Page |1

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the sending and receiving of information over a distance.
To make information transfer very effective and efficient, the information must be encoded at
the transmitting end, and the resulting signal must be decoded at the receiving end, to obtain
the relevant information.
Basic Terminology
1. Encoding: This is the process of transforming information into a form suitable for
transmission.
2. Encoder: It is a device used to convert information into a form suitable for transmission.
3. Decoding: This is the process of extracting information from a received signal.
4. Decoder: This is a device used to extract information from a received signal
5. Channel/Medium: It is a transmission path
6. Signal: Encoded information passing through a channel
7. Storage: It is the placing of information in a medium that preserves if for an extended
period of time
8. Retrieval: This is the process of extracting signals from a channel.
9. Attenuation: This is the continuous weakening of the intensity of a signal as it travels
through a channel. This is due to energy absorption, dispersion or diffraction of electromagnetic
waves.
10. Noise: These are unwanted signals that interfere with the transmission and reception of
signals
11. Distortion: This is unwanted alteration of signals as it travels, causing it to differ from
the original signal
12. Carrier wave: It is an electromagnetic wave that carries the information
Communication is divided into 3 sub sections namely;
 Radio Systems
 Optical fibers/application
 Mobile Telephony

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |2

RADIO SYSTEMS
A radio communication system comprises of two components namely:
 The Transmitter
 The Receiver
AM RADIO TRANSMITTER
Block Diagram

Figure 1: Block diagram of AM radio transmitter

Functions of the various parts
 Carrier wave (or oscillator): It produces a radio frequency (r.f) current to send out radio
waves at constant amplitude.
 Modulator (or mixer): It is responsible for modifying the carrier wave so that it can
carry information or it super-imposes (adds or mixes) the information signal onto the carrier
wave.
 Amplifier: It boosts the information signal, so that maximum sound energy can be sent
to the transmitter.
 Transmitter: It causes electrons in the information signal, to oscillate back and forth,
thereby producing em waves of the same frequency as the carrier wave.

AM RADIO RECEIVER
Circuit Diagram:

Figure 2: Circuit diagram of AM radio receiver

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |3

Block Diagram:

Figure 3: Block diagram of AM radio receiver

Functions of the various parts
 Tuned Circuit: It selects or picks up a particular radio frequency and rejects all other
frequencies.
 R.F Amplifier: It boosts radio signals
 Demodulator: It removes or isolates the carrier wave and allows only the audio
frequency.
 A.F Amplifier: It boosts the audio signal so that maximum sound energy can be obtained
from the speaker.
 Loudspeaker: It converts the boosted audio signal to sound.
Summary: Diagram of a radio communication system

Figure 4: Block diagram of AM radio system

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |4

THE TUNED CIRCUIT

A tuned circuit is an inductor capacitor (LC), in which the capacitor is connected in parallel to the
coil (inductor) which is earthed.

Figure 5: Diagram of Tuned circuit

How the tuned circuit functions
An incoming radio frequency induces an alternating voltage in the antenna (aerial), which in turn,
induces an alternating voltage of same frequency across the coil (inductor) and the capacitor.
Varying the capacitance of the capacitor, the resonant frequency (𝑓0 ) is varied, and when the
carrier frequency equals the resonant frequency, the circuit is tuned.
i.e. when 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , the resonant frequency can be calculated as follows
1
𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶 but 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓0
𝟏
𝒇𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪 (1)

NB:
 Carrier frequency: It is the frequency of the radio wave to which the signal is encoded,
so that it transforms it to a form suitable for transmission.
 Amplitude modulated wave: A wave is amplitude modulated, when its amplitude is
made to very in response to the information signal.
 To select other frequencies, the variable capacitor is adjusted.
THE SUPERHETERODYNE SYSTEM (SUPERHET)
This is a special type of receiver that in addition to demodulating incoming signals, it does carrier
frequency tuning, filtering (separation of desired signals from interference) and amplification in
a process known as super heterodyning.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |5

Super heterodyning: This is the mixing of incoming radio frequency signals (𝐹𝑟.𝑓 ) with a higher
frequency in a mixer to produce, a fixed frequency called an Intermediate Frequency (I.F).
i.e. 𝑰. 𝑭 = 𝑭𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 − 𝑭𝒓.𝒇 (2)
Advantages of a Superhet receiver
 It provides improved selectivity (receiver can select any signal within the a specified radio
frequency band) by converting radio frequency to intermediate frequency (I.F)
 It is easier and cheaper to use and get.
Block Diagram:

Figure 6: Block diagram of Superhet

Functions of the various parts
 Antenna (aerial): It picks up em waves from the atmosphere and converts them into very
small electrical currents or alternating current (A.C).
 Tuned R.F amplifier: It amplifies the radio frequency waves (very small currents in the
antenna) to improve selectivity of the receiver.
 Modulator: It combines the received modulated frequency wave form the R.F amplifier,
and the carrier wave
 IF filter: It has a fixed range of band pass filter, designed to allow just the IF to pass
through.
 IF amplifier: It provides extra amplification to the IF from the IF filter
 Demodulator: It contains a diode, and an RF filter, to remove the remaining carrier wave

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |6

 AF amplifier: It amplifies audio signals and produces meaningful signal to a loud

speaker.
 Loudspeaker: Converts audio signals form AF amplifier to sound.
MODULATION
This is the process of encoding an analogue signal into the carrier signal, either to vary its
amplitude, or its frequency.
Principles of Modulation
There are two ways of modulation namely:
 Amplitude Modulation (AM): This is the process whereby the amplitude of a carrier
wave is made to vary in response to the information signal.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): This is the process whereby the frequency of a carrier
wave is made to vary in response to the information signal.
Differences between AM and FM
AM FM
Amplitude of carrier wave varies Frequency of carrier wave varies
Requires more boosters Requires less boosters
Travels long distances Travels short distances
Low sound quality High sound quality
Can easily be attenuated Cannot easily be attenuated
Prone to noise Less prone to noise
Smaller bandwidth Larger bandwidth

BANDWIDTH
It is the range of frequencies that must be transmitted by a channel for a signal to be intelligent.
If the carrier wave or radio frequency has a frequency 𝒇𝒄 and the information or modulating
signal or audio frequency has a frequency, 𝒇𝒎 , where 𝑓𝒄 > 𝑓𝒎
 Then the maximum frequency , 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 , that can be transmitted through the channel is
called the Upper Side Band Frequency (USB) and is given by
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎 (3)
 The minimum frequency, 𝑭𝒎𝒊𝒏 , that can be transmitted through the channel is called

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |7

Lower Side Band (LSB) Frequency and given by

𝑭𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒇𝒄 − 𝒇𝒎 (4)

𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 = 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑭𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 (5)
Transmission of information by digital means
A digital signal is one, which has a limited range of values and can change only suddenly form
one value to another. A digital signal is usually represented by binary digits, of which the
smallest piece of info is the bit, represented by either 1 (ON) or 0 (OFF). Digital signals are not
continuous rather they have definite (discrete) set of values. e.g. calculator, light switch, square
wave oscillator.
Analogue signals on the other hand are signals, which have a continuous range of values and can
change over the range of values between the minimum or maximum value. e.g. amplifier,
microphone, sine wave oscillator.
The digital transmission of speech involves that the speech, which is an analogue information,
be converted from analogue-to-digital conversion using an Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC), on the line of transmission, which is in turn converted from digital-to-analogue
conversion using a Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC) on the line of reception.
Advantages of digital transmission over analogue
 Digital signals are less prone to noise
 Digital signals can be easily built
 Digital signals have high quality information
 Digital signals store information over a longer period of time, using a smaller space e.g.,
computer memory.
 Digital signals can be transmitted over longer distances

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |8

 Digital signals are less attenuated and hence require less boosters
 Digital signals travel faster than analogue signals
Differences between analogue information and digital information
Analogue Information Digital Information
Carrier wave has a definite frequency Carrier wave has no frequency
Information carried has a continuous range Information carried has a definite set of
of values, from minimum to maximum values such as binary 0 and 1
Information is carried as either a modulation Information is encoded according to a
of either frequency or amplitude system

TV (television) signals have a higher bandwidth than radio signals, and so they therefore require
very high frequencies to be transmitted. These frequencies are sometimes categorized as;
VHF (Very High Frequencies) and UHF (Ultra High Frequencies). UHF have require high
energy since they are short ranged and so suffer very little or no attenuation.
Differences between VHF and UHF
VHF UHF
Long range Shorter range
Mostly used outdoors Mostly used indoors
Works well in open areas such as farms, Works well in building
construction sites

FIBER OPTICS (OTPTICAL FIBERS)

Fiber Optics Transmission
Optical fiber transmission is the sending of information by light signals, through a thin doubled
wall flexible glass. Light in the fiber is confined (restricted) within the bent glass, by Total
Internal Reflection (TIR)
Recall: Condition for TIR to occur:
 Light must be travelling from an optically more dense medium to an optically less dense
medium.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 Page |9

 The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle (𝜃𝑖 >
𝜃𝑐 ).

Critical Angle, (𝜽𝒄 )

This is the angle of incidence in the more dense medium when the angle of reflection in the less
dense medium is 90°.

Figure 7a: Diagram to illustrate critical angle Figure 7b: Total internal reflection

Consider an incident ray travelling from glass with refractive index, n to air (𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1), then
applying Snell’s law of refraction we obtain
𝑛 sin(𝜃𝑐 ) = 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 sin(𝜃𝑟 )
𝟏
𝜽𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝒏) (6)

Consider a ray of light propagated in an optical fiber, as shown in the figure 8 below, the
incident ray enters the core at an angle 𝜃𝑜 to the fiber axis. Let 𝑛, 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 be the refractive
indices of the surrounding (air), core and cladding materials, respectively.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 10

Figure 8: Diagram to illustrate propagation of light in an optical fiber

Derivation of acceptance angle (𝜽𝒐 ) and Numerical Aperture (NA)
Acceptance Angle (𝜽𝒐 )
It is the maximum angle at or below which a ray of light can enter through one end of a fiber
(core), and still be totally internally reflected.
Applying Snell’s law at O
𝑛 sin(𝜃𝑜 ) = 𝑛1 sin(𝜃𝑟 )
sin(𝜃𝑜 ) = 𝑛1 sin(𝜃𝑟 )
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝒐 ) = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝜽𝒓 ) (a)
Applying Snell’s law at B (at the interface between the core and the cladding)
𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃𝑟 ) = 𝑛2 sin(90)
𝑛1 sin(90 − 𝜃𝑟 ) = 𝑛2
𝒏
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽𝒓 ) = 𝒏𝟐 (b)
𝟏

Substituting eqn (b) into eqn (a) we have

𝒏 𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝒐 ) = 𝒏𝟏 √𝟏 − (𝒏𝟐 )
𝟏

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝒐 ) = √𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

𝜽𝒐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 ) (7)

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 11

Numerical Aperture (NA)

It is the sine of the acceptance angle given as

𝑵𝑨 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝒐 ) = √𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 (8)

NA represents the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber

NB: For light to be propagated within an optical fiber, then 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽𝒐 ) < 𝑵𝑨

Fractional Index Change (∆)

It is the ratio of the difference in the refractive index of the core and the cladding material to the
refractive index of core
𝒏𝟏 −𝒏𝟐
∆= (9)
𝒏𝟏

Intensity
It is the wave energy per unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
𝑷
i.e. 𝑰 = 𝑨

The unit of measuring intensity level on a logarithmic scale is called decibel (dB).
Attenuation
This is the loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber.
The amount of optical power that remains in a fiber after it has been propagated a distance, 𝑳,
(km) is given by
𝑷
𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑷 𝒊𝒏 ) (10)
𝒐𝒖𝒕

The attenuation coefficient (𝛼); which is the ratio of optical power input 𝑃𝑖𝑛 to optical power out
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 for a fiber of length , 𝑳, for a given wavelength of propagating light and measured in
𝒅𝑩𝒌𝒎−𝟏 is given by
𝟏𝟎 𝑷
𝜶= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑷 𝒊𝒏 ) (11)
𝑳 𝒐𝒖𝒕

The uninterrupted length, 𝒙, of an optical fiber can be calculated using the expression
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒐 𝒆−𝜶𝒙 (12)
Where 𝜶 is the attenuation coefficient and 𝑃𝑜 is the threshold power.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 12

Length of light ray in an optical fiber

Figure 9: Diagram to illustrate propagation of two light rays in an optical fiber

𝒅
𝒙𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 (13)
𝑰
Remark: 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝑰 𝒊𝒏 ) where 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝐼𝑖𝑛 are the respective output and input intensities.
𝒐𝒖𝒕

The power losses in optical fiber are due to the following:

 Absorption loss: This is the loss of power in an optical fiber, due to the presence of
impurities in the process of manufacturing..
 Scattering loss (Rayleigh scattering): This is the scattering of light travelling through an
optical fiber due to small regions, with sudden change in their refractive index.
 Geometric effect (Radiative loss): This is power loss due to bending of the fiber or
cabling (mishandling) during installation.
 Dispersion loss: This is the spreading of light, when the light pulse travels through an
optical fiber. It also occurs due to impurities.
To reduce power losses in optical fibers;
 Minimize impurities in the fiber
 Avoid bending the fiber
 Ensure proper installation of the fiber.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 13

Advantages of optical fibers

 Information security
 No cross talking of signals, (cross talking is the process whereby information form one
channel is heard another channel).
 High information carrying capacity
Disadvantages of optical fibers
 Maintenance cost is high
 They cannot be bent too sharply
 They undergo structural changes with temperature
 Optical connectors are very costly
Comparing optical fibers and copper cables in the transmission of information
Property Optical fibers Copper cables
security No cross talking Cross talking
No shock due to electricity Shock due to electricity
Attenuation Less attenuation More attenuation
Bandwidth Larger smaller
Noise Less noise due to no More noise due to
interference interference
Description Made of thin flexible glass Made of wires
Size Lighter, smaller and easy to Bulky and inconvenient to
handle handle

MOBILE TELEPHONY
Mobile phone (cell phone) is a wireless device that receives signals from towers. It can be carried
from one place to another hence the name mobile.
Mobile phones operate within cells
Cell: It is an area, which is several kilometers around a tower, in which a signal can be received.
Note that when the population that uses cell phones increases, there will be overcrowding and
deficiency of frequency sharing. For this reason, big cities, are often divided into regions called

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 14

cells. Each of these cells are designed with a radio equipment, and a tower, so that signals can
easily be transmitted from one cell to another.
A cell phone is known as a full duplex device; meaning it has two frequencies; one frequency
used for talking, and the other one used for listening.
A mobile telephone handset is known as a “transceiver” meaning it can both receive and transmit
signals at the same time.
Basic Terminology
1. Base station: it is a piece of equipment designed to transmit and receive signals from one
cell to another, and subsequently to landline networks.
Types of base stations:
 Masts (or cell sites): giant structures that provide the main network coverage
 Microcells: smaller installations in terms of size and capacity serving to fill gaps in
network coverage. They are mostly incorporated into buildings or street lamps.
How to locate base stations:
 Consider topography or landscape: the topography of an area affects signal strength.
Reasons why towers are located on top of hills.
 Distance: the strength of a signal is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the transmitter. that’s why tall building and hills often obstruct signals
 Population: more base stations are needed in towns and cities with more people, so as to
boost signal strength.
 Range: high signal strength is required over a wider range and vice versa.
2. M.T.S.O (Mobile Telephone Switching Office): it is an office run by each cell phone
carrier, and handles all the connections, monitors calls and keeps track of phone locations.
3. P.S.T.N (Public switched Telephone Network): it is a network that connects a caller and
a receiver before communication begins. PSTN communicates with the MTSO though a control
office
4. E.S.N (Electronic Serial Number): it is a unique 32-bit number, programmed into the
phone by the manufacturer.
5. M.I.N (Mobile Identification Number): it is a unique 10 digit derived from the phone’s
ESN.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 15

6. SID (System Identification Code): it is a unique 5-digit number assigned to each cell
phone carrier (service provider). It Is used to identify the service provider. In Cameroon,
CAMTELL is the PSTN which provides SID to cell phone carriers like MTN, ORANGE, each
of which is unique to a service provider.
ESN is a permanent part of the phone while the MIN and SID are programmed into the phone.
7. S.I.M (Subscriber Identification Module): it is a microchip that stores information about
a subscriber. It also stores personal information/data, like phone number, payment account etc.
8. SMS-short message service
9. USB-Universal serial bus
10. WIFI-Wireless fidelity
11. PIN-Personal Identification number
12. CAMTEL-Cameroon Telecommunication
13. MTN-Mobile Telephone Network
14. GPS-global positioning system
15. VPN-virtual private network
16. MMS-multimedia message service
17. MSC-mobile switching center
18. GSM-global system for mobile telecommunication
19. .BSS-base station subsystem
20. Multiplexing: This is the process of transmitting many different signals along the same
channel at the same time, in a way that they do not interfere
Types of multiplexing:
a) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): the signals are modulated into different
carrier frequencies (channels) and the frequencies are mixed together on the same line.
b) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): each channel is allowed to use the line, for a part
of the line.
21. Roaming: A phone is set to be roaming when it is out of its service provider cell site,
and may still be reached (connects to another service provider) e.g., a mobile phone with MTN
sim can roam in the cell site of ORANGE.
22. Uplink: The transmission of data from mobile phones to bae station.
23. Downlink: The transmission of data from base station to the mobile phone.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 16

24. Handover: The automatic transfer of a user’s communication from one cell another
during the process of making a call without causing any hindrance to the call process.
Block diagram of mobile telephone handset

Figure 10: Block diagram of a mobile telephone handset

Making and receiving a call
When a cell phone is powered on, it listens for a SID on the control channel. If the phone cannot
find any control channel to listen to, it knows it is out of range and displays “No Service” on the
screen.
When it receives a SID, the phone compares the SID with the SID programmed into the phone,
and if it matches, then it knows that the cell it is communicating with is part of its home system.
The phone then transmits a registration request along its ESN and MIN, and the MSTO keeps
track of the call and the location on its database.
NB: Control Channel: it is a special frequency, which the base station uses to communicate
with other base stations, and the MSTO.
Role of the base station in making a call
 Initiates the call setup process by establishing connection between the phone handset.
 It monitors and optimizes the call quality to ensure clear and reliable communication.
 It facilitates signal transmission and reception.

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION
 P a g e | 17

 It oversees potential handovers, for uninterrupted connectivity, as the user moves within
the network.
Functions of a cell phone
 Primary function is for voice communication
 Can be used for text communication
 MP3 player
 Used as GPS
 Used as daily planner
 Used as disaster response in the event of a natural disaster (e.g. earthquake) to send text
messages as warning signs.
Differences between Radio Transmitter and a mobile telephone handset

Radio Transmitter Mobile telephone handset

Can only transmit signals Can transmit and receive signals
Transmits information directly Can only transmit information through a base station
High powered Low powered

Negative and some environmental effect of cell phones

 Release small amounts of radiations which can cause harm
 Poses general public nuisance in case of very loud ring tones
 Destruction of landscapes to plant cell phone base stations
 Electronic waste when bad

VIHYWUSEH_COMMUNICATION