STRUCTURES TASK 6

Medha Murali Krishnan

251090090144

 Composites, their properties and how they differ from metals

 Types of composites
 Effect of temperature on carbon fibre and glass fibre
 Methods to lay up composites
 Filament winding
 Vacuum bagging and Resin infusion
 Prepegs
 Composite materials for different rocket parts and the layup methods
used to manufacture them.

Composites
Composites are engineered materials composed of two or more distinct
phases,typically a matrix and a reinforcement,that work synergistically to
exhibit superior mechanical and physical properties unattainable by the
individual components alone. According to Callister, the matrix serves as the
continuous phase that transfers load and protects the reinforcing phase, while
the dispersed phase (fibres, particles, or layers) carries the majority of
mechanical stress. Unlike metals, which are generally homogeneous and
isotropic, composites are heterogeneous and anisotropic in nature. This
anisotropy is intentionally designed to align strength and stiffness in desired
directions.
A composite is a multiphase, engineered material of a continuous matrix and
a dispersed reinforcement (fibres/particles/laminae) separated by a distinct
interface; the phases are chemically dissimilar and combined to realize superior
stiffness, strength, toughness and temperature capability unattainable by any
single constituent. Unlike most structural metals that are quasi-isotropic and
plastically deform by dislocation motion, composites are deliberately
anisotropic: properties depend on fibre type, volume fraction, length,
orientation, and interfacial shear transfer, and structural performance is
dominated by failure modes such as matrix cracking, fibre breakage/pull-out
and interlaminar delamination rather than yield. The result is exceptionally high
specific modulus/strength, tailored thermal expansion, and fatigue/creep
resistance at a fraction of metallic densities.
that the key difference lies in the mechanism of deformation and failure
metals deform plastically through dislocation motion, allowing ductility,
whereas composites depend on interfacial bonding and load transfer between
fibre and matrix. Metals often show yield and work hardening; composites, on
the other hand, fail through fibre pull-out, matrix cracking, or delamination.
Additionally, composites exhibit high specific strength and stiffness
(strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios), excellent fatigue
resistance, corrosion immunity, and tailorable thermal expansion, making
them ideal for aerospace and rocket structures where weight reduction is
critical.

2. Types and Classification of Composites

Composite Matrix
Reinforcement Type Examples / Features
Type Phase
Concrete (large-
Metal,
Particle- Large particles / particle), dispersion-
polymer, or
Reinforced dispersions strengthened alloys
ceramic
(Cu–Be)
Continuous or
Polymer,
Fiber- discontinuous fibres Carbon fibre–epoxy,
metal,
Reinforced (glass, carbon, aramid, boron–aluminium
ceramic
SiC)
Structural Laminar / Honeycomb panels,
Layers, cores, skins
Composites sandwich laminated aircraft wings
1. Particle-Reinforced Composites:
large-particle composites (e.g., concrete, tungsten carbide in cobalt
matrix) that rely on load transfer, and dispersion-strengthened
composites, where fine particles inhibit dislocation motion, enhancing
high-temperature strength.
2. Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRCs):
The most technologically important category, comprising continuous-
aligned, short-aligned, and randomly oriented fibre systems. The
σf d
critical fibre length (l c = 2 τ ) defines the minimum length required for
c

efficient stress transfer.

o Continuous fibres (carbon, aramid, glass) yield maximum
unidirectional strength.
o Discontinuous short fibres offer isotropy but reduced stiffness.
o The orientation and volume fraction of fibres determine
longitudinal strength (σ c =σ m (1−V f )+σ f V f ) and modulus (
Ec =E m (1−V f )+ Ef V f ).

3. Structural Composites:
These include laminar composites,bonded layers with differing
orientations or materials,and sandwich panels, where a lightweight core
 (e.g., honeycomb or foam) is bonded between stiff face sheets, providing
high bending stiffness and low weight. Smallman identifies these as the
most commonly used structures in aerospace fuselages and rocket
fairings.

In alloys, deformation is governed by dislocation glide, climb, and

interactions with obstacles such as solute atoms or precipitates;
strengthening thus relies on mechanisms like work hardening and
precipitation. In composites, however, deformation is controlled by
mechanical load transfer across the matrix–fibre interface. The
reinforcement phase physically bears load, while the matrix provides
cohesion and environmental protection. No metallic dislocation network
operates across the interface therefore, the failure physics is completely
different. Metals yield plastically and strain harden; composites fail
progressively by fibre–matrix debonding, microcrack coalescence,
delamination, and eventual fibre rupture.

The structural consequence is that composites are anisotropic by

design, with tailored directional stiffness, whereas alloys are largely
isotropic unless thermomechanically processed to develop textures.
Composites also permit customized thermal expansion, density, and
damping properties unmatched by alloys, though they lack the plastic
accommodation and ductility typical of metals.

The most important for aerospace applications.

They are further classified by fibre material and arrangement.

Types of Glass Fibers

Composition &
Type Typical Use
Property Focus
Alumino-borosilicate;
E-glass General-purpose
low cost, good strength
(Electrical GFRP, rocket
and electrical
glass) airframes
insulation
Magnesium
S-glass aluminosilicate; high
High-performance
(Strength tensile strength,
aerospace composites
glass) modulus, and
temperature resistance
C-glass Calcium borosilicate; Chemical storage
(Chemical excellent corrosion tanks, environments
glass) resistance with acids
 Composition &
Type Typical Use
Property Focus
Alumino-silicate
R-glass / T- composition; high Structural/aerospace
glass stiffness, fatigue laminates
resistance
Modified E-glass
without boron; better
Advanced radomes and
ECR-glass corrosion resistance
electronics housings
and dielectric
behaviour

Types of Fibers

 Carbon fibre: Graphitic microcrystals; extremely high modulus, low

density, high temperature capability, electrically conductive.
 Aramid fibre (Kevlar, Twaron): Aromatic polyamide; excellent impact
and ballistic resistance, low density.
 Boron fibre: Very stiff, expensive; used in specialized aerospace
stiffeners.
 SiC fibre: Ceramic fibre used for CMCs; retains strength beyond
1000°C.

Arrangement Classification

 Continuous and aligned fibres: Maximum longitudinal strength and

stiffness; typical in rocket motor casings.
 Discontinuous aligned fibres: Improved manufacturability, near-
isotropic behaviour.
 Random orientation fibres: Used for isotropic, lower-cost parts.

2.3 Matrix Type Classification

Matrix Type Examples Key Characteristics

Polymer Matrix Epoxy, Low density, good
Composites polyester, toughness, limited
Matrix Type Examples Key Characteristics
(PMCs) phenolic temperature (< 250°C)
Metal Matrix High strength, good
Al–SiC, Ti–B,
Composites thermal conductivity,
Mg–Al₂O₃
(MMCs) higher T capability
Ceramic Matrix Exceptional thermal
SiC–SiC, C–
Composites and oxidation
SiC
(CMCs) resistance
Used for rocket
Carbon fibres
Carbon–Carbon nozzles, reentry
in a carbon
Composites shields, survives
matrix
>2500°C
Mix of fibre
Balances toughness,
Hybrid Composites types (e.g.,
stiffness, and cost
carbon + glass)
Nanotube or Ultra-high modulus,
Nanocomposites graphene still largely
reinforced experimental
3. Defects, Dislocations, and Failure in Composites

In metals, defects such as dislocations, vacancies, and grain boundaries

are intrinsic and govern plastic deformation. A dislocation can glide
through the lattice, allowing continuous strain. In composites, however,
dislocations cannot traverse the heterogeneous phases the matrix and
 fibres are distinct, with the interface acting as a barrier. Instead, the
internal defect structure of composites includes:

 Fiber–matrix interfacial defects (weak bonding or voids),

 Matrix microcracks (caused by thermal or mechanical stresses),
 Delaminations (interlayer separation),
 Fiber misalignments or breakage, and
 Voids or resin-rich regions from poor lay-up.

When loaded, the stress distribution first causes elastic deformation in

both phases. As stress rises:

1. Microcracks form in the matrix at stress concentrators or voids.

2. Interfacial debonding occurs if shear stress exceeds interfacial strength (
τ c).
3. Load transfers from failed regions to neighboring intact fibres.
4. Fiber pull-out absorbs energy, giving composites their characteristic
pseudo-ductility.
5. Delamination between plies leads to rapid loss of stiffness and final
failure.

Unlike metals, no dislocation motion occurs through the

reinforcement phase; fibres are essentially defect-insensitive up to their
intrinsic fracture stress. Thus, the failure mechanism is progressive and
hierarchical, involving multiple small-scale events instead of a single
yield point. This is why composites display graceful degradation,
allowing non-catastrophic failure and easy detection before total rupture a
critical safety advantage in aerospace systems.

Delamination is described by Callister as the separation of layers or

laminae within a laminated composite structure, occurring when the
interlaminar tensile or shear stresses exceed the bonding strength
between adjacent plies. In a laminated composite, multiple fibre-
reinforced sheets (laminae) are stacked in different orientations to achieve
multidirectional strength. These plies are bonded together by a resin
matrix that transfers load between them. However, when subjected to
high bending, impact, or thermal stresses, the matrix may crack and the
adhesive bond between layers can fail. This leads to the plies peeling
apart, a phenomenon known as delamination. Callister explains that this
type of failure is unique to layered composites and does not occur in
homogeneous materials like metals, which lack distinct laminae.
Delamination significantly reduces the bending stiffness, compressive
strength, and load-bearing capacity of the structure because once the
layers separate, the laminate can no longer act as a single unit. It often
begins at points of matrix cracking, voids, or fibre–matrix debonding
and then propagates under cyclic or impact loading. In aerospace and
rocket structures, delamination is particularly critical since it may be
invisible from the surface yet can lead to catastrophic structural failure if
not detected and repaired.

property Composites Alloys

Two or more distinct
Homogeneous or
phases (matrix +
Constituents microstructurally
reinforcement) that
mixed solid solution
remain separate
Load transfer
Load Bearing between matrix and Dislocation motion
Mechanism fibre; interfacial and slip within grains
shear
Fiber reinforcement, Grain size reduction,
Strengthening interfacial bonding, solid-solution,
Mechanism constraint of matrix precipitation, strain
deformation hardening
Brittle matrix +
Plastic flow by
elastic fibres;
Deformation dislocation glide and
progressive
climb
microcracking
Highly anisotropic
Mostly isotropic
Anisotropy (depends on fibre
unless textured
orientation)
Matrix cracking, Necking, ductile
Failure Mode fibre breakage, rupture, cleavage
delamination fracture
Tunable via matrix;
Depends on alloy
Temperature limited by polymer
system; metals melt
Resistance softening unless C–
before fibres degrade
C/CMC
Difficult (adhesive
Easier (welding,
Repairability bonding or patch
plastic deformation)
lamination)
3. Properties and Behaviour Compared with Metals
Composites possess direction-dependent mechanical behaviour, with high
tensile strength along the fibre direction but lower transverse properties. They
also have low density, typically one-fifth to one-quarter of steel, and show
superior fatigue endurance and damping capacity. The modulus of elasticity
for carbon–epoxy systems exceeds 200 GPa along fibres, while aluminium
alloys rarely exceed 70 GPa.
Thermally, composites demonstrate low coefficients of thermal expansion
(CTE), enabling dimensional stability under thermal gradients, unlike metals
which expand significantly. However, composites are less conductive both
thermally and electrically.
Failure mechanisms differ substantially: Callister identifies matrix cracking,
fibre breakage, fibre pull-out, and interfacial debonding as key modes.
Metals fail by yielding or brittle fracture, whereas composites may fail
progressively, allowing early detection and redundancy.

4. Effect of Temperature on Carbon Fiber and Glass Fiber Composites

Smallman discusses how elevated temperature affects fibre–matrix bonding
and microstructure, directly influencing performance.
 Carbon Fiber Composites:
Carbon fibres possess exceptional thermal stability due to their graphitic
structure. Their tensile strength and modulus remain nearly constant up to
400–500°C in inert atmospheres, but in oxidizing conditions, surface
oxidation begins near 500°C, leading to matrix degradation and fibre
embrittlement. Thermal cycling can cause matrix microcracking due to
the mismatch in CTE between the carbon fibre and polymer matrix.
 Glass Fiber Composites:
In contrast, glass fibres (E-glass, S-glass) soften and lose strength beyond
200–250°C, as the glass transitions towards viscous flow. They also
exhibit greater thermal expansion, making them less dimensionally
stable. Additionally, Callister points out that glass fibres suffer stress
corrosion in moist or high-temperature environments, leading to static
fatigue and reduced lifetime.
carbon fibre composites outperform glass fibre composites at elevated
temperatures, retaining structural integrity and stiffness where glass fibres fail.
However, carbon fibres are more brittle and susceptible to oxidation unless
protected by coatings or high-temperature matrices (e.g., ceramic or carbon
matrices).
5. Methods of Composite Lay-Up and Manufacturing
The processing method greatly influences fibre alignment, void content, and
mechanical performance. the major methods include:
1. Hand Lay-Up:
The simplest method where fibre mats or fabrics are manually placed in
molds and impregnated with resin using rollers or brushes. Suitable for
small production runs (e.g., prototype rocket parts).

2. Filament Winding:
A mechanized process in which continuous resin-impregnated fibres are
wound over a rotating mandrel in predetermined helical or
circumferential patterns. Used extensively for rocket motor casings,
pressure vessels, and missile structures.
The fibre winding angle determines hoop and longitudinal strength:
hoop-dominant windings (±90°) resist internal pressure, while helical
angles (~±45°) provide axial load capacity.
3. Vacuum Bagging:
Used to consolidate hand lay-ups by sealing the laminate under a vacuum
bag. The applied vacuum removes air voids, increases fibre volume
fraction, and improves resin compaction. It is often combined with
autoclave curing for aerospace-grade laminates.

4. Resin Infusion (VARTM/RTM):

In Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM), dry fibre
preforms are placed in a mold, and resin is drawn through by vacuum
pressure, ensuring uniform impregnation and minimizing porosity. Ideal
for large structures like rocket body tubes and fairings.

5. Prepregs:
Pre-impregnated fibre sheets with controlled resin content and tack are
partially cured (B-staged). Stored under refrigeration, prepregs are laid up
in sequence and fully cured under pressure and heat in an autoclave. This
 method yields superior fibre alignment, void-free laminates, and
repeatable quality, making it the preferred process for critical
aerospace parts such as rocket nozzles and airframes.

6. Preform refers to the pre-shaped arrangement of reinforcing

fibers,either as woven fabrics, braided sleeves, stitched mats, or three-
dimensional fibre architectures,created before resin impregnation or final
consolidation. Essentially, a preform defines the fibre geometry,
orientation, and architecture of the composite part. It is designed to fit
the final component’s shape (for example, the cylindrical shell of a rocket
motor casing or the curved profile of a fairing). Depending on the
process, the preform may be dry (fibers held together mechanically or
with a light binder) or resin-impregnated (as in prepregs). Preforms are
placed into molds or tooling surfaces, where they serve as the
reinforcement skeleton that determines the mechanical properties and
load-bearing capability of the final part. The resin is then infused or
impregnated into the preform during subsequent stages such as resin
transfer molding (RTM), vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding
(VARTM), or autoclave curing.
 7. Autoclave curing, on the other hand, is a controlled heat and pressure
process used to fully consolidate and cure composite laminates,
especially prepreg-based aerospace components, autoclave curing
ensures void-free, high fibre volume fraction laminates with
exceptional mechanical uniformity. During this process, the composite
lay-up (often made from prepregs) is vacuum-bagged to remove
entrapped air, sealed, and then placed inside an autoclave,a high-pressure,
high-temperature chamber. Typical curing parameters involve pressures
of 0.5–1.0 MPa and temperatures between 120°C and 180°C for epoxy
matrices (or higher for high-performance resins like bismaleimide or
polyimide). The applied pressure consolidates the layers, minimizes
porosity, and enhances resin flow between plies, while the elevated
temperature initiates and completes the polymerization reaction in the
matrix., this process yields “a near-theoretical density composite with
superior interlaminar strength and surface finish,” making it
indispensable for critical aerospace and rocket components such as
motor casings, nozzles, fairings, and structural shells.

6. Composite Materials and Lay-Up Techniques in Rocket Structures

Rocket design demands materials that combine low mass, high stiffness, high-
temperature capability, and fatigue resistance. Smallman and Callister both
note that modern launch vehicles extensively use carbon and aramid fibre
composites due to their tailorability and high specific properties.
 Lay-Up /
Rocket Key Performance
Composite Material Processing
Component Features
Method
Filament
Carbon Fiber–Epoxy or High burst
Motor Casing winding,
Carbon–Carbon strength, low mass
autoclave cure
Prepreg lay-up, Ablation
Kevlar/Epoxy or
Nose Cone vacuum bag resistance, impact
Carbon–Phenolic
curing tolerance
Chemical vapor Thermal shock and
Nozzle Throat Carbon–Carbon or SiC–
infiltration, hot oxidation
& Exit Cone C Composites
pressing resistance
Fins and Aerodynamic
Glass or Carbon Fiber– Hand lay-up,
Control stability, light
Epoxy resin infusion
Surfaces weight
Sandwich panels
Interstage Prepreg
(Carbon–Nomex or High stiffness-to-
Structures / lamination and
Carbon–Aluminum weight ratio
Fairings autoclave curing
honeycomb)
Modern rockets comprise airframe cylinders, nose cones,
interstages/fairings, fins/control surfaces, motor casings and nozzles,
avionics bays and payload structures. Composites are adopted wherever
bending stiffness-to-mass, buckling resistance, and pressure containment
are critical: e.g., filament-wound CFRP motor cases for high hoop strength,
sandwich carbon skins with honeycomb cores for large diameter fairings and
interstages (high EI /mass), GFRP or CFRP nose cones and fins for
aerodynamic loads and flutter resistance, and ablative carbon–carbon or
phenolic-based composites in nozzle throats/thermal protection where
thousands of kelvin are encountered.