STRUCTURES TASK 5

Medha Murali Krishnan

251090090144

 Properties of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys

 Types of carbon steel and their properties
 Grades of aluminium and their properties
 Thermal processing methods of metals
 Carbon steel phase diagram and its components
 Hot-formed and cold-formed metals
1. Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys are metallic systems in which iron is the base element. They are broadly
classified into steels (Fe–C alloys with <2 wt% C) and cast irons (2–4 wt% C).
Their extensive use arises from the abundance of iron ores, low extraction cost, and ability to
develop tailored microstructures through heat treatment. However, their main limitations are
high density, susceptibility to oxidation and corrosion, and low electrical conductivity
Classification of Ferrous Alloys:
1. Low-Carbon Steel (≤0.25 wt% C):
Microstructure: Ferrite–Pearlite
Properties: Soft, ductile, excellent toughness; yield strength ≈ 275 MPa
Applications: Auto panels, pipes, structural sections
2. Medium-Carbon Steel (0.25–0.6 wt% C):
Microstructure: Tempered Martensite
Properties: Balance of strength and ductility, σₜ ≈ 600–850 MPa
Applications: Axles, gears, crankshafts
3. High-Carbon Steel (0.6–1.4 wt% C):
Microstructure: Martensite and Cementite
Properties: High hardness (HRC ≈ 60), wear resistance, low ductility
Applications: Cutting tools, dies, springs
4. Alloy and Tool Steels:
Alloying with elements like Cr, Mo, V, Ni, W enhances hardenability, toughness,
and creep resistance. Tool steels retain hardness up to 500°C.
5. Stainless Steels:
Defined by ≥11% Cr, they form a passive Cr₂O₃ film providing corrosion
 resistance.
Types include:
o Austenitic (18Cr–8Ni): non-magnetic, FCC, excellent corrosion resistance.

o Ferritic (BCC): magnetic, moderate strength.

o Martensitic (BCC/BCT): heat-treatable, high hardness.

2. Non-Ferrous Alloys
Non-ferrous alloys are metallic materials without iron as the base, valued for light weight,
non-magnetic behaviours, corrosion resistance, and high conductivity.
Common Non-Ferrous Systems (from Callister & Smallman):

Primary Alloying
System Major Properties Applications
Elements

Al–Cu–Mg–Zn (Al Light, corrosion-resistant, Aerospace,

Cu, Mg, Si, Zn
Alloys) precipitation hardenable automotive

Ductile, corrosion-resistant,
Cu–Zn (Brass) Zn Fittings, radiators
good electrical properties

Wear-resistant, fatigue- Bearings, marine

Cu–Sn (Bronze) Sn
resistant components

Ti–6Al–4V High strength-to-weight ratio,

Al, V Aircraft, implants
(Titanium Alloy) corrosion-resistant

Ni-based Excellent creep and oxidation

Cr, Mo, Co, Al, Ti Turbines, jet engines
(Superalloys) resistance

3. Grades of Aluminium and Their Properties

Aluminium alloys are separated into wrought and cast categories, designated by a four-digit
numbering system.

Principal Alloying
Series Typical Properties Common Uses
Element

Excellent conductivity, corrosion

1XXX ≥99% Al Electrical cables
resistance

High strength, poor corrosion

2XXX Cu Aircraft frames
resistance

3XXX Mn Moderate strength, good corrosion Beverage cans

 Principal Alloying
Series Typical Properties Common Uses
Element

resistance

5XXX Mg High strength, weldable Marine applications

6XXX Mg + Si Heat-treatable, good machinability Structural extrusions

Very high strength (700 MPa), lower Aerospace

7XXX Zn + Mg
toughness components

Heat treatment of Al–Cu and Al–Mg–Si alloys follows:

 Solutionizing , Quenching , Aging (Natural or Artificial).
This leads to precipitation hardening, forming coherent GP zones or θ' precipitates
(CuAl₂), which obstruct dislocation motion and increase yield strength (up to 480
MPa).

4. Carbon Steel Phase Diagram and Its Components

The Fe–Fe₃C equilibrium diagram defines all phase transformations in steels.
 α-ferrite (BCC): Soft and magnetic, stable below 912°C.
 γ-austenite (FCC): High solubility for C, stable up to 1493°C.
 Fe₃C (Cementite): Hard, brittle compound (6.67 wt% C).
 Pearlite (α + Fe₃C): Lamellar structure at 0.76 wt% C.
 Eutectoid point: 0.76 wt% C at 727°C (γ → α + Fe₃C).
 Peritectic point: 0.17 wt% C at 1493°C (δ + L → γ).
 Eutectic point: 4.3 wt% C at 1147°C (L → γ + Fe₃C).
Microstructural control via heat treatment is achieved through:
 Annealing: Coarse pearlite (soft, ductile)
 Normalizing: Fine pearlite (tough)
 Quenching: Martensite (hard, brittle)
 Tempering: Tempered martensite (strong, tough)
Smallman emphasizes that the Fe–C diagram represents metastable equilibrium, since Fe₃C
decomposes very slowly into α + graphite, but this is kinetically suppressed in steels

5. Thermal Processing Methods of Metals

thermal processing encompasses all heat treatments designed to refine grain size, relieve
internal stresses, and modify phase distributions.
(a) Annealing Processes
 Full Annealing: Heats steel to γ-region, followed by slow furnace cooling to form
coarse pearlite.
 Normalizing: Cooling in air gives fine pearlite and uniform properties.
 Process Annealing: Used for cold-worked low-carbon steel to restore ductility
through recovery and recrystallization.
 Spheroidizing: Prolonged heating near eutectoid temperature forms spheroidite,
reducing hardness and improving machinability.
 Stress-Relief Annealing: Relieves internal stresses without altering phase
composition.
(b) Hardening and Tempering
Quenching from austenitic region forms martensite, a supersaturated BCT phase.
Subsequent tempering reduces brittleness and induces precipitation of carbides, increasing
toughness.
(c) Precipitation Hardening
Used in Al–Cu and Ni-based superalloys:
1. Solution Heat Treatment
2. Rapid Quenching
3. Aging (Tₐ₉ₑ ≈ 150–200°C) → Formation of fine coherent precipitates impeding
dislocations.

6. Hot-Formed and Cold-Formed Metals

Feature Hot Working Cold Working

Temperature Above recrystallization Below recrystallization

Dynamic recrystallization,
Microstructure High dislocation density
grain refinement

Strength Lower (soft state) Higher due to work hardening

Ductility High Low

Surface finish Poor Excellent

Accuracy Low High

Example Forging, Rolling Wire drawing, Sheet forming

Hot working allows continuous recrystallization during deformation (Callister, Ch. 11),
eliminating work hardening and promoting isotropic properties.
Cold working (Smallman, Ch. 6.6) increases dislocation density and enhances strength via
strain hardening, expressed by:
n
σ =K ε
where n = strain-hardening exponent (≈ 0.15–0.25 for steels).

7. Mechanical and Hardness Tests

(a) Tensile Test
Determines yield strength (σy), tensile strength (σt), elongation (%EL), and reduction in
area (%RA).
Typical test curves (Callister Fig. 6.7) show:
 Low-carbon steel: σy ≈ 250 MPa, ductile fracture
 High-carbon steel: σy ≈ 700 MPa, brittle fracture
 Al alloys: σy ≈ 200–500 MPa, low density
(b) Hardness Tests
Hardness represents a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation.

Test Indenter Formula / Reading Best for

10 mm steel/tungsten
Brinell (HB) HB=2 P/(πD(D−√ D2−d 2 )) Cast irons, steels
ball

Diamond pyramid 2 Thin sections,

Vickers (HV) HV =1.854 P/d
(136°) precision

Rockwell
Cone/spherical tip Direct dial reading Production control
(HR)

Knoop (HK) Asymmetric diamond For microhardness Thin films, coatings

Brinell and Rockwell are common for ferrous alloys; Vickers and Knoop are used for
aluminum and surface coatings.
Hardness correlates roughly to tensile strength:
 σ t ≈ 3.45× HB

(c) Impact Tests

Charpy and Izod impact tests measure toughness and ductile–brittle transition temperature
(DBTT). Ferritic steels exhibit a sharp transition, while FCC metals like aluminium do not.
DBTT decreases with fine grain size, alloying (Ni), and annealing.
(d) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
For finished alloy components, ultrasonic testing (UT), radiography (X-ray), eddy
current testing, and magnetic particle inspection are used to detect subsurface flaws and
cracks without damage (Smallman, Ch. 9.3).
1. The Internal Physics of Strengthening by Alloying
All strengthening mechanisms work by impeding dislocation motion.
To understand this, imagine the metallic crystal lattice as a periodic, 3D arrangement of
atoms bound by metallic bonds.
Plastic deformation occurs when dislocations glide along specific crystallographic planes
(slip planes) under an applied shear stress.
If you can make it harder for dislocations to move, the material becomes stronger.
When alloying elements are added, they distort the lattice because solute atoms differ in
atomic radius, bonding, and valence from the solvent atoms.
This introduces elastic stress fields (compressive or tensile), which interact with the stress
field of a dislocation.
A moving dislocation has a stress field surrounding it tensile on one side of its slip plane and
compressive on the other.
Solute atoms can either attract or repel dislocations depending on size:
  Larger solute atoms (e.g., Mo in Fe) create compressive fields that attract the tensile
side of a dislocation.
 Smaller solute atoms (e.g., C in Fe) create tensile fields that attract the compressive
side.
This “locking” lowers dislocation mobility and increases the critical resolved shear stress
(τ₍crss₎) the minimum shear stress required to move a dislocation through the lattice.
Mathematically, strengthening from solid solution addition is often expressed as:
1 /2
Δ σ ss =k c

where:
 Δ σ ss = increment in yield strength

 k = alloy-dependent constant

 c = solute concentration (atomic fraction)

Thus, alloying increases the energy barrier for dislocation glide, making plastic
deformation harder.

2. The Three Main Strengthening Mechanisms

(a) Grain Size Strengthening, Hall–Petch Effect
Each grain in a polycrystalline metal act as a tiny single crystal.
When dislocations reach a grain boundary, they encounter a region of crystallographic
mismatch, where slip planes and directions in neighbouring grains rarely align.
This means dislocations can’t easily pass through; they must either pile up, change
direction, or nucleate new dislocations in the adjacent grain.
When multiple dislocations pile up at a grain boundary, they create a concentrated local stress
at the leading edge.
If the stress becomes large enough, it nucleates a new dislocation in the next grain but that
process requires higher applied stress.
The relation:
−1 /2
σ y =σ 0+ k y d

Grain boundaries increase the energy of the system because they are regions of atomic
disorder. However, their presence interrupts dislocation motion. Refining grains thus
increases the frequency of these interruptions enhancing strength.

(b) Solid-Solution Strengthening

As described earlier, this mechanism arises from the interaction between solute atoms and
dislocations.
But internally, the phenomenon is governed by elastic strain energy minimization.

A solute atom of radius r sinserted into a host lattice of radius r h produces a volumetric strain:
r s−r h
ε=
rh

This strain distorts the surrounding lattice.

A dislocation moving through this region must overcome the elastic interaction energy U∫ ¿¿:

U∫ ¿=−σ ⋅ εV ¿
disl

where σ dislis the local stress from the dislocation, and V is the affected volume.

If the solute’s stress field aligns opposite to that of the dislocation, it attracts and “pins” the
dislocation line.
This pinning increases the critical shear stress required for slip, and hence the yield strength.
Carbon in Iron:
In α-Fe (BCC), carbon atoms sit in octahedral interstitial sites that are too small for them.
This creates enormous local lattice strain (up to 1%).
Dislocations experience large resistance trying to move past these distorted regions that’s
why even tiny carbon additions (~0.02 wt%) drastically increase ferrite’s hardness.

(c) Strain Hardening

Every time a metal is plastically deformed (rolled, drawn, bent), new dislocations are
generated and existing ones multiply through mechanisms like the Frank–Read source.
Internal Mechanism:
Dislocations move, intersect, and entangle.
Their strain fields interact, forming a dense network that obstructs further motion —
essentially, dislocations block each other.
This is why cold working increases strength but reduces ductility.
The relationship between yield strength and dislocation density (ρ) is:

σ y =σ 0+ αGb √ ρ

where:
 G = shear modulus

 b = Burgers vector (magnitude of lattice distortion)

  α = constant (~0.5)

 ρ = dislocation density (m⁻²)

This equation shows strength scales with the square root of dislocation density.
Typical Values of ρ:

Dislocation Density
Material State
(m⁻²)

Annealed metal 10⁶ – 10⁸

Cold worked 10¹⁰ – 10¹²

Severely deformed 10¹⁴

The work-hardening rate (dσ /dε ) represents how fast the stress increases with strain. In
metals, this occurs because every increment of strain generates new barriers (dislocations) to
further deformation.

3. Dislocation Density
Dislocation density (ρ) is defined as the total length of dislocation lines per unit volume of
material:
Ltotal
ρ=
V
Units: m⁻².
It measures how “defect-rich” a material is.
A higher ρ means more line defects and hence more obstacles for dislocation motion.
Experimental Determination:
1. Etch Pit Method:
Chemical etching reveals surface pits at dislocation emergence points. Counting pits
under a microscope over known area A gives:
N
ρ=
A

(for thin specimens where dislocations intersect the surface).

2. X-Ray Line Broadening:
Dislocations cause local lattice strains → broaden XRD peaks.
The broadening (β) relates to ρ via:
2
β
ρ= 2
b
 3. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM):
Direct imaging of dislocation networks gives precise local ρ.
Why Dislocation Density Matters:
 Strength scales with √ρ, as shown above.
 Recovery and recrystallization during annealing reduce ρ.
 Ultra-high dislocation densities can lead to dislocation cell formation — subgrain
boundaries that stabilize strain.

4. How Carbon Strengthens Steel

This is the single most powerful concept in steel metallurgy, and Smallman explains it in
atomistic terms.
Carbon in Iron’s Lattice
At room temperature, iron is in the BCC ferrite (α) form.
Carbon atoms, being much smaller, occupy interstitial sites but BCC interstices are not
perfectly symmetric.
Thus, inserting a carbon atom distorts the lattice in a tetragonal fashion, generating
anisotropic strain.
Interaction with Dislocations
The local distortion field around a carbon atom interacts with the stress field of a dislocation.
If a carbon atom sits near an edge dislocation, it migrates to a position where its strain field
reduces the overall energy effectively forming a Cottrell atmosphere (a “cloud” of carbon
atoms around dislocations).
This Cottrell atmosphere “pins” dislocations, meaning additional stress is required to break
them free and continue deformation.
This phenomenon produces the upper and lower yield point behaviour in mild steels.
σ upper =σ y + Δ σ solute

Once the carbon-dislocation bonds are broken, dislocations move freely which leads to a
sudden yield drop giving rise to Lüders bands (visible strain markings).
Higher Carbon and Phase Hardening
As carbon increases beyond ~0.8 wt%, the microstructure includes cementite (Fe₃C),a hard,
brittle compound.
Cementite provides phase boundaries that further block dislocation motion.
In martensitic transformation, carbon trapped in the BCT lattice of martensite causes
enormous internal strain energy, leading to hardness values > 700 HV.
Overall Effect
  0.05–0.2 wt% C → solid-solution hardening of ferrite.
 0.3–0.8 wt% C → pearlitic strengthening (fine lamellae of Fe and Fe₃C).
 1 wt% C → martensitic transformation, extreme hardness.
Thus, carbon strengthens steel by three combined effects:
1. Lattice distortion (solid-solution strengthening)
2. Cottrell locking (solute–dislocation interaction)
3. Phase transformation strengthening (martensite and cementite formation)

Extra info from task 4

Dislocations are line defects within the crystal lattice and are the primary carriers of plastic
deformation in metals. The ease with which dislocations move determines the ductility and
strength of a material. Any factor that restricts their movement such as solute atoms, grain
boundaries, precipitates, or other dislocations enhances the strength of the metal.
However, the interaction of dislocations with grain boundaries is complex. Grain boundaries
generally act as barriers to dislocation motion, leading to dislocation pile-up and the Hall–
Petch strengthening effect. Yet, under certain conditions, dislocations may be absorbed,
transmitted, or annihilated at boundaries rather than piling up. Understanding these
behaviours requires an examination of both the structure of the boundary and the geometry of
the dislocation itself, characterized by its Burgers vector and dislocation line.

2. Fundamental Geometry of Dislocations

A dislocation is characterized by two vectors:
1. The Burgers vector (b) representing the magnitude and direction of lattice distortion.
 2. The dislocation line (L) the line along which the dislocation extends through the
crystal.
The orientation between these two vectors distinguishes the three types of dislocations:

Relation between
Type Primary Movement Associated Lattice Distortion
b and L

Edge b ⟂ L
Tensile and compressive stresses above
Glide on slip plane
and below slip plane

Screw b ∥ L
Glide parallel to
Pure shear stress field around the line
dislocation line

Combination of glide Both shear and normal stress

Mixed b at an angle to L
and climb components

2.1 Edge Dislocation

An edge dislocation corresponds to the termination of an extra half-plane of atoms within the
crystal.
The Burgers vector is perpendicular to the dislocation line. When stress is applied, the
dislocation glides in its slip plane, moving the extra half-plane through the crystal. The strain
field around an edge dislocation is asymmetric: compressive above the slip plane and tensile
below it.
These regions interact strongly with solute atoms and other defects, giving rise to
mechanisms such as solid solution strengthening and the formation of Cottrell atmospheres.
2.2 Screw Dislocation
In a screw dislocation, the Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line. The atoms form a
helical structure around the dislocation core. The stress field is purely shear and symmetric
about the dislocation line.
Screw dislocations are particularly important because they can undergo cross-slip that is,
they can move from one slip plane to another that shares the same Burgers vector. This makes
screw dislocations more mobile than edge dislocations in metals with high stacking-fault
energy (e.g., aluminium).
2.3 Mixed Dislocation
Most real dislocations are mixed in character, possessing both edge and screw components.
The effective Burgers vector is the vector sum of the two components. The mixed nature
allows them to glide, cross-slip, or climb depending on temperature and stress conditions.
Their strain fields are complex, combining both shear and dilatational stresses.

3. Interaction of Dislocations with Grain Boundaries

Grain boundaries separate crystals of different orientations. When a moving dislocation
encounters a boundary, the slip system in the next grain is generally misaligned, which can
either halt, redirect, or allow the passage of the dislocation depending on several factors.
3.1 Pile-Up at High-Angle Grain Boundaries
In polycrystalline metals at low temperatures, high-angle grain boundaries act as strong
barriers. The slip plane in one grain rarely aligns with that in the neighboring grain. As
dislocations reach the boundary, they cannot transfer their glide motion and therefore
accumulate.
This accumulation, or pile-up, produces a local stress concentration at the head of the
dislocation group. The local shear stress at the leading dislocation is amplified relative to the
applied stress as:
τ local ≈ n τ applied

where n is the number of dislocations in the pile-up.

When the local stress at the boundary exceeds the critical resolved shear stress of the adjacent
grain, a new dislocation may be nucleated on a favourable slip system in that grain.
The total stress required for yielding is thus a function of grain size, giving rise to the Hall–
Petch relationship:
−1 /2
σ y =σ 0+ k y d

Smaller grains restrict pile-up length, leading to higher strength.

3.2 Exceptions ,When Pile-Up Does Not Occur
Although pile-up is common, there are several important cases where dislocations do not
accumulate at boundaries:
(a) Low-Angle Grain Boundaries (LAGBs)
Low-angle boundaries consist of organized arrays of dislocations that accommodate slight
misorientations between adjacent grains. Because these boundaries are themselves dislocation
structures, incoming dislocations can be absorbed, annihilated, or transmitted without
significant resistance. Therefore, pile-ups are minimal or absent.
(b) Favourably Aligned Slip Systems
If the slip planes and directions on either side of the boundary are nearly parallel, the
dislocation may transmit through the boundary. The condition for transmission is:
⃗
b1≈ ⃗ n1 ⋅ ⃗
b2 , ⃗ n2 ≈ 1

where b⃗ is the Burgers vector and n⃗ is the slip plane normal in each grain. Under these
conditions, the boundary acts as a transparent interface rather than a barrier.
(c) High Temperature (Recovery and Creep)
At elevated temperatures, dislocations can move out of their glide planes by climb, which is
controlled by vacancy diffusion. Grain boundaries then act as sinks or sources for
dislocations rather than obstacles. Consequently, instead of piling up, dislocations are
absorbed or annihilated, reducing dislocation density.
(d) Special Boundaries and Twin Boundaries
Special misorientation boundaries, such as those in coincidence site lattice (CSL)
configurations, possess low interfacial energy and coherent atomic fit. They can either allow
partial transmission or absorb dislocations without strong pile-up. Coherent twin boundaries
in FCC metals are notable examples.
(e) Nanocrystalline and Ultrafine-Grained Materials
In materials with grains smaller than approximately 100 nm, the concept of a dislocation pile-
up loses validity. Grains are too small to accommodate multiple dislocations on one slip
plane. Instead, plastic deformation occurs by grain boundary sliding, rotation, and diffusion.
This regime leads to the inverse Hall–Petch effect, where further grain refinement decreases
strength due to boundary-mediated deformation mechanisms.
(f) High Stacking-Fault Energy (SFE) Materials
In metals with high SFE, screw dislocations readily undergo cross-slip, bypassing obstacles
including grain boundaries. This mobility reduces the likelihood of pile-ups, making
materials such as aluminium and ferritic iron more ductile compared to low-SFE metals like
copper or austenitic stainless steel.

4. Relationship Between Dislocation Type and Boundary Interaction

The character of the dislocation edge, screw, or mixed governs how it interacts with the
boundary.
 Edge Dislocations: Because they produce tensile and compressive regions above and
below the slip plane, edge dislocations tend to interact strongly with impurity atoms
and boundaries. They are easily pinned or absorbed at grain boundaries, contributing
to pronounced pileups.
 Screw Dislocations: Possess pure shear fields and can cross-slip onto other planes
sharing the same Burgers vector. They are more likely to transmit through boundaries,
especially under high SFE or aligned conditions, resulting in weaker pileups.
 Mixed Dislocations: Their response depends on the proportion of edge and screw
character. The edge component will Favor pinning or absorption, while the screw
component enables transmission or cross-slip.

5. Dislocation Density and its Influence on Strengthening

Dislocation density (ρ) represents the total length of dislocation lines per unit volume:
Ltotal
ρ=
V
Typical values range from 10⁶ m⁻² in annealed metals to over 10¹⁴ m⁻² in heavily deformed
materials. The yield strength increases approximately with the square root of dislocation
density:

σ y =σ 0+ αGb √ ρ

where G is the shear modulus, b is the Burgers vector, and α is a constant (~0.5).
Thus, higher dislocation density increases the likelihood of dislocation–dislocation
interactions and pile-ups, resulting in strain hardening. During recovery and recrystallization,
dislocation density decreases as dislocations annihilate or are absorbed at grain boundaries.