuming 100% quality
control system because it accepted that variation is tolerable up to certain control
limits. Thus, the quality control focus shifted from the end of line to the process.
The systematic approach to quality in industrial manufacturing started during the
1930s when some attention was given to the cost of scrap and rework. With the impact
of mass production, which was required during World War II, it became necessary to
introduce a more stringent form of quality control. This was instituted by manufac-
turing units and was identifed as SQC. SQC made a signifcant contribution in that it
provided a sampling rather than 100% product inspection. However, SQC was instru-
mental in exposing the underappreciation of the engineering aspect of product quality.
From the foregoing writings and many others on the history of quality, it is evident that
the quality system in its different forms has moved through distinct quality eras such as

1. Quality inspection
2. Quality control
3. Quality assurance
4. Quality engineering
5. Quality management

Table 1.1 summarizes periodical changes in the quality system.

4 Total Quality Management

TABLE 1.1
Periodical Changes in Quality System

Period System
• Middle Ages (1200–1799) • Guilds-skilled craftsmen were responsible for
controlling their own products.
• Mid-eighteenth century • Establishment of factories. Increase in
(Industrial Revolution) productivity. Mass production. Assembly
lines. Several workers were responsible for
producing a product. Production by skilled
workers and quality audit by inspectors.
• Early nineteenth century • Craftsmanship model of production.
• Late nineteenth century (1880s) • Fredrick Taylor and “Scientifc Management.”
Quality management through inspection.
• Beginning of twentieth century (1920s) • Walter Shewhart introduced “statistical
process control”. Introduction of full-time
Quality Inspection and Quality Control
Department. Quality management.
• 1930s • Introduction of sampling method.
• 1950s • Introduction of Statistical Quality Process in
Japan.
• Late 1960s • Introduction of Quality Assurance.
• 1970s • Total Quality Control.
• Quality Management.
• 1980s • Total Quality Management (TQM).
• Beginning of twenty-frst century • Integrated Quality Management (IQM).

Source: Abdul Razzak Rumane. (2017). Quality Management in Construction Projects, Second Edition.
Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis Group.

1.3.1 QUALITY INSPECTION

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, items were produced by an individual craftsman,
who was responsible for material procurement, production, inspection, and sales. In
case any quality problems arose, the customer would take up issues directly with
the producer. The Industrial Revolution provided the climate for continuous quality
improvement. In the late nineteenth century, Fredrick Taylor’s system of Scientifc
Management was born. It provided the backup for the early development of quality
management through inspection. At the time when goods were produced individu-
ally by craftsmen, they inspected their own work at every stage of production and
discarded faulty items. When production increased with the development of tech-
nology, scientifc management was born out of a need for standardization rather than
craftsmanship. This approach required each job to be broken down into its compo-
nent tasks. Individual workers were trained to carry out these limited tasks, making
craftsmen redundant in many areas of production. The craftsmen’s tasks were divided
among many workers. This also resulted in mass production at lower cost, and the
concept of standardization started resulting in interchangeability of similar types of
Overview of Quality 5

bits and pieces of product assemblies. One result of this was a power shift away from
workers and toward management.
With this change in the method of production, inspection of the fnished product
became the norm rather than inspection at every stage. This resulted in wastage
because defective goods were not detected early enough in the production process.
Wastage added costs that were refected either in the price paid by the consumer or
in reduced profts. Due to the competitive nature of the market, there was pressure on
manufacturers to reduce the price for consumers, which in turn required cheaper input
prices and lower production costs. In many industries, emphasis was placed on auto-
mation to try to reduce the costly mistakes generated by workers. Automation led to
greater standardization, with many designs incorporating interchanges of parts. The
production of arms for the 1914–1918 war accelerated this process.
An inspection is a specifc examination, testing, and formal evaluation exercise
and overall appraisal of a process, product, or service to ascertain if it conforms to
established requirements. It involves measurements, tests, and gauges applied to cer-
tain characteristics with regard to an object or an activity. The results are usually
compared to specifed requirements and standards for determining whether the item
or activity is in line with the target. Inspections are usually nondestructive. Some of
the nondestructive methods of inspection are:

• Visual
• Liquid dyed penetrant
• Magnetic particle
• Radiography
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy current
• Acoustic emission
• Thermography

The degree to which inspection can be successful is limited by the established

requirements. Inspection accuracy depends on:

1. Level of human error

2. Accuracy of the instruments
3. Completeness of the inspection planning

Human errors in inspection are mainly due to:

• Technique errors
• Inadvertent errors
• Conscious errors
• Communication errors

Most construction projects specify that all the contracted works are subject to inspec-
tion by the owner/consultant/owner’s representative.
6 Total Quality Management

1.3.2 QUALITY CONTROL

The quality control era started at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Industrial
Revolution had brought about the mechanism and marked the inclusion of process in
quality practices. The ASQ termed the quality control era as a process orientation that
consists of product inspection and SQC.
The control process involves observing actual performances, comparing them with
some standards, and then taking action if the observed performance is signifcantly
different from the standard. Control process involves a universal sequence of steps as
follows:

1. Performance standard
2. Measurement standard
3. Project/product goal
4. Process goal
4. Compare actual measured performance against standards
6. Corrective action on the difference observed/recorded

From the foregoing, quality control can be defned as a process of analyzing data
collected through statistical techniques to compare with actual requirements and
goals to ensure compliance with some standards.
Quality control in construction projects is performed at every stage through the
use of various control charts, diagrams, checklists, and so on and can be defned as

• Checking of executed/installed works to confrm that works have been

performed/executed as specifed, using specifed/approved materials, instal-
lation methods, and specifed references, codes, and standards to meet the
intended use
• Planning, monitoring, and controlling project schedule
• Controlling budget

A control chart is a graphical representation of the mathematical model used to

detect changes in a parameter of the process. Charting statistical data is a test
of the null hypothesis that the process from which the sample came has not
changed. A control chart is employed to distinguish between the existence of a
stable pattern of variation and the occurrence of an unstable pattern. If an unstable
pattern of variation is detected, action may be initiated to discover the cause of the
instability. Removal of the assignable cause should permit the process to return to
a stable state.
There are a variety of methods, tools, and techniques that can be applied for quality
control and the improvement process. These are used to create an idea, engender
planning, analyze the cause, analyze the process, foster evaluation, and create a wide
variety of situations for continuous quality improvement. These tools can also be used
during various stages of a construction project.
Figure 1.1 illustrates a control chart for the air handling unit in an air distribution
system.
 450cfm
˜
Overview of Quality

440cfm
Upper Control Limit
430cfm
˜
˜
420cfm
˜
410cfm
˜ ˜
˜
400cfm
˜
Design cfm 390 cfm
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 Area 8 Area 9 Area 10 Area 11 Area 12
˜
380cfm
˜
370cfm
˜
360cfm
˜
350cfm
Lower Control Limit

FIGURE 1.1 Control chart for air handling unit air distribution (CFM). (Abdul Razzak Rumane. (2013). Quality Tools for Managing
Construction Projects, Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis Group.)
7
8 Total Quality Management

1.3.3 QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality assurance is the third era in the quality management system.
The ASQ defnes quality assurance as “all the planned and systematic activities
implemented within the quality system that can be demonstrated to provide conf-
dence that a product or service will fulfll requirements for quality.”
According to ISO 9000 (or BS 5750), quality assurance is “those planned and
systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confdence that product or service
will satisfy given requirements for quality.” ISO 8402-1994 defnes quality assurance
as “all the planned and systematic activities implemented within the quality system,
and demonstrated as needed, to provide adequate confdence that an entity will fulfll
requirements for quality.”
The third era of quality management saw the development of quality systems and
their application principally to the manufacturing sector. This was due to the impact
of the following external environment upon the development take-up of quality
systems at this time:

• Growing and, more signifcantly, maturing populations

• Intensifying competition

These converging trends contributed greatly to the demand for more, cheaper, and
better-quality products and services. The result was the identifcation of quality
assurance schemes as the only solution to meet this challenge.
Quality assurance is the activity of providing evidence to establish confdence
among all concerned that quality-related activities are being performed effectively.
All these planned or systematic actions are necessary to provide adequate confdence
that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality.
Quality assurance covers all activities from design, development, production/con-
struction, installation, and servicing to documentation and also includes regulations of
the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products, and components; services related
to production; and management, production, and inspection processes.
Quality assurance in construction projects covers all activities performed by the
design team, contractor, and quality controller/auditor (supervision staff) to meet
owners’ objectives as specifed and to ensure that the project/facility is fully func-
tional to the satisfaction of the owners/end users.

1.3.4 QUALITY ENGINEERING

Feigenbaum (1991) defnes quality engineering technology as “the body of technical
knowledge for formulating policy and for analyzing and planning product quality in
order to implement and support that quality system which will yield full customer
satisfaction at minimum cost.”
Feigenbaum (1991) has further elaborated the entire range of techniques used in
quality engineering technology by grouping them under three major headings:
Overview of Quality 9

1. Formulating of quality policy

2. Product-quality analysis
3. Quality operations planning

1.3.5 QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The ASQ glossary defnes quality management as “the application of quality man-
agement system in managing a process to achieve maximum customer satisfaction at
the lowest overall cost to the organization while continuing to improve the process.”
Quality actually emerged as a dominant thinking only since World War II,
becoming an integral part of the overall business system focused on customer satis-
faction, and becoming known in recent times as “Total Quality Management,” with
its three constitutive elements:

• Total: Organization-wide
• Quality: Customer satisfaction
• Management: Systems of managing

1.3.6 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The Total Quality Management (TQM) concept was born following World War II.
It was stimulated by the need to compete in the global market where higher quality,
lower cost, and more rapid development are essential to market leadership. Today
TQM is considered a fundamental requirement for any organization to compete,
let alone lead, in its market. It is a way of planning, organizing, and understanding
each activity of the process and removing all the unnecessary steps routinely followed
in the organization. TQM is a philosophy that makes quality values the driving force
behind leadership, design, planning, and improvement in activities.

1.3.7 CHANGING VIEWS OF QUALITY

The failure to address the culture of an organization is frequently the reason for man-
agement initiatives either having limited success or failing altogether. To understand
the culture of the organization and using that knowledge to implement cultural change
is an important element of TQM. The culture of good teamwork and cooperation at
all levels in an organization is essential to the success of TQM. Table 1.2 describes
cultural changes needed in an organization to meet TQM.

1.4 QUALITY GURUS AND TQM PHILOSOPHIES

The TQM approach was developed immediately after World War II. There are prom-
inent researchers and practitioners whose work has dominated this movement. Their
ideas, concepts, and approaches in addressing specifc quality issues have become
part of the accepted wisdom in TQM, resulting in a major and lasting impact
within the feld. These persons have become known as “quality gurus.” They all
10 Total Quality Management

TABLE 1.2
Cultural Changes Required to Meet Total Quality Management

From To
• Inspection orientation • Defect prevention
• Meet the specifcation • Continuous improvement
• Get the product out • Customer satisfaction
• Individual input • Cooperative efforts
• Sequential engineering • Team approach
• Quality control department • Organizational involvement
• Departmental responsibility • Management commitment
• Short-term objective • Long-term vision
• People as cost burden • Human resources as an assets
• Purchase of products or services • Purchase on total cost minimization basis
on price-alone basis
• Minimum cost suppliers • Mutual benefcial supplier relationship

Source: Abdul Razzak Rumane. (2017). Quality Management in Construction Projects, Second Edition.
Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis Group.

emphasize the involvement of organizational management in the quality efforts.

These philosophers are

1. Philip B. Crosby
2. W. Edwards Deming
3. Armand V. Feigenbaum
4. Kaoru Ishikawa
5. Joseph M. Juran
6. John S. Oakland
7. Shigeo Shingo
8. Genichi Taguchi

A brief summary of their philosophies and approaches is given in the following

sections.

1.4.1 PHILIP B. CROSBY

Crosby’s philosophy is seen by many to be encapsulated in his fve “Absolute Truths
of Quality Management.” These are

1. Quality is defned as conformance to requirement, not as “goodness” or “elegance.”

2. There is no such thing as a quality problem.
3. It is always cheaper to do it right the frst time.
4. The only performance measurement is the cost of quality.
5. The only performance standard is zero defects.
Overview of Quality 11

Crosby’s perspective on quality has three essential beliefs:

1. A belief in qualifcation
2. Management leadership
3. Prevention rather than cure

His main emphasis is on the quantitative aspect, that is, the performance standard of
“zero defects.”

1.4.2 W. EDWARDS DEMING

Deming was perhaps the best-known fgure associated with the quality feld and is
considered its founding father. His philosophy is based on four principal methods:

1. The Plan–Do–Check–Act (PDCA) cycle

2. Statistical process control
3. The 14 principles of transformation
4. The seven-point action plan

[Link] PDCA Cycle

PDCA cycle is an iterative, four-step management method used for the continuous
improvement of business processes and products. Once it has been completed, it
recommences without ceasing. The approach is seen as reemphasizing the responsi-
bility of management to be actively involved in the organization’s quality program.
The PDCA cycle is also known as the Plan–Do–Study–Act (PDSA) cycle.
The PDCA or PDSA cycle consists of a four-step model for carrying out change. Just
as a circle has no end, the PDCA cycle should be repeated again and again for continuous
improvement. PDCA is a basic model that can be compared to the continuous improve-
ment process, which can be applied on a small scale. PDCA cycle is used for

• Continuous improvement
• Designing a new process, product, or project
• Defning repetitive processes in a project
• Development of new project

PDCA cycle is developed by adopting the following procedure:

1. Plan. Recognize an opportunity and plan the scope.

2. Do. Implement the activities to perform the required results.
3. Check. Review and monitor the results.
4. Act. Take action for successful implementation of required results. If the
results are successful, incorporate the same in the repetitive cycle.

PDCA is mainly used for continuous process improvement. The PDCA cycle, when
used as a process improvement tool for design improvement/design conformance
12 Total Quality Management

CORRECTIVE OR PREVENTIVE ACTION IDENTIFY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

IMPLEMENT APPROVED CHANGES ESTABLISH REQUIREMENTS

4. ACT 1. PLAN

3. CHECK 2. DO

COMPARE IMPLEMENT/EXECUTE PLAN

REQUIREMENTS
WITH
PLANNED PERFORMANCE
CHECK FOR COMPLIANCE

FIGURE 1.2 Development of PDCA cycle.

in construction projects to meet owner’s requirements, shall indicate the following

actions:

Plan: Establish scope.

Do: Develop design.
Check: Review and compare.
Act: Implement comments, take corrective action, and/or release contract
documents to construct/build the project/facility.

Figure 1.2 illustrates basic concepts to develop the PDCA cycle. Figure 1.3 illustrates
the PDCA cycle model for conformance of construction projects designed to owner
requirements/scope of work.

[Link] Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a quantitative approach based on the meas-
urement of process control. Deming believed in the use of SPC charts as the key
Overview of Quality 13

(Implement Comments) (Establish Scope)

Implement review comments(if any) Establish Owner's Requirements
Take corrective actions(if required) Determine/Define Scope of Work
Establish Standards,Codes
OR
Establish Project Schedule
Release Documents
for Construction/Bid Establish Project Budget

4. ACT 1. PLAN

3. CHECK 2. DO

(Review) (Develop Design)

Conformance to Client Develop Design Drawings
Needs/Requirements Develop Specifications
Check for Project Schedule Prepare Contract Documents
Check for Project Budget
Conformance to Regulatory Requirements,Standards,Codes
Check for Constructability
Check for Environmental Compatibility

FIGURE 1.3 PDCA cycle for construction projects (design phases).

method for identifying special and common causes and assisting diagnosis of quality
problems. His aim was to remove “outliers,” that is, quality problems relating to the
special causes of failure. This was achieved through training, improved machinery
and equipment, and so on. SPC enabled the production process to be brought “under
control.”
The remaining quality problems were considered to be related to common causes,
that is, they were inherent in the design of the production process. Eradication
of special causes enabled a shift in focus to common causes, thereby improving
quality.
There are two categories of control charts based on the type of data collected.
These are

1. Variable control charts

2. Attributes control charts

Figure 1.4 illustrates the categories of control chart.

14 Total Quality Management

Individual and Moving Range

Chart (I-MR)
Variable Control Charts
1. Used with continuous or
measured data. Average and Range Chart
2. Raw data can be logically (X-Bar and R)
fractional when measuring
p Chart – Used for tracking fraction of units defective, when
Control sample size is not constant. It is used to study the proportion
Charts p Chart (fraction or percentage) of nonconformance or defect
np Chart np Chart – Used to chart number of defective units when
Attribute Control Charts sample size is constant. It is used to study the number of
1. Used with descrete data nonconforming or defective items
2. Raw data can only be whole
number, as when counting c Chart – Used to chart number of defects in a constant sample
[Link] is used to study the number of nonconformities or
c Chart defects
u Chart u Chart – Used for number of defects when sample size is
[Link] is used to study the proprtion of nonconformities
or defects

FIGURE 1.4 Categories of Control Charts. (Abdul Razzak Rumane. (2017). Quality Tools
for Managing Construction Projects, Second Edition. Reprinted with permission from Taylor
& Francis Group.)

[Link] Principles for Transformation

Deming’s 14 principles for transformation mainly relate to

1. Product, process improvement

2. Adoption of new philosophy
3. Sampling inspection method
4. End low price awarding system
5. Continuous improvement
6. On-the-job training
7. Organizational leadership
8. Involvement/participation of all staff to work collectively without any fear
9. Research and development
10. Team approach
11. Integrated leadership
12. Involvement/participation of all staff
13. Education and self-improvement
14. Participation of everyone in the company to accomplish transformation

1.4.3 ARMAND V. FEIGENBAUM

Feigenbaum defnes quality as “best for the customer use and selling price,” and
quality control as an effective method for coordinating the quality maintenance and
quality improvement efforts across various groups in an organization, so as to enable
production at the most economical levels that allow for full customer satisfaction.
Feigenbaum’s philosophy of quality has a four-step approach. These are:
Overview of Quality 15

Step 1. Set quality standards

Step 2. Appraise conformance to standards
Step 3. Act when standards are not met
Step 4. Plan to make improvements

1.4.4 KAORU ISHIKAWA

The founding philosophy of Ishikawa’s approach is “companywide quality control.”
He has identifed 15 effects of companywide quality control. Ishikawa’s approach
deals with organizational aspects and is supported by the “quality circles” technique
and the “seven tools of quality control.” Quality circles are Ishikawa’s principal
method for achieving participation, composed of 5 to 15 workers from the same area
of achieving and led by a foreman or supervisor who acts as a group leader to liaison
between the workers and the management. The function of quality circles is to iden-
tify local problems and recommend solutions. The aim of quality circles is to

• Contribute to the improvement and development of the enterprise

• Respect human relations and build a happy workshop offering job satisfaction
• Deploy human capabilities fully and draw out infnite potential

Quality circles are small groups of employees who meet frequently to help resolve
company quality problems and provide recommendations to management. Quality
circles were initially developed in Japan and only recently have achieved some
degree of success in the United States. The employees involved in quality circles
meet frequently either at someone’s home or at the plant before the shift begins.
The group identifes problems, analyzes data, recommends solutions, and carries out
management-approved changes. The success of quality circles is heavily based upon
management’s willingness to employ recommendations.
The key elements of quality circles are as follows:

• They are completely voluntary.

• Employees are trained in group dynamics, motivation, communications, and
problem-solving.
• Members rely upon each other for help.
• Management support is achieved but as needed.
• Creativity is encouraged.
• Management listens to recommendations.

The quality circles:

• Improve quality of products and services

• Improve organizational communications
• Improved worker performance
• Improved morale of workers
16 Total Quality Management

Ishikawa emphasized four points to be considered for the formation of the quality
circles. These are

1. Voluntarism: Circles are to be created on a voluntary basis, and not by a

command from above. Begin circle activities with people who wish to
participate.
2. Self-development: Circle members must be willing to study.
3. Mutual development: Circle members must aspire to expand their horizons
and cooperate with other circles.
4. Eventual total participation: Circles must establish their ultimate goal of
full participation of all workers in the same workplace.

The quantitative techniques of the Ishikawa approach are referred to as “Ishikawa’s

Seven Tools of Quality Control” and is listed in Table 1.3. The approach includes
both quantitative and qualitative aspects, which, taken together, focus on achieving
companywide quality.
These form a set of pictures of quality, representing in diagrammatic or chart form
the quality status of the operation of the process being reviewed. Ishikawa considered
that all staff should be trained in these techniques as they have a useful role to play
in managing quality.
Ishikawa developed a technique of graphically displaying the causes of any quality
problem. His method is called by several names, such as the Ishikawa diagram, fshbone
diagram, and cause-and-effect diagram. The Ishikawa diagram is essentially an end or
goal-oriented picture of a problem situation. It is based around a set of “M” causes such
as Manpower (personnel), Machine (plant and equipment), Material (raw material and
parts), Method (techniques and technology), Measurement (sampling, instrumentation),
and Mother Nature (environment). Figure 1.5 illustrates the Ishikawa “fshbone” diagram.

TABLE 1.3
Seven Tools of Quality Control by Kaoru Ishikawa

Name of Quality
Sr. No. Tool Usage
Tool 1 Pareto Charts Used to identify the most signifcant cause or problem.
Tool 2 Ishikawa/Fishbone Charts of cause and effect in processes.
diagrams
Tool 3 Stratifcation Layer charts which place each set of data successively on top
of the previous one. How is the data made up?
Tool 4 Check sheets To provide a record of quality. How often it occurs?
Tool 5 Histogram Graphs are used to display frequency of various ranges of
values of a quantity.
Tool 6 Scatter diagram To determine whether there is a correlation between two
factors.
Tool 7 Control Charts A device in Statistical Process Control to determine whether
or not the process is stable.
Overview of Quality 17

Manpower Methods Measurement

Problem

Machines Materials Environment

FIGURE 1.5 The Ishikawa “Fishbone” diagram.

The fgure shows the basics of Ishikawa diagram.

Six steps are used to perform a cause-and-effect analysis. These are

Step 1. Identify the problem to analyze its technical cause.

Step 2. Select an interdisciplinary brainstorming team.
Step 3. Draw a problem box and prime arrows.
Step 4. Specify major categories contributing to the problem.
Step 5. Identify a defect cause.
Step 6. Identify corrective action and perform the analysis in the same manner as
for the cause-and-effect analysis.

1.4.5 JOSEPH M. JURAN

Juran’s philosophy is perhaps best summed as “Quality does not happen by accident;
it has to be planned.”
The emphasis of Juran’s work is on planning organizational issues, management’s
responsibility for quality, and the need to set goals and targets for improvement.
Juran’s defnition of quality is “Fitness for use or purpose.” His thinking on quality is
an operational framework of three quality processes. These are

1. Quality planning
2. Quality control
3. Quality improvement

These are best known as Juran’s quality trilogy.

1.4.6 JOHN S. OAKLAND

Oakland’s philosophy of quality is “We cannot avoid seeing how quality has developed
into the most important competitive weapon, and many organizations have realized
that TQM is the [sic] way of managing for the future” (Oakland, 1993). He gives
absolute importance to the pursuit of quality as the cornerstone of organizational
success.
18 Total Quality Management

Oakland’s view is that “quality starts at the top,” with quality parameters inherent
in every organizational decision. He offers his own overarching approach for TQM
on the many well-established methods, tools, and techniques for achieving quality,
and some new insight.

1.4.7 SHIGEO SHINGO

Shingo’s early philosophy embraced the “scientifc management ideas” originated by
Fredrick Taylor in the early part of the twentieth century. Shingo believed that statis-
tical methods detect errors too late in the manufacturing process. He suggested that,
instead of detecting errors, it was better to engage in preventative measures aimed at
eliminating error sources. Shingo continues to believe in mechanizing the monitoring
of error, considering that human assessment was “inconsistent” and prone to error and
the introduction of controls within a process. He used people to identify underlying
causes and produce preventative solutions. Shingo has a clear belief, like Crosby, in a
“zero-defects” approach. His approach emphasizes zero defects through good engin-
eering and process investigation and rectifcation.
Shingo is strongly associated with the “Just-in-Time” manufacturing philosophy.
He was the inventor of the Single-Minute Exchange of Die system that drastic-
ally reduced the equipment setup time from hours to minutes. Just-in-Time is an
integrated set of activities designed to achieve high-level volume production, with
minimal inventories of parts that arrive at the workstation when they are needed.
Shingo is also associated with the Poka-Yoke system to achieve zero defects (fail-
safe procedures). The Poka-Yoke system includes checklists that (1) prevent workers
from making an error that leads to defects before starting or (2) give rapid feedback
of abnormalities in the process to the worker in time to correct them.

1.4.8 GENICHI TAGUCHI

Taguchi’s two founding ideas of quality work are essentially quantitative. The frst is
a statistical method to identify and eradicate quality problems. The second rests on
designing products and processes to build in quality right from the outset.
Taguchi’s prime concern is with customer satisfaction and with the poten-
tial for “loss of reputation and goodwill” associated with failure to meet customer
expectations. Such a failure, he considered, would lead the customer to buy elsewhere
in the future, damaging the prospects of the company, its employees, and society.
He saw that loss not only occurred when a product was outside its specifcation but
also when it varied from its target value. Taguchi recognized the organization as
“open system,” interacting with its environment. The principal tools and techniques
espoused by Taguchi center on the concept of continuous improvement and eradi-
cating, as far as possible, potential causes of “non-quality” at the outset. His concept
of product development has three stages:

1. System design stage

2. Parameter stage
3. Tolerance design stage
Overview of Quality 19

The frst stage is concerned with system design reasoning involving both product and
process. This framework is carried on to the second stage—parameter design. The
third stage, tolerance design, enables the recognition of factors that may signifcantly
affect the variability of the product.

1.4.9 SUMMARY OF PHILOSOPHIES

Although there are differences in certain areas among these philosophers, all of them
generally advocate the same steps. Their emphasis is on customers’ satisfaction, man-
agement leadership, teamwork, continuous improvement, and minimizing defects.
Based on these, the common features of their philosophies can be summarized as
follows:

1. Quality is conformance to the customer’s defned needs.

2. Senior management is responsible for quality.
3. Institute continuous improvement of processes, products, and services through the
application of various tools and procedures to achieve a higher level of quality.
4. Establish performance measurement standards to avoid defects.
5. Take a team approach by involving every member of the organization.
6. Provide training and education to everyone in the organization.
7. Establish leadership to help employees perform a better job.

Thus, their concept of quality forms the basic tenets of TQM.

1.5 BIRTH OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The TQM approach was developed immediately after World War II. There are prom-
inent researchers and practitioners whose works have dominated quality movement.
Their ideas, concepts, and approaches in addressing specifc quality issues have
become part of the accepted wisdom in the feld of quality resulting in a major and
lasting impact on the business. These persons are known as “quality gurus.” They all
emphasize upon involvement of organizational management in the quality efforts.
Their philosophies are already discussed in Section 1.4.
Their approach to quality emphasizes on customer satisfaction, management lead-
ership, teamwork, continuous improvement, and minimizing defects.
The TQM was stimulated by the need to compete in the global market where higher
quality, lower cost, and more rapid development are essential to market leadership.
TQM was/is considered a fundamental requirement for any organization to compete,
let alone lead its market. It is a way of planning, organizing, and understanding each
activity of the process and removing all the unnecessary steps routinely followed in
the organization. TQM is a philosophy that makes quality values the driving force
behind leadership, design, planning, and improvement in activities. It places quality
as a strategic objective and focuses on the continuous improvement of products,
processes, services, and cost, to compete in the global market by minimizing rework
and maximizing proftability to achieve market leadership and customer satisfaction.
It is a way of managing people and business processes to meet customer satisfaction.
20 Total Quality Management

TQM involves everyone in the organization in an effort to increase customer satisfac-

tion and achieve superior performance of the products or services through continuous
quality improvement. TQM helps in

• Achieving customer satisfaction

• Developing corporate culture
• Building motivation within organization
• Developing teamwork
• Establishing vision for the employees
• Setting standards and goals for the employees
• Continuous improvement

TQM was considered a fundamental requirement for any industry to compete, let alone
lead, in its market. The TQM concept was there till the end of twentieth century.
TQM is a management approach that strives for the following in any business
environment:

• Under strong top management leadership established clear mid- and long-term
vision and strategies.
• Properly utilize the concepts, values, and scientifc methods of TQM.
• Regard human resources and information as vital organizational infrastructures.
• Under an appropriate management system, effectively operate a quality
assurance system and other cross-functional management systems such as cost,
delivery, environment, and safety.
• Supported by fundamental organizational powers, such as core technology,
speed, and vitality, ensure sound relationship with customers, employees,
society suppliers, and stockholders.
• Continuously release corporate objectives in the form of achieving an
organization’s mission, building an organization with a respectable presence,
and continuously securing profts.

TQM focuses on participative management and strong operational accountability at

the individual contributor level. Total quality involves not just managers but everyone
in the organization in a complete transformation of the prevailing culture. It is a
change to the way people do things and relies on trust between managers and staff.
TQM is applicable to all kinds of organizations, both in the public and private sectors.
It is also applicable to those providing services as well as those involved in producing
goods or manufacturing activities.
The quality actually emerged as a dominant thinking since World War II, becoming
an integral part of the overall business system focused on customer satisfaction, and
becoming known in the twentieth century as “Total Quality Management” (TQM)
with its three constitutive elements:

Total: Organization-wide
Quality: Customer satisfaction
Management: Systems of managing
Overview of Quality 21

FIGURE 1.6 Concept of Total Quality Management.

Figure 1.6 illustrates the concept of TQM.

According to Construction Industry Institute (CII) source document 74: “Total Quality
Management is often termed a journey, not a destination.” This is because of its nature
as a collection of improvement-centered processes and techniques that are performed
in a transformed management environment. The concept of “continuous improve-
ment” holds that this environment must prevail for the life of the enterprise and that
the methods will routinely be used on a regular, recurring basis. The improvement
process never ends; therefore, no true destination is ever reached. Figure 1.7 describes
the phases of the TQM journey.
The document further states (p. 1) that from the viewpoint of the individual com-
pany, the strategic implications of TQM include

• Survival in an increasingly competitive world

• Better service to the customer
• Enhancement of the organization’s “shareholder value”
• Improvement of the overall quality and safety of our facilities
• Reduced project duration and costs
• Better utilization of talents of the people
22 Total Quality Management

Planning
Exploration and
and Implementation Sustaining
Commitment
Preparation

Perceived need for Strategic Quality Management Absorption of TQM infrastructure into
change deployment process oversight structure regular mangement system

Initial development of Realignment of

Investigation of approaches
Quality infrastructure reward system

Formation of teams Long-range planning

Expansion of training Teams-skills training
Engagement
of '- More people Focus on process
consultant '-More subjects Pilot improvement projects and customers
'- Mgmt. Role modeling Ongoing training

Top management basic Team management

Implementation of results Ongoing improvement efforts
training system
Company-wide expansion Management for
Confirmation of Team-process Continous Improvement
TQM commitment models Vendor / supplier process

Time

FIGURE 1.7 Phases of the TQM journey. (CII Source document 74. Reprinted with
permission from CII, University of Texas.)

The ISO document has listed eight quality management principles on which the
quality management system standards of the revised ISO 9000:2000 series are based.
These are as follows:

Principle 1—Customer focus

Principle 2—Leadership
Principle 3—Involvement of people
Principle 4—Process approach
Principle 5—System approach to management
Principle 6—Continual improvement
Principle 7—Factual approach to design making
Principle 8—Mutual benefcial supplier relationship

These principles were further revised in ISO 9001:2015. Accordingly, there are seven
quality management principles. These are as follows:

Principle 1—Customer focus

Principle 2—Leadership
Principle 3—Involvement of people/Engagement of people
Principle 4—Process-driven approach to quality standards/System approach to
management
Principle 5—Continual improvement
Principle 6— Evidence-based decision making/Factual approach to design making
Principle 7—Relationship management of suppliers, customers, and regulators
Overview of Quality 23

TQM is widely accepted as the basis for achieving sustainable competitive advantage.
It is required to achieve customer satisfaction and ensure survival in the competitive
world because of the global nature of competition, which never rests, and there is
no end to product or service improvement. TQM is based on the quality principles
discussed above.
Pursuing TQM in construction projects results in the following strategic benefts:

• Survive in an increasingly competitive world

• Improve market share and proftability
• Better serve the needs of customers
• Improve quality and safety of the project/facility
• Reduce duration of project execution
• Reduce project cost
• Fully utilize the talents of employees

TQM focuses on participative management and strong operational accountability at

the individual contributor level. Total quality involves not just managers but everyone
in the organization in a complete transformation of the prevailing culture. It is a
change to the way people do things and relies on trust between managers and staff.
TQM is applicable to all kinds of organizations, both in the public and private sectors.
It is also applicable to those providing services as well as those involved in producing
goods or manufacturing activities.
References
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AACE International Recommended Practice No. 37R-06 (2010).
Construction Industry Institute (June 1992), Guidance for Implementing Total Quality
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Texas, Austin, Texas.
Abdul Razzak Rumane (2013), Quality Tools for Managing Construction Projects, CRC Press,
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Abdul Razzak Rumane (2016), Handbook of Construction Management: Scope, Schedule, and
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Abdul Razzak Rumane (2017), Quality Management in Construction Projects, Second Edition,
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