ELECTROSTATIC POENTIAL

AND
CAPACI TANCE
ELETRIe poTENTI4L i- RoexK 4ne in baing "
hit pFe test change frm, nbin't t thaf point
wihent aeleraf'en funit Jone/tvnlomb or
Potential ferente - Volt
The poten f af 4'4 ferene betey

Formnlse Frr Eleetre Potental

() af 4' azis 414, P

(e) at
wih espeet t P
Peuso
(0 que t

Formnlae for Electe p'ten fal -

charged d
R

Ap equi p°tenta sustau the hunfa antngy the

Suspae eng the eleutie

4he whole mvs Nemain tant

chage
 chang
P
chovqu at
they
pnen1

init'aliy in stable equilberum,

The Bohaviur f Cnqnetn in the eene f

- Alo elee'e foelf Nneg
tvave 'inqe engne
Zerto
 4fevene. Petaf
med'ug t-ina KR
41¬, (-
e veenief ang
tle geume4 4he
4epenqs
oyeopaitane Capaitanie
ag of
Taraq
veltonlomb) wnit V
ie, plafe the aeos dit{enene
(v) pofegta
&)
on(charge oftnge mag 't
o the 4e5ineg
as capaifore capaitae
a f
The
the beter
he separation.
t Fin'te
chargey opposieg two ains ontcapacitor i
capaitene ang Capací
for
E|K g'eleefrie the nsge elq Net
giveefon oppocc}e
siqe infug eey'e sl al sm inwlts esThis
tnstant
alutrie where
K
 Com binaton Sert anf paralle | :
(a) Seviu

Sane)
net potetad q't4event)
(5) Pavalel embi naf on ,
V=V,tstVs
e= t 6t a

same )
capacitene 4 Poralled plate tapacitri
6- q'ele*e tonstant

<peeial

when the s 0 wh) spae beqmean the plat

Port"g fNegith a meqiwm

bef wun the plate,inca

:f4 paaed Plje paui ton,
Chavges ndveq on
-9l-k)
4 fe cherge on the capau'tn
Plafe
in a

2
22
the plafef

- whey t change
wive, he eharge gker
lower

Pte f'a<f the

the
The
- hey the
temamin enta,
V
when poc'te of
hey

2(ite)
 MOVIANG CHRGES AD MAGNETISM
+ B'04- Savant's law: -

Magnefe Fel4 fne te tmenf

e lement
|4, =41X o-7

s4raght
cengnefr 21R

4iheafed per pengielar

and int the plene if
Papea:
diveeye penpenqiun[en R'ght hang thunb Rrde
ang snf thi plene of 4seapin f lament
paper

B=
2R
2 (nt a)
2 t
 slenod)

Însrqe
point B=

wnit
lengh
La
4 mpere's urin'taf

Magnef'e fel 4he t steit lor i4:

Magsete
ontside the

Dont 2 1

2(1re

Bingce= 0

the

B =
2
Forrre

rre be tweeg t e parallel

F -yl

eherged pertele

irdan pat)
mVstn

Furee aefng ohangee pee;

magnette ea.
mving

chong
S

V= 0
 Lovent
( v'y)

9(ia)|

- when v, e,

when are

Toge
My

( plane
tu fied )
Tmo?
 Mag ne t'r 'ple memngi (M)

Mowing

Bar magnet
meg 4'p-le
m= ple stength
2l-
2 = q's tane betweg the ples
wnit- AM

Bar manet

M
B = 43.2M B
 E ath's Magnet'
Twee magnef elemnts;
() Deelin aton - angle betneg jegghie
merd'an ang magteang
men'an

ln p); - angle betwen

() Dip / ihetn atn l vetue ang hoizntal.
magnetie fiud
mpehnt B, - Bes9
) Hizenta!
2
B-yB,
Ttal mgnet

Magne t'catn M= Mnet

B´= MolH tM)

HystereShows the nelaf'un
Mag ne t'e betwen
B ang H'
RetenFt > Resq naf magnuf'sm ab fer mo'n
-

natea.
Ene"t) lo ss
 Magnetism and Matter
Bar
Magnet A permanent magnet with
North w) and Suth 6) pole1:
unlie poles attra, lKe Peles Repel
}Ma gnete feig I'ns ’ niginaje Jrom Nple
and end at s ple wtsqe the magnet
mve fm s t N insqe the Magnet

never intert
(ro wo wher

|M = M 20 m= ple stegth
al= magncte length
to (A'stane bewuy plea)

n exal

(fr thnt magnet

Magnee fug
 magne fe fed ca -
-Mx 3 I= MB Sn
?=

necgy () f a Ban magnet

Poyen fal
in unitnm magne
V-M: B - MBse

Stable cyuilibniun,
wns

Eanth's Magnsf on;

Magnete Dealin a'on-(e ve3)
bety geiyphie meigian {
angle merdian af plau
magnte
Irelinafin!- (sen I )
Lnel?natn!
+
Lsltant magnee fug
ansle that the

plau
Cmpuneng
in

1 ntenaitg'

pcle mment per unt

Mnt
wn'l t /m

Magne
 + Relat Permeahity )
4

Maten'als:-(Boved n
* claseifeatin of Mognefe

D'amagnete
mateia]: Paramagnt
mafoias
Fennomagnet'e

teanly atIatey - s4rngy attrnapt

m
magnet
S mal

m'

- f ; Bimuth, pan, lose femmagnahe

Papenties alae

- Prfeut 4 emagnfs belome

supenngt ch lude
Neel, Alavte

+ Pen manent Magee !

materalo high Refentitg. ugh coetcinity
jenmgnete metniak
Made4e fn hahang
 INDUCT|On
ElE(TR0 MAGNE

B B Mnga fug
* S1 wnit Weber (wb)

fund lan
Cend
wheneen the amunt 4 Rafe -f

an EME

The ingwg
the n
- for Nturs in a

Lenz's l :

inreen fhe
Cwment heafs
tiud in the ppose
t Mutinal EMfi- The emt indue in a un'fm
F
m

Furee on
E= VP

VBL

6- BLV Sin9

Cwwrenfs
the
the
magnte
fltows Lenz's law, the
4ireetton
chang
4'sagrantg
inghatin tunnae:

The phenumehen f
en

change
thh it
 indntana (-)

-LI
?
uniy!- Henrg (H)
ingveg emf selt- Inguefn!

4+

sely Inqretanu
2

t s pen n't ength (n )

n n

Mntua inqnti!The phenvmenn vff

in a te| ue
proqutn in 4
(wrenf
'ckange
 = MI,
Ba

wnit He"a
E,= -M

(ils
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
he cunt nshoe magnitude ahamgs entinusuy
ith time ktwn gee and ra maseimum valu and
feriodically
I I, bn wt ’ I- I, kin 2T vt

I, = pak wae ey Ac
AVERAGE OR MEAN VALUE OF AC
I= I kn ot
Iont. = Iott
HO

Iaw. = I, sinutdt

Iow. = 2 7kim wt at
-FC

Law. -I -2]
Iaw. 21
RODT MEAN 5QUARE VALDE OF cURRENT
P=r'R 2
I- I, &nut 2

P=(I, kun ut)'R H I,R

2
(2- ca't) dt
2
P= T, kin tR H=
2
I R
2
dt 2

dH = I,R &iu ut dt H = I
2
T
Ha [I'R sin ut dt
2.

AC’ Hac. DC Hac.

2
2 2
IRMS RT
2

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (xL) -

ofsouition otterd dy the
uinduto to the 7oo otvtunent inductive nactamee.
X 0L = 2T fL
|XL *(2 1) f |
L = seLf indutance
[:2nL condat]
 (3
CAPACI TIVE REACTANCE (X)

of alenating cwnent rallhd afraritie

actnce

2JTfC
f’

L' 1/2 JIC = constantT

WATTL E SS CURREN T
the cwent n fwely inducle o tapacitie AC cineuit
when awnage fooor comsemption n AC cicuit ie
3e wattlss wnent.

PHASOR 0IAG RAM

the wepaentation af ACent an veltage y
nesting eetors uis ralld shasot diagam.
TY PE5 OF AC CIRCUITS

1. AC THROUGH RESISTO R
when AC te iato, I and Vvae un
phas hae ditrenee betusen
I andV R.
V= Vo s n wt
 R

I : I bu wt
21

-Io
t

2. AC THRO0GH CAPACI TOR

I
V= Vo&in wt

dt 3N
I cV
t
I2 C dv
ot
I=C d (Vo san t)
dt
I: Vo Cw to ot
I t

3. AC THROUGH INDUC TO R
L
V=Ld
dt
 L

Von
wL
ut - 2

I - I. sin l-I)
I, Vo
XL

L-R kis AC iveuit

L
ww

-
V= Vo bint

* Veltage dada twvunt sy plhode

 R-C svs AC veviit
R

V= V, kin ut
hm
= VR'+ X
Imo

|Xe
(u) to the
R wCR

L-C seis AC vcinuit

I mo

iii) Phaue dittenee betuen votage and rwnent s

mpdanee
 L-C-R óes AC Giveit

hen,
=VAm
Jmo

inouctine , cicit behaveo as

L-R cineuit
cafocitive,c i t kehave as
C-R vcint

RESONANT LCR CIRCUIT

æ) X Xc
Jeiti ict
vs o:
iiy he phase ditene btwren Vamd I
(iv) Reeonant anglan tuguney n
(v) eg fower ronmtton Faw eme masimurn
QUALITY FAC TOR
a srie usonat vncit ui
detminant dy Q- facto. T ndcata tn shannese
in an L-C-R e AC cicit.

VR VA
RESONANCE
n suis LCR eieit , wten phase () betseen
twut and the vcireuit is said
to be eonant
voltage
ciicit.
hu quney at which Xe omd X cema lqual

IX= I XC IT

LC

I, >Iy>Ia
2n fo = Re >Ry Rz

2TVLC

AVERAGE POWER IN A SERIES LCR CIRCU

Pang. =Vmy Iam cas
P= VI
t Vobin wt
V=

P= Vo Bn t n sn( wt t )

26in wt cascot
2
 2

/Pot
T

Vo do&im ot s + Biu 2wt

2

Pong 2

Powg Vo X

|Powg
appaent/ vtual feue

tuu powr
vitual howen
CHOKE COIL
4 an elctiial devica meed tot
cotiralling wsnt uin an AC eincuit witheut
ttu
asting lsctrical nngy
 TRANSFORMER
a eviee tich onete high netoge AC
nt eow veltage AC and vie sa
npon thu foncpl ef mtual inotuetio
WORKING AND THEORY
when am AC wi fpassud
passd theugh tthu primay cail,
tegh
th
magnetie fux threugh theiven coehamgt,
which des two things, foredue
we assme that eistane ot fumay
then tu back mf will be cquel t

d¢ and
dt
whe , Namd Ng ae numle e twns in the
amd e senday cail usfcty
whil
V2 N2
nput emt
ramtorm
1.

Bddy Gusnt Lose - &ddy cwent un won veoe

the tom f heat

2. lun leakage otal funes linked ith ftimay
mot empltly foass thneugh the conday
which dnstu th las in the fue et
 Due to hating,
3. Gekper loss -taks lace in veoppen
prumany amd sconday coils.
4. Hyste tose- the unengy lou taku la wn
magnetiing and dmognetiing the
maqmtestution ttect leada
5. Humnming Xeus- inthe ibation
te et thu vee which nt n
fscucud thu kound. thiu los ugevud
hwmming loso.

TYPES OF TRANGFOR MER

1. 5TE P- UP- (N, >N,) tt cenveta lao A¬ altnating
nvottage into higl altemating vettag
2. STEP- DOWN- (N, <Na) t ceete high altemating
notage into dew atinating ottag
" don an ideal tranafomr

V2
Danaformation atio (u)
Np Vp Is

Qutput bowen X 1D0

nout sower
USES OF TRANSF0R MER
1. n the induction tnace
2. n ettag uglators yo TV, computu, te,
3 tor welding puxess.
 ELECTRO MG NETIC WAVES
ElLutrumagetenhi ch
leetrie on magnete
t eaeh her

wyent
which nduues in e negm h' h the

changes th Hme.

14

t
E
6
A
capa'tn plape whe

'4f'splesmng cuent
 4mper'
i,
'? splaemunt wment

Maxwein's cqwateni
E 4s=

( This equafon
n

E. 4 =

inghetn
fmpeni
marwe 1an)
Equaftun alefmmagne Waws

E E, Sun (Kz- wt)

B- B, Sn (Kz- ri)

wavelength
2 T1 D
 Veuwn

The
cpeed

Jam

EM

matea a<

fre spau with he

(
Bo

ang
each
aly
in mqium
the
Vaenm.
 EMWaver
Phyoreal fnant F
V

2.

24

8)

1 -

1 B,
24
4) Momentm P= En er tur penfey
speug hanptn)

B,

t mari mum
B =
Eleco mag netie petn

Wave ta pe Waweleng th in m Jreq neng in Hz

2
o.3 t 6 j0
Miuu wawe Jo3

3x9 t 3Y10
3
4x.9

t s
Wto vibt
-)

Radvo rares

The par "f the petruu

that
Resebu j r Sunbunn.
Wta
m'eal tmagg
Sane

Pugiy
+ hen
 and Optical
RAY OPTICS Instruments
medum
n the bam
Rulectiom - he bouneing Aack igt memal

Laws
Lqual to incident
Ray
?, he nimal, imcident noy and
liu in the 6ome glone
Relatin betwen f andR
Iam conave m t
n a AFM
tan 2i: AM AM 24

FM PF
2i: AM("2i u bmal)
PF comeawe
i: AM
2 PF

n a ACM
ton - AM AM
MO Pc
2 PF PC
u= AM
PC 2 PF = PC
2f = R

n a AFM TTTT
tom 2i- AM N AM
MF PF
2i= AM
PF M
n A AMC
tan u AM AM
MC Pe conwen
mive
PC
 From dquatiins Oand
AM AM
PC 2PF
PC= 2 PF
|R =2f|

Ray Diaqrams de to comcane mnt

1 Leyond c
y’etueenF C

".oeminshed
A cnage

'u’wwatw 'u’tween F
A "v’wwatu and c
B Eyeyond C
psame sugd P
eal
A Kimage A
imetd

(6.) ' between

heal and Fand P
utd ’ behind
- the i
"ituol amd
image
 3)
Ray Diagams
1. 2.
Pamd F
b/w PamdF
feeint kiyd
vitual and diminiahd
wet vitual
and
F
t
uinage
MIRROR FORMVLA

I Du to conca mivet

n a APB and AAPB n s ACB and aA'C B'

ZBAC -2B'A'C
2 BAP = L PA'8' (9o')
LABP8= 2 A'Pg' 2 ACB 2A'cB'
AA PBaA'PB'
PA AB =AC
AB_ AB' A'c
A' 8' PA'

- l+R
PA
A'C -R+
PA'
PA "U, PA': - , AC= -M +R, A'C =
2 f - uv u 2
2ut = 2 u - 2 t

diriding keth side wth avf

1
+

enec mie

A A

AA'B'P and ABP O simila

A'B' PA'
A8 PA
Bimila
lao thu a A'B'C a d A8C
AB A'c = PC- PA' 2
AB AC PC + PA

auom equatioma amd

 PA! PC - PA' 5
PA PC + PA

= tR- ()
+(-u) tR+(-u)
R

Diwiding ly vR
+

1 + 1_
R
R= 2 f
1 = 1
2
2f

which can
Rial ae -ontnthe bcen
mage
is alllo a eal woge

itual na-sh image that camnst e stained

6in is called a vitual inag.
to the
ogmitotn

M = i
ho

4 ual wimage ie positine.

Moignitication of vitual imag mgatt
 6
Retacten when igt goe tom ene

oanpant medn to anatheu, it

deriatu fom ite path, Ihie ohnemnen
Hufracton.
Cause - Digerene in sheud af light wn ditend
medimns.
Laws lacti
1. neident ay sutactid ay and th msmal te
thu inttaci at th joint neidma
in th Bamne

2. he atis af se of angea ay uinciolema to th

1. emgsnotua (inraely)
2. Matwial ( diuctly)
3. adngth (ineniy)

at kunfae Pa, qa:

kine

ot kwyae RS, M9a R

lotna
diaperm
 1

Jor cquatiine and (3)

Bim e

Pecovidd : 1. Rayaeting Aungaeu foalle to uach

sthe.
2. neident and amgent ay
medim.
Rutas thuouoh

WATER

bin 2 2)

Bn e
3 GLASS

(::2= le)
x x 3) A IR

wa X

X cb X MAc X led = Qea [2i-Le ]

mediá . - topentine amd natu.

 Real amd abpaent oefth

kin i AB B
A : i ú kmae)
OA

n oIAB
- A8 (" s small)
BI AI

Maw = kin AB/OA

A B/ AI
wa AI baent
OA Real
a lw = OA Roal
AI

ppaunt dapth
incidna
Bitical uaelling tom
Bstmcld y a hay of ight travela
sbaang Th 2 mdia u.e.
aleng thu swai ctiau equsl 90.
fon nthich ange
Lotal Sntnal Rultion
whem dightabone a tain cnglt incideme it
medium
l flect back nte the same medium.
AIR

WA TER
 whe c then = 9o

1
a dia
Bonitins -
1. A>Lic
2. tight Kheulol tavl tom den o a.

Apliratiens total 2ntnal Reyction-

1. fiem
i) o tun a

ke = 42

(iy o twn a

2. Billina iamend
 kight enons a damend, it i
kely o undugo TIR inaide it. By utling
the idaimend suitabty , mulible TIRs ram
moole to eccu.

3. Qklicaliby
hie au fabicatid with high quality omjoosih

al
mateial cladding. whin sigmai tom

suitatt ngle, t ndengoe aiatid TIR A

end.
bine ligt wndengeu TiR at warh, e
intnity
Uaed yo thanmiting and sciwing eletical
Rght itu' to acilitat vaual wcamination
st wnenal egane ik seshague, slomach amd
untnatinee
Requimte i y ittu absestin o hignt
fowniiatin and sseeial yparatiin o
Borampl - kilicn gloe titea : 95% ight - 1 km
 4. Miage 11)
aya, t ma gend ecema
hetty tham the ai otat highe lle. Riacti
Hottur

e a uneeaLe ith hight.

h, a
kemole wey yuom the mnal and
geound

1. tuinling af stone.
2. Banty dunie and bunet.
3. ktane asea hgh tham thy e.
4.
5. tountain ed tiu.
Rufralin fem N
conwem spherical fac

T AM

tam d = PM
Mo

ton B = PM
MI

MC

He
M1
PM. feM PM
MO
t PM) MC
+
MI
MC

1
)
R

comcane sfhrical &unyo

I MP.
 13)

tam - tom ß= H

AM
MC
- MO
AM) 42
AM
MC
AM,
MI

(-4))-*(*-()
R

amd a y nd wece

tne Makos temula

C, N IË
Gos I 9
tiut we coneidr eyond AP, & kwaee eto he ght
t. 4a only eetnded i.e thu mo pune

Su aOMC, , d,+l
MN + MN
NC1
MN + MN
CCi
u o T, MC,

MN
CI,

Hi(o)A ( , )
+
)
Ri

()

trowela em denr to aw meolum yoming

the tinal moa
 (15)

M'N' M'N!
N'I,
= M'N M'N'
CI, C,Ca

= tam Bot toma

M'N' M'N'
+
N'I
M'N' M'N'
C C2
Thavelling fuom deneu to aee
midium

Ha(')-
CC 4(h,') CI, CIa

A-(, ) (t, ta)

R2 V V

Ra
R , ) =

R
 -)(%) V

(u2( ) *
(u)( #)
uhen u= f th
(a-)(,):()
1

trom wquatimeG n d
(4-) ) 1-1 =

divwgene iot foarall saye a ignt incidant

Amgt.
unit : D (diose ohen f n m)
fpiaitie

when to lnee focal lngth fu and fa ae

wn canaet with cach vothe
 P= P1 + Pa

P = P, + Pa- d P, P

Relactiin de te glasa uam

Ueing ctrion ang prang

h o APNQ
LN+ LA 18D
2A =

& = yA -A
6 = A(4- 1)|
 6’ minimum them (18
e

A =2 t 6 n 2i- A
|a= A 6m t A
2 2

() Gmt A

Aþliting kight unta ite

Rondtiutnt alouns
t eccwe becaue efastie wndn o medum
ditnt fo ditvent colowe.
Snwuly ferasertinal to coanlngth.
amgulan dispuuin
deriation ot tuwo uacteme coles.
6y -da- (My-1) A- (4a- 1)A

deviation sand mean devialiew.

(4 -) A

whiti colo clucl

 Dptical natumnts
conne lene to mog
sbyjet placd etwen
funeiplu
fome amd uet aimag
ituel , magiti distunet
itame of naisn.
ot th lest

angle sultended dy
atie
Refined as the subtimded y alydt
image ot ite angl
whn both at them au consdd
at dye
at tu least distance o distinat vaio.
tom B
tom o

I| mag at ma fooint

A
F

AB
- He

m= A8
A8
1 1
 20)
1
fe 4e
1 1 = 1 x D
fe Me

D +1 = m
fe

]Smage at winfinity
fe e
m D
fe
haa Limitd mognifation.

ojetint and agfpiea

finepa-, ie hld et eutaide th foeuethe ob
when olyet
an image
aljctin dne, it forme

dhi sagtital enbu , giing ginal imag ot the

last distane et dittint iaism
Bypiue

B A" B
 ton B =A"8" 21)
ton d e -A8
m

m= - A"8" A'6
A6 A'B
m Ve Vo
Me Mo
m -Vo
Me
" whe ot LDDV when ot oo
1 4efe
-He |me Vo xfe
t

ut m
- Vo

Astonemical eliscope -
(i) Refacting tlisete
 ton d = A6 tom B A8

m= -fo
o
when at LDDv whem image
e m= t o
fe fe

te 1
4e

fe

m = - fo
fe [!]|
(io Reteecting tlucofo
Cosaegnain
covcan miie4

mi

tihscspe Tubu
" Nutonan
conca mie
plane
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