Work Study & Ergonomics

Yerriswamy.w [Link],IE&M [Link],Bangalore

WORK MEASUREMENT

Work measurement:
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance. Work
measurement is a term used to describe family of techniques, such as
 Stop watch time study
 Work sampling
 Pre-determined Time Standards
 Standard data
Any one of these four techniques can be used to measure work.
Objectives of Work measurement:
(i.) To analyze the operations with the view that the improvement is to be done on
existing methods and to minimize the human effort.
(ii.) To establish and standardize the conditions for an efficient operation.
(iii.) To control man, machine and labour utilization by assessing the plant capacity
accurately.
(iv.) To standardize the standard of performance.
(v.) To determine the man/machine assignment.
(vi.) To determine the time standards to be used as a basis for wage payment to the
direct labour and for the future reference.
(vii.) To improve the operating efficiency.
The Purpose of Work measurement:
Method study is one of the principal technique by which the work involved in the product or
the process could be decreased by the systematic investigation and critical examination of
existing methods and processes and the development and installation of improved methods.
How ever, the reduction of actual work involved in the product or process to minimum
possible takes us only part of way towards achieving maximum productivity from the
resources of manpower and plant available. Even if the essential work is reduced to
minimum, there is quite likely to be a great deal of unnecessary time taken in the course of
manufacture, due to failure of the management to organize and control as efficiently as it
might, and beyond that, further time is likely to be wasted through the action or in-action of
workers.
Method study is the principal technique for reducing the work involved, primarily by
eliminating unnecessary movement on the part of material or operatives and by substituting
good method for poor ones. Work measurement is concerned with investigating, reducing
and subsequently eliminating ineffective time, that is time during which no effective work
being performed, whatever the cause.
Work measurement, as the name suggests, provides the management with a means of
measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of operations in such
a way that ineffective time is shown up and can be separated from effective time. Once the
existence of ineffective time has been revealed and reasons for it tracked down, steps can
usually be taken to reduce it.
Work measurement has another role to play. Not only can it reveal the existence of
ineffective time, it can also be used to set standard times for carrying out the work, so that, if
only ineffective time does creep in rates, it will immediately be shown up as an excess over
the standard time and will be bought to the attention of the management.
Method study can reveal shortcomings of design; material and method of manufacture, and,
as such affects mainly technical people.

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Work measurement is more likely to show up the management itself and the behaviour of
workers. Because of this reason work measurement is opt to meet with far greater resistance
than method study.
Just as method study should precede work measurement in any organization that takes
place, so must the elimination of ineffective time due to management shortcomings precede
any attack on the ineffective time with in the control of the workers.
Uses of work measurement:
 To compare the efficiency of alternative methods other conditions being equal, the
method which takes the least time will be the best method.
 To balance work among members of teams.
 To Determine number of machines an operative can run.
 To provide information on which the planning and scheduling of production can be
based, including plant and labour requirements for carrying out the work.
 To provide information on which delivery dates can be estimated.
 To set standards of machine utilization and labour performance.
 To determine time standards which can be used as a basis for payment of wage
incentives.
It is thus clear that work measurement provides the basic information necessary for all the
activities of organizing and controlling the work of an enterprise.
The basic procedure of work measurement:
1. SELECT: the work to be studied.
2. RECORD: all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which work is being done,
the methods and the elements of activity in them.
3. EXAMINE: the recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically to ensure that the
most effective method and motions are being used and that unproductive and foreign
elements are separated from productive elements.
4. MEASURE: the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time, using
appropriate work measurement technique.
5. COMPILE: the standard time for the operation (in stop watch time study it will include
application of rating factor and allowances).
6. DEFINE: precisely the series of activities and methods of operation for which the time
has been compiled and issue time as standard for the activities and methods specified.
Select, record, Examine and Measure quantity of work performed using

Predetermined
Work Sampling or Stop watch time or Time Standard
study (PTS)

COMPILE COMPILE

With allowances to COMPILE To get standard

get standard time of time of operation
operations
Module 3- Work MeasurementTo& establish standard
Time Study
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Fig: Work Measurement

WORK SAMPLING
Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by
statistical sampling and random observation.
Work sampling is a fact-finding tool. It is used to obtain information about men or machines in
less time and at lower cost.

Work sampling has three main uses:

(1) Activity and delay sampling- to measure the activities and delays of workers or
machines. Ex: to determine the percentage of the day that a person is working and the
percentage that he or she is not working.
(2) Performance sampling- to measure working time and non working time of a person on a
manual task and to establish a performance index or performance level for the person during
his or her working time.
(3) Work measurement: under certain circumstances, to measure a manual task, that is, to
establish a time standard for an operation.
Work sampling is based upon the laws of probability. A sample taken at random from a large
group tends to have the same pattern of distribution as the large group or universe. If the
sample is large enough, the characteristics of the sample will differ but little from the
characteristics of the group. Sample is the term used for this small number and population or
universe is the term used for the large group. Obtaining and analyzing only a part of the
universe is known as sampling.

The Need for work sampling:

In order to obtain a complete and accurate picture of the productive time and idle time of
number of machines in a specific production area, it is necessary to observe continuously all
the machines in that area and to record when and why any of the machines where stopped.
This of course will be laborious and uneconomical because number of observers (equal to
number of machines) has to spend all their time in observing machines working and idle
time. Therefore in order to obtain percentage of working and percentage of idle time of
machines, work sampling technique is used, in which only one observer will make tours of
the shop at random intervals of time, noting which machines are working and which are
stopped and noting the cause of each stoppage. Deciding on the reason for stoppage
suitable recommendations will be used, number of observations in which machines found
working divided by total number of observations gives percentage working time of machines
to increase utility.

Determination of Sample Size

The work sampling technique is similar to the sampling technique used in statistical quality
control where conclusions about the proportion defective items ‘P’ in a large number of items
is to be drawn after observing the proportion defective ‘P’ in a suitably selected sample of
size ‘n’ from the large number of items.
In work sampling the instants of random observations during a specified period of time may
be considered to constitute the sample from large time horizon. Then from the ratio ‘P’ of the
number of non-working (say) period observations to total number of random observations

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during the specified time interval, conclusions about the proportion P of activity (non working)
with respect to total time is to be made.
The question- how far the actual proportion, p may p’ be found in a sample size n depart can
be answered by finding a suitable indicator for measuring the error which will be measure of
sampling variations.
This indicator is the standard deviation of p’ for sample size n, which is also termed as

standard error of proportion and is given by,

For large n (if n  30) the above expression may be approximated without too much error as

and normal distribution of the error of proportion may be assumed. When p

is unknown the average value of p’ computed from previous samples may be used in place
of p and the following confidence level statements may be made.
(i) 68% of the time p will lie with in p’   p.
(ii) 95% of the time p will lie with in p’  1.96  p
(iii) 99% of the time p will lie with in p’  2.58  p
as well as defining the confidence level for our observation, margin of error that can be
allowed for these observations are to be available i.e., “we are confident that say, for 95% of
the time this particular observation is within  5% or 10% of what ever other range of
accuracy we may decide on”.
The formula for determining the number of observations required is given by P.S.= K  p = K

Where, P= percentage occurrence of the activity (working or non working) being measured in
fraction.
S= error (accuracy required) in fraction.
K= a factor, the value of which depends on the desired confidence level. for ex, for 95%
confidence level, k=1.96
n= number of observations required for the desired confidence level and margin of error.
Using the estimated value of ‘p’, value of n is determined satisfying the confidence level and
accuracy constraint.

Random Observations
In designing the work sampling study a time schedule should be prepared for taking
observations. Work sampling, to be statistically acceptable, requires that each individual
moment have an equal opportunity of being chosen. In other words, the observations must
be random, unbiased and independent.
The use of a table of random numbers is perhaps the best method of ensuring that the
sample is random. The table will serve, first of all
 To determine the time of day that an observation should be made
 It may also be sued to indicate the order in which the operators should be observed or
 The specific location in the department or plant where a reading should be taken.

In table the first number is 950622. The first digit of this number might indicate the hour and
the second and third digits the minutes. Thus, 950 would indicate 9.50 or 9:30 o’ clock. The
second half of this number, 622. Might be read as 6.22 or approximately 6:13 o’ clock. Since
this plant operates only during the periods 8:00 am to 12:00 and 1:00 pm to 5:00 pm this

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number would be discarded because it falls outside the working period and next number is
considered. Observations usually are not made during lunch periods.
Observer would start type trip through the departments or plant at a different place each
time. The location for starting could also be selected by using the random number table. The
number 9506 might indicate that this trip start at 9:30 am ad that it begin with department 6.
The observer also might change direction and path of travel in going from department to
department, in order to achieve a greater degree of randomness. By proper use of this table,
a list of random times of any desired length can be obtained. If 25 or less sampling times are
planned for a day. One column will be sufficient. After the column selected has been
translated into clock times, those times falling in scheduled rest and lunch periods are
eliminated if the number of sampling times remaining is greater than planned, the number to
the left of certain times are used to reduce the list of the desired number. These auxiliary
numbers indicate the order in which the times were originally selected from the random
number table. In order to maintain the randomness of the list, numbers should be eliminated
from the list in reverse order of their selection. Thus if only 20 sampling trips were planned
then remaining i.e., (25), (26) … will be omitted.

Steps in making work sampling

The following steps re usually required in making work-sampling study.
1. Define the problem:
(a) State the main objectives or purpose of the project or problem.
(b) Describe in detail each element to be measured.
2. Obtain the approval of the supervisor of the department in which the work sampling study
is to be made. Make certain that the operators to be studied and the other people in the
department understand the purpose of the study- obtain their cooperation.
3. Determine the desired accuracy of the final results. This may be stated as the standard
error of a percentage or desired accuracy or as the absolute error or desired absolute
accuracy. The confidence level should be stated.
4. Make a preliminary estimate of the percentage occurrence of the activity or delay to be
measured. This may be based on past experience; however, it is usually preferable to
make a one-day or two day preliminary work sampling study.
5. Design the study:
(a) Determine the number of observations to be made;
(b) Determine the number of observers needed. Select and instruct these people;
(c) Determine the number of days or shits needed for the study;
(d) Make detailed plans for taking the observations, such as the time and the route to be
followed by the observer;
(e) Design the observation form.
6. Make the observations according to the plan. Analyze and summarize the data.
(a) Make the observations and record the data;
(b) Summarize the data at the end of each day;
(c) Determine the control limits;
(d) Plot the data on the control chart at the end of each day.
7. Check the accuracy or precision of the data at end of the study.
8. Prepare the report and state conclusions. Make recommendations if such are called for.

Advantages of work sampling in comparison with time study

(i) Many operations or activities which are impractical or costly to measure by time study
can readily be measured by work sampling.

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(ii) A simultaneous work sampling study of several operators or machines may be made
by a single observer. Ordinarily an analyst is needed for each operator or machine
when continuous time studies are made.
(iii) It usually requires fewer man-hours and costs less to make a work sampling study
than it does to make continuous time study. The cost may be as little as 5 to 50% of
the cost of continuous time study.
(iv) Observations may be taken over a period of days or weeks, thus decreasing the
chance of day-to-day or week-to-week variations affecting the results.
(v) It is not necessary to use trained time study analysts as observers for work sampling
studies unless performance sampling is required. If a time standard or a performance
index is to be established, however, then an experienced time study analyst must be
used.
(vi) A work sampling study may be interrupted at any time without affecting the results.
(vii) Work sampling measurement may be made with a pre-assigned degree of reliability.
Thus, the results are more meaningful to those not conversant with the methods used
in collecting the information.
(viii) With work sampling the analyst makes an instantaneous observation of the operator
at random intervals during the working day, thus making prolonged time studies
unnecessary.
(ix) Work sampling studies are less fatiguing and less tedious to make on the part of the
observer.
(x) Work sampling studies are preferred to continuous time studies by the operators
being studied. Some people do not like to be observed continuously for long period of
time.
(xi) A stopwatch is not needed for work sampling studies. If an electronic data collector is
used the results are shown on a computer print out.

Disadvantages of Work Sampling

(i) Ordinarily work sampling is not economical for studying a single operator or a
machine or for studying operators or machines located over wide areas. The observer
spends too much time walking to and from the work place or walking from one work
place to another. Also, time study standard data or predetermined time data are
preferred for establishing time standards for short cycle repetitive operations.
(ii) Time study permits a finer break down of activities and delays than is possible with
work sampling. Work sampling cannot provide as much detailed information as one
can get from time study.
(iii) The operator may change his or her work pattern upon sight of observer. If this
occurs, the results of such a work sampling study may be of little value.
(iv) A work sampling study made of a group obviously presents average results, and
there is no information as to the magnitude of the individual differences.
(v) Management and workers may not understand statistical work sampling as readily as
they do time study.
(vi) In certain kinds of work sampling studies, no record is made of the method used by
the operator. Therefore, an entirely new study must be made when a method change
occurs in any element.
(vii) There is a tendency on the part of some observer to minimize the importance of
following the fundamental principles of work sampling, such as the proper sample
size for a given degree of accuracy, randomness in making the observations,
instantaneous observation at the pre-assigned location, and careful definition of the
elements or subdivisions of work or delay before the study is started.
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TIME STUDY
Definition: Time study is defined as a work measurement technique for recording of the
times and rates of working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified
condition and for analyzing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for carrying out the
job at a defined level of performance.
Time study is used to determine the time required by a qualified and well-trained person
working at a normal pace to do a specified task.

Uses of time study:

Time study has greatest application in connection with wage incentives, it also includes
 Determining schedules and planning work.
 Determining standard costs and as an aid in preparing budgets.
 Estimating the cost of a product before manufacturing it. Such information is of value in
preparing bids and in determining selling price.
 Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can
operate and as an aid in balancing assembly lines and work done on a conveyor.
 Determining time standards to be used as a basis for the payment of wages of a wage
incentive to direct labour and indirect labour.
 Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labour cost control.

TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT

The equipment needed for time study work consists of a timing device and an observation
board.
The devices most commonly used for measuring work are
1) Stop watch or electronic timer.
2) Motion picture camera (with constant speed motor drive or with a micro chronometer in
the picture to indicate time) and
3) Electronic data collector and computer.

(1) Stopwatch and Electronic timers:

The stopwatch and electronic timers are the most widely used timing device for time study.
The electronic timer, which performs the same function as the stop watch, is sometimes
referred to as an electronic stopwatch.
Three types of stopwatches are used for time study:
(i) The fly back type
(ii) The non-fly back type
(iii) The split hands stop watch type.
All the above types may have any one of the following three graduations in them:
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 Recording one minute per revolution with the smallest graduation of 1/5 th of a second,
with a small hand recording 30 minutes.
 Recording one minute per revolution with the smallest graduation of 1/100 th of a minute,
with a small hand recording 30 minutes.
 Recording 1/100th of an hour per revolution with the smallest graduation of 1/10000th of an
hour, with a small hand recording 1 hour.
The versatility of 2nd type of stop watches can further be extended by incorporating an
optional scale, usually in red, providing graduations in seconds and fifths of second, outside
the main scale.
A fly back decimal minute stopwatch having the smallest graduation representing 1/100 th of a
minute (i.e., the second type) is the most extensively used one. A typical stopwatch is shown
in figure (a). Such a watch is operated with the help of a slide.
Which when slided anti-clockwise starts the recording while when slided clockwise ceases
the recording. A subsequent sliding in the anti-clockwise direction initiates further starting of
the measurement in continuance with the previous recording unless the winding knob.
Is used to restore zero setting of both the measuring indices (hand).
Such facilities allow recording of time in either fly back or cumulative mode depending on
whether or not the zeros are restored before every individual observation. This type of
stopwatch is used more because of convenience of calculator and subsequent analysis.
A= slide for stopping and starting the movement.
B= winding knob. Pressure on this knob returns both the hands to zero.
Fig: Decimal minute stop watch.
(ii) Stop watches of non-fly back type: these watches are put into operation by applying
pressure on the winding knob (the only knob) and is stopped by applying pressure on the
same knob for the second time; the zero setting is obtained pressing the knob for the third
time. Such a device would however give cumulative timing.
(iii) Split hand stopwatches: In this there exist two sets of indices (hands) instead of one
set as in other types. Pressing a secondary knob makes one of the indices (hands) to come
to a still condition while the other continues to move. A second press of the same knob put
back the indices (hands) along with the other set. So when a particular reading is being
recorded with one of the indices (hands) in still condition, the measurement of subsequent
elements goes on with the second index (hands), which continues to move. Such a system
because of its versatility facilities more accurate recording but at the same time because
more expensive and complex in so far as maintenance is concerned because of the
additional feature.

2. The motion Picture camera and Video equipment:

The time for the elements of an operation can be obtained from motion pictures of the
operation made with synchronous motor-driven motion picture camera of known speed, or by
placing a micro chronometer in the picture when the operation is filmed.
The camera speed most frequently used is 1000 frames per minute, which permits the
measurement of time in thousandths of a minute. A motion picture of an operation forms a
permanent record of the method used as well as the time taken for each element of the
operation. Moreover, the film may be projected at the exact speed at which the picture was
made, and a check may be made of the operator’s performance.
In other words, the operator’s speed or tempo may be rated- that is , rated to standard
performance. Camera speed greater than 1000 frames per minute may of course be used.
The video camera and recorder operate at a constant speed of 30 frames per minute and
identification numbers indicating the scene, the hour, minute, second and frame appear at
the top or bottom edge of the frame. The frame number begins with zero and each frame is
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numbered consecutively. Thus there is a positive and direct way of identifying each frame
and of measuring time.

3. Electronic Data Collector and computer:

An electronic data collector and computer simplify making of time studies. The analyst using
the hand held unit collects data and the computer performs the clerical work- makes the
computations, analyses and summarizes the data and computes the time standard. This
equipment may also be used for work sampling, down time studies, production studies and
other event recording.

Stop Watch time study

The exact procedure used in making time study may vary depending upon the type of
operation and the application of time standards made.

Steps in making stop watch time study are:

(i) Selecting the job to be studied: Selecting the worker.
(ii) Recording all the information available about the job, operatives and surrounding
conditions.
(iii) Dividing the operation into elements and recording complete description of the
method.
(iv) Determining number of cycles to be timed by conducting preliminary study.
(v) Using the stopwatch measure the time taken by the operative to perform each
element of operation and record the same.
(vi) At the same time, rate the operator’s performance.
(vii) Extend the “observed time” to “basic times”.
(viii) Determine the allowances to be made over and about the basic time for the
operation.
(ix) Determine the “standard time” for the operation.

I. Selecting the job to be studied:

The first step in time study is to select the job to be studied. Some possible reasons for
selecting particular job are:
 The job in question is a new one, not previously carried out.
 A change in material or method of working has been made and a new time standard is
required.
 A compliant received about the time standard of an operation.
 A particular operation appears to be a ‘bottleneck’ holding up subsequent operations.
 Standard times are required for an incentive scheme to be introduced.
 To compare the efficiency of two proposed methods.
 The cost of particular job appears to be excessive.
Selection of worker:
If more than one person is performing the same operation, the time study analyst may time
one or more of the operators.
If all the operators are using exactly the same method that is, the one prescribed for the job,
and if there is a difference in the tempo at which the operators work, it is customary to time
the operator working at nearest to the normal pace. Because a rating factor is sued to
evaluate the operator’s speed, theoretically it makes no difference whether the slowest or
fastest operator is timed. However, it is admitted more difficult to rate correctly the
performance of very slow operator. It is not desirable to time a beginner, because the method

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is seldom the same as it will be when this person has attained greater proficiency through
experience on the job.
If a choice of worker is available, question arises whether to choose an average worker or a
qualified worker. In time study, the choice among two is a qualified worker.
Average or Representative worker- is one whose skill and performance is the average of the
group under consideration. He need not necessarily be a qualified worker.
Qualified worker- is one who is acceptable as having the necessary physical attributes, who
possesses the required intelligence and education, and who has acquired the necessary skill
and knowledge to carryout the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quality and
quantity.

II. Recording all the information available about the job, operative and surrounding
conditions:
Information to be recorded will depend on the type of work and it will be recorded before
starting the actual study from direct observation. Information recorded may include
 Study number,
 Sheet number and number of sheets,
 Name of the work-study man,
 Date of study,
 Name of product,
 Drawing and quality requirement,
 Department or location,
 Tools, jigs and fixtures and gauges used,
 Sketch of work place layout,
 Name of the operative.
Information recorded regarding working conditions may include:
 Temperature,
 Humidity,
 Adequacy of light, etc.

III. Dividing the operation into elements and recording a complete description of the
method:
An element is a distinct part of a specified job selected for convenience of observation,
measurement and analysis.
A work cycle is the sequence of elements, which are required to perform a job or to yield a
unit of production.
Timing an entire operation as one element is seldom satisfactory. Breaking the operation into
short elements and timing each of them separately are essential parts of stop watch time
study, for the following reasons:
 To ensure that productive work (or effective time) is separated from unproductive activity
(or ineffective time).
 To permit the rate of working to be assessed more accurately than could be possible if
the assessment were made over a complete cycle. The operative may not work at the
same pace throughout the cycle and tend to perform some elements more quickly than
others.
 To enable the different types of elements to be identified and distinguished, so that each
may be accorded the treatment appropriate to its type.
 To enable elements involving a high degree of fatigue to be isolated and to make the
allocation of fatigue allowances more accurate.

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 To facilitate checking the method so that the subsequent omission or insertion of

elements may be detected quickly. This becomes necessary if at a future date the time
standard for the job is queried.
 To enable time values for frequently recurring elements, such as the operation of
machine control, loading and unloading work pieces from fixtures, to be extracted and
used in the compilation of standard data.

Rules for dividing operation into elements:

There are some general rules concerning the way in which operation (or job) should be
broken down into elements. They are
(i) Elements should be easily identifiable, with definite beginning and endings so that,
once established they can be repeatedly recognized.
(ii) Elements should be divided in such a way that it is convenient for a trained observer to
time it.
(iii) Manual elements should be separated from machine elements.
(iv) Variable elements should be separated from constant elements.
(v) As far as possible, elements- particularly manual ones should be chosen so that they
represent naturally unified and recognizably distinct segment of operation.

Types of elements:
Eight types of elements are distinguished and the definition of each element is as follows:
(i)Repetitive element- is an element, which occurs in every cycle of job. Ex: (1) the
element of picking up a part prior to an assembly operation. (2) The element of locating a
work piece in holding device, putting aside a finished product, etc.
(ii) An Occasional element- is an element which does not occur in every work cycle of the
job, but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals. Ex: adjusting the tension or
machine setting, receiving instructions from foreman.
The occasional element is useful work and a part of the job it will be incorporated in final
standard time.
(iii) A constant element – is an element for which the basic time remains constant whether
it is performed. Ex: Switching on machine, gauge diameter, insert a particular cutting tool into
machine, etc.
(iv) A variable element- is an element for which basic time varies in relation to some
characteristics of the product, equipment or process. Ex: Cutting a bar with handsaw (time
varies with hardness and diameter).
(v) A manual element- an element of operation performed by a worker.
(vi) Machine element- is an element of operation automatically performed by a power driven
machine.
(vii) Governing element- is an element occupying a longer time than that of nay other
element, which is being performed concurrently. Ex (1) turning a job to a particular diameter
on a lathe, while gauging from time to time.
(2) Develop photographic negative, while agitating the solution occasionally.
(viii) A Foreign element- is an element observed during a study, which after analysis, is not
found to be a necessary part of the job. Ex: degreasing a part that has still to be machined
further.

IV. Determining Number of Cycles to be timed by conducting preliminary study:

Work cycle is the sequence of elements, which are required to perform a job or yield a unit of
production. The sequence may sometimes include occasional elements. The time required to
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perform the elements of an operation may be expected to vary slightly from cycle to cycle.
Even if the operator worked at a uniform pace, each element of consecutive cycles would not
always be performed in exactly the same time; variation in time may be due to following
reasons:
 Natural variability because of the characteristics of human behavior.
 Variation in locations of tools and materials from cycle to cycle.
 Variation in the quality of material and many other chance causes.
 Variation in reading stopwatch by a work-study man.
A decision must be made with respect to the confidence level and the desired accuracy, that
are to be used in determining number of observations.
A 95% confidence level and  5% accuracy are commonly used in time study.

N= for 95% confidence level and  5% accuracy.

N= for 90% confidence level and  10% accuracy.

Where, N= number of observations required.

n’ = number of observations made.
Xi = individual time value.
V. Timing each element:
After the operation is divided into elements and written down, timing can start.
Three principle methods of timing with stopwatch are:
(i) Cumulative timing
(ii) Fly back timing
(iii) Differential timing.
(i) Cumulative timing: in this method, the time study observer will start the stop watch at the
beginning of the first element in a cycle of operation and he will record the time indicated by
stop watch at the end of each element without stopping the stop watch. The individual
elemental times are obtained by successive subtractions after study is completed.
Cumulative timing has the advantage that, even if an element is missed or some occasional
activity not recorded. This will have no effect on the overall time.
Another advantage of cumulative timing over fly back method is accuracy. Errors in timing do
not occur in cumulative timing.
Disadvantage of cumulative timing is the additional calculation involved in calculating
individual elemental times.
(ii) Fly back timing (Snap back or Repetitive timing): in this method of timing the hands of
stop watch are returned to zero at the end of each element and are allowed to start
immediately. The time for each element being obtained directly.
At the beginning of the first element the observer stops the hand back to zero by pressing the
stem of the watch. The hand moving forward instantly begins to measure the time for the first
element. At the end of the first element the observer records the watch, snaps the hand back
to zero, and then records this reading. In a like manner the observer times the rest of the
elements. This method of timing gives the direct time without subtractions and the data are
recorded on the observation sheet as read from the watch.
In fly back method, error in reading the watch may be added to the slight delay, which occurs
when the hand is snapped back to zero. The percentage error becomes greater for short
elements. Therefore, this method is suitable for jobs with longer elements and cycles.
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(iii) Differential timing: this method of timing is used for short elements, short cycle work.
This method is best suited for timing elements, which are very short that there is not enough
time for the study man to read his watch and make a recording on his study sheet. In this
method elements are timed in groups, first including and then excluding each small element.
The time for each element being obtained subsequently by subtraction.
For ex, if the job consists of 7 elements, let study man time the elements from 1-4 in first
cycle (t1) and 2-4 elements in (t2). t1-t2 gives time for element 1. In the same fashion time for
all the 7 elements can be obtained.

VI. Rating:
Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working relative to the observer’s concept of
the rate corresponding to standard pace.
By definition, rating is a comparison of the rate of working observed by the work-study man
with a picture of some standard level, which he is holding in his mind.
Rating is that process during which the time study analyst compares the performance (speed
or tempo) of the operator under observation with the observer’s own concept of normal
performance.
Systems of rating:
1. Skill and effort rating
2. Westing house system of rating
3. Synthetic rating
4. Objective rating
5. Physiological evaluation
6. Performance
(1)Skill and effort rating: In 1916 Bedaux introduced this method of rating. In this system of
rating the rating is assessed considering skill of operator and effort put in by the operator.
Bedaux used 60 points or B’s equal to standard performance. In other words, an operator
working at a normal pace was expected to produce 60 Bs per hour and it was expected that
the average increase pace would be around 70 to 85 points per hour (i.e., any thing more
than or less than normal pace will be assessed accordingly).
(2) Westing House System of rating: this system of rating was developed at westing house
in 1927. This method used four factors like (i) Skill, (ii) Effort; (iii) Conditions and (iv)
Consistency.
A scale of numerical values for each factor is given below
Skill Effort
+0.15 A1 Super skill +0.13 A1 Excessive
+0.13 A2 +0.12 A2
+0.11 B1 Excellent +0.10 B1 Excellent
+0.08 B2 +0.08 B2
+0.06 C1 Good +0.05 C1 Good
+0.03 C2 +0.02 C2
0.00 D Average 0.00 D Average
-0.05 E1 Fair -0.04 E1 Fair
-0.10 E2 -0.08 E2
-0.16 F1 Poor -0.12 F1 Poor
-0.22 F2 -0.17 F2

Conditions Consistency
+0.06 A Ideal +0.04 A Ideal

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+0.04 B Excellent +0.03 B Excellent

+0.02 C Good +0.01 C Good
0.00 D Average 0.00 D Average
-0.03 E Fair -0.02 E Fair
-0.07 F Poor -0.04 F Poor

Time study man evaluates these 4 factors and selects values from table and sum of these
values added to 1 will give rating of the operator.
For ex: if the operation time of an operation was 0.50 min and if rating were as follows:

Excellent skill, B2 +0.08

Good effort, C2 +0.02
Good condition, C +0.02
Good consistency, C +0.01
Total + 0.13
Rating factor= 1+0.13=1.13
Basic time for operation = 0.5 x 1.13=0.565 min
(3) Synthetic rating: in this method, operators speed is evaluated from predetermined time
values. Time study is conducted in usual manner and operation time is obtained for
elements. Then ratio of predetermined time for element to operation time is obtained.
This ratio gives the rating factor
R=P/A
Where, R= Performance rating factor
P= Predetermined time for the element, expressed in minute.
A= observed time or average actual time value (selected time) for the same element P
expressed in minute.
(4) Objective Rating: in this method operator’s speed is rated against a single standard
pace, which is independent of job difficulty. The observer merely rates speed of movement or
rate of activity, paying no attention to the job itself. After rating is made, an allowance or a
secondary adjustment is added to the rating to take care of job difficulty. The adjustment
depends on factors like:
 Amount of body used.
 Foot pedals
 Bimanualness
 Eye-hand coordination
 Handling requirements and
 Weight
(5) Physiological Evaluation: heart rate in beats per minute and oxygen consumption in
calories/min can be used to measure physiological cost involved in performing work.
In this method operator is asked to perform job for which there is a time standard. If operator
performs job at standard performance level, time taken to complete job will be equal to
standardization and consumption of O2 and heartbeat is measured. Based on these values
(consumption of O2 and heart beat) rating factor is decided for elements for which time
standards has to be obtained.
(6) Performance Rating (Speed rating): this method is most widely used. This method of
rating is based on a single factor i.e., operator’s speed. Rating factor may be expressed in
either percentage or pints or any other units, usually it is expressed in percentage.

Rating scales
There are 4 distinct rating scales in use; among them first one is most widely used.
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The 4 scales are:

(i) Scale A-100 percent equal’s normal performance.
(ii) Scale B- 60 point’s equal normal performance.
(iii) Scale C- 125 point’s equal’s incentive performance.
(iv) Scale D- 100 percent equal incentive performance.
(i) Scale A- 100 percent equals Normal performance: on scale a normal speed of working
(standard performance) is equal to 100%. It is expected that the average incentive pace will
fall within the range of 115 to 145 and the average for entire group will be around 130%.
(ii) Scale B- 60 points equals’ normal performance: on scale B normal speed of working
(standard performance) is equal to 60 points. It is expected that incentive pace will fall within
the range of 70 to 85 points.
(iii) Scale c- 125 percent equals incentive performance: In this scale “average incentive
pace” is used as standard. A company might adopt 125% as the point at which it would like
to have the average output fall. Therefore, it tries to determine time standard, at which output
will be more by 25%. If this time standard is achieved by worker he will get 25% more to his
hourly base rate.
(iv) Scale D -100 percent equals incentive performance: a few organizations use a scale
having 100% equal to “average incentive pace”. This point is usually set 20% above normal
performance. Therefore, 80% equals normal performance on this scale.

Standard Performance: It is the rate of output which qualified worker will naturally achieve
without over exertion as an average over the working day or shift, provided that they know
and adhere to the specified method and provided that they are motivated to apply
themselves to their work.
Rating of job at standard performance is known as standard rating. Standard rating depends
on scale chosen. On 0-100 scale standard performance is rated as 100 and it is known as
standard rating.

Rating factor:
It is used to convert observed time to basic time (normal time).

Rating factor =

Basic time= Observed time * Rating factor

Rating scale: it is the series of numerical indices given to various rates of working. The scale
is linear.

VII. Extending observed time to basic time:

Note: Basic time = normal time.
Observed time:- time taken to perform an element or combination of elements by means of
direct measurement using stop watch.
Basic time: - it is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating.

Rating factor =

Basic time= Observed time * Rating factor

Basic time =

If observed rating is greater than standard rating then basic time > operation time.
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If observed rating is less than standard rating then basic time is less than operation time.

VIII. Allowances:
Allowances are provided for two important reasons:
(i) To recover from fatigue.
(ii) To attend his/her personal needs.

PERSONAL
NEEDS
FIXED
ALLOWANCES
RELAXATION TOTAL
BASIC ALLOWANCES ALLOWANCES
FATIGUE

CONTINGENCY
ALLOWANCES
Stress and Strain BASIC
VARIABLEALL TIME
Environmental OWANCES
POLICY
ALLOWANCES

WORK
SPECIAL CONTENT
Where Applicable ALLOWANCES

1. Relaxation Allowances:
Relaxation Allowance is an addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with the
opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying out
specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. The
amount of allowances will depend on the nature of the job.
Relaxation Allowances have two major components:
(i) Fixed allowances and (ii) Variable allowances.
(i)Fixed allowances: are composed of Allowance for personal needs
Allowance for basic fatigue.
Allowance for personal needs- this allowance provides for the necessity to leave the
workplace to attend to personal needs such as washing, going to the lavatory and for
drinking water. This allowance may range from 5% to 7% of basic time.
Allowances for basic fatigue- this allowance, always a constant, is given to take account of
the energy expended while carrying out work and to alleviate monotony. This allowance is
4% of basic time. This is considered to be adequate for a worker who carried out the job
while seated, who is engaged on light work in good working conditions, and who is called
upon to make only normal use of hands, legs and senses.
Allowance for fatigue are normally added element by element to the basic times. So that a
work value for each element is built-up separately, the element standard time being
combined to yield the standard time for the whole job or operation.
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(ii) Variable allowances:

Variable allowances are added to fixed allowances when working conditions differ markedly
from those stated above, for instance because of poor environmental conditions that cannot
be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job in question, etc.
Relaxation allowances are given as percentages of the basic time. They are normally
calculated on an element-by-element basis. This is particularly the case when the effort
expended on different elements varies widely (for ex: where a heavy work piece has to be
lifted on or off a machine at the beginning and end of an operation.)
If, on the other hand, all the elements of a job involves same effort and causes some fatigue.
The simplest way is to add up all the elemental basic time first and then add the allowances
as single percentage to the total.

2. Contingency allowances:
A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time, which may be included in a standard
time to meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays, the precise measurement of
which is uneconomical because of their infrequent or irregular occurrence.
In other words, this allowance is provided for small unavoidable delays as well as for
occasional and minor extra work.
Contingency allowances are always very small and it is usually expressed as a percentage of
basic time. Contingency allowances should not be greater than 5% and it is given only on the
recommendation of the time study man.
3. Policy Allowances:
A policy allowance is an increment, other than bonus increment, applied to standard time (or
to some consistent part of it ex: work content) to provide a satisfactory level of earnings for a
specified level of performance under exceptional circumstances.
Policy allowances are not a genuine part of time study and should be used with utmost
caution and only on clearly defined circumstances. They should always be dealt with quite
separately from basic times, and if used at all, should preferably be arranged as an addition
to standard times, so as not to interfere with the time standards set by time study.
4. Special allowances
Special allowances may be given for any activities which are not normally part of the
operation cycle but which are essential to the satisfactory performance of the work. Such
allowances may be permanent or temporary; care should be taken to specify which of these
allowances should be determined by time study.

IX. Standard time

Standard time is the total time in which a job should be completed at standard performance,
with the provision for allowances.
The standard time for the job will be the sum of the standard times for all the elements of
which it is made up, due regards being paid to the frequencies with which the elements
recur, plus the contingency allowances (with its relaxation allowance increment). The
standardOBSERVED
time may be represented graphically
TIME as shownRELAXATION
RATING in figure. CONTINGENCY ALLOWANCE
FACTOR ALLOWANCE

Unavoidable
(If performed at a pace greater WORK Delay
than standard pace)

BASIC TIME
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STANDARD TIME
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF WORKING:

Variations in actual time for a particular element may be due to:

(i) Factors outside the control of workers.
(ii) Factors within the control of workers.

(i) Factors outside the workers control may be

 Variations in the quality or other characteristics of the material used, although
they may be within the prescribed tolerance limits.
 Changes in the operating efficiency of tools or equipment within their useful
life.
 Minor and unavoidable changes in methods or conditions of operation.
 Variations in the mental attention necessary for the performance of certain
elements.
 Changes in climatic and other surrounding conditions such as light and
temperature.
These are generally be accounted for by taking a sufficient number of studies to ensure that
a representative sample of time is obtained.

(ii)Factors within worker control may be:

 Acceptable variations in the quality of the product.
 Variations due to his ability.
 Variations due to his attitude of mind, especially his attitude to the organization for
which he works.
The factors within the worker’s control can affect the time of similarly described elements of
work by affecting:
 The pattern of his movement
 His working pace
 Both, in varying proportions.

PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME STUDY (PMTS)

A Predetermined Time Standard (PTS) is a work measurement technique whereby times
established to the basic human notions (classified according to the nature of the motion and
the conditions under which it is made) are used to build up the time for a job at a definite
level of performance.
Predetermined time systems are advanced techniques aiming at defining the time needed for
the performance of various operations by derivation from pre-set standards of time for
various elementary motions involved in such operations and not by direct observation and
measurement.
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PTS systems are techniques for synthesizing operation times from the standard time data for
basic elementary motions comprising the operation.
Predetermined time systems include:
(i) Methods Time measurement (MTM)
(ii) Work Factor (WF)
Components of basic predetermined time standard are:
Motion Description
REACH Move hand to destination
GRASP Select control of object with finger
MOVE Move the object
POSITION Lineup and engage object
RELEASE Let the object go
BODY MOTIONS Leg, trunk movement
Use of Predetermined time systems:
The main uses may be divided into the following two classes:
1. Work methods
 Improving existing methods
 Evaluating proposed methods in advance of actual production.
 Evaluating suggested designs of tools, jigs and equipment
 Aiding in the design of the product.
 Training members of the staff to become motion minded.
 Aiding in training operators.

2. Work measurement
 Establishing time standards
 Compilation of standard data and formulas for specific class of work.
 Checking standards established by time study
 Auditing time standards
 Estimating labour costs
 Balancing production lines.
The major advantage of a PTS system in comparison with time study is that such a system
makes it possible to predetermine the standard time for a job or activity if the motion pattern
is known. One can determine in advance how long it will take to perform an operation in the
shop. Merely be examining a drawing of the workplace layout and a description of the
method. Similarly, an accurate evaluation can be made of several different work method
designs or different tool designs.
It can be used for establishing standard data for various classes of machines and equipment,
this expediting the actual setting of time standards for jobs to be performed on such
equipment.
PTS systems are usually simple, easy to apply and are very fast particularly for High
operations
level
having very short repetitive timend cycles.
2 level (MTM-2) 3 level (MTM-3)
rd
(Ex: MTM-V)
1ST level (MTM-1)
Ex: assembly working in the electronic industry.
Different forms of PTS systems

RELEASE, GET
REACH, Combination
GRASP HANDLE gives simple and
Complex
elements
MOVE
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Figure: PTS data levels: basic motions

Transition from the first level to second level and to third level represent synthesis of motions
while the 3rd level represents a complete work cycle. However, beyond the 3 rd level there are
as yet no clear-cut rules and hence classification vary according to the work area for which
the data are intended.
The universality of the application fields of PTS system vary widely.
PTS system provides information about manual work cycle in terms of basic human motions.
There are two main sets of criteria adopted for classification of these motions.
(i) Object related classification: employed in a majority of PTS system (like work factor,
dimensional motion times MTM-1) and virtually in all the data systems relating to main
occupational groups or specifically designed for use within a plant.
(ii) Behaviour related classification: this classifies motions according to what they look like
to be an observer, for ex, a movement of empty hand for a distance between 5 and 15 cm
followed by a grasping action made by a simple closing of the fingers defines the GET
motion in MTM-2 system.
Each PTS system has its own set of time values because of two main reasons: distance
classification norms adopted yield unique set of time data referring to different things and
choice of different time units as well as whether contingency allowances are added to motion
times or not. The other major reason is the different performance level implied in the time
data.

Methods Time Measurement (MTM)

The methods time measurement system of predetermined time standards was developed
from motion picture studies of industrial operation, and the time standards were first
published in 1948.
MTM system is defined as a procedure, which analyzes any manual operation, or method
into the basic motions required to perform it, and assigns to each motion a predetermined
time standard, which is determined by the nature of the motion and the conditions under
which it is made.

MTM family includes the following:

(i) MTM-GPD(General Purpose Data 1963)
(ii) MTM-1
(iii) MTM-2
(iv) MTM-3
(v) MTM-V
(vi) MTM-m
(vii) MTM-c
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(viii) 4m DATA
The unit of the MTM is T.M.U.
1 TMU= 0.00001 hour = 0.0006 minute,
TMU= Time Measured Unit

MTM-1: the basic motions are

(i) Reach (R)
(ii) Move (M)
(iii) Turn (T)
(iv) Apply Pressure (AP)
(v) Grasp (G)
(vi) Position (P)
(vii) Eye times (E)
(viii) Body, Leg & Foot Motions (B, L & FT)

1. Reach (R):
Reach is the basic element used when the predominant purpose is to move the hand or
finger to a destination. The time for making a reach varies with the following factors:
 Condition (nature of destination).
 Length of the motion and
 Type of reach
 Classes of Reach:
There are five classes of reach. The time to perform a reach is affected by the nature of the
object toward which the reach is made (nature of destination).
Case A reach; Case B reach; Case C reach.
Case A reach: to object in fixed location or to object in other hand or on which other hand
rests.
Case B reach: To single object whose general location is known. Location may vary slightly
from cycle to cycle.
Case C reach: to objects jumbled with other objects in a group so that search and select
occur.
Case D reach: to a very small object or where accurate grasp is required.
Case E reach: to indefinite location to get hand in position for body balance or next move or
out of way.
 Length of a motion is the true path, not just the straight line distance between the two
terminal points.
 Type of Reach:
There are 3 types of reach to be considered:
(i) Hand is not moving at beginning and at end of reach.
(ii) Hand is moving at either beginning or end of reach and
(iii) Hand is in motion at both beginning and end of reach.

2. Move (M)
Move is the basic element used when the predominant purpose is to transport an object to a
destination. The time for move is affected by the following variables:
(i) Condition (nature of destination)
(ii) Length of the motion
(iii) Type of move and
(iv) Weight factor, static and dynamic
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(i) There are three classes of move:

Case A move: object to other hand or against stop.
Case B move: object to approximate or indefinite location.
Case C move: object in exact location

(ii) Length of motion: it is the true path, not just the straight-line distance between starts and
stop point, terminal point.
(iii) Type of move: there are 3 types of move to be considered
 Hand is not moving at beginning and at end of move
 Hand is moving at either beginning or end of move.
 Hand is in motion at both beginning and end of move.
Addition time is needed when an object is moved or free applied is above 7.5 pounds, as
indicated in MTM- move table.

3. Turn (T)
Turn is the motion employed to turn the hand, either empty or loaded by a movement that
rotates the hand, wrist and forearm about the long axis of the forearm.
Turn is the basic element used when the predominant purpose is to turn the hand, either
empty or loaded by a movement that rotates the hand, wrist and forearm about the long axis
of the forearm.
The time for a turn depends on 2 variables:
(i) Degree turned
(ii) Weight factor
(I)Angle of turn is indicated by degree
(ii) Weight factor:
 Small (S)-0 to 2 pounds (0 to 1 Kg)
 Medium (M)-2.1 to 10 pounds (1 to 5 Kg)
 Large (L)-10.1 to 35 pounds (5.1 to 16 Kg)

4. Apply Pressure (AP):

Apply pressure is an action with the purpose of exerting muscular force on an object.
The components of apply pressure are
 Apply Force (AF)
 Dwell, Minimum (Minimum Dwell) (DM)
 Release Force (RF)
The minimum dwell time covers mental reaction time only. Longer dwells time cover holding
action.
Apply pressure applies to the action of exerting muscular force on an object to achieve
control to restrain or to overcome resistance to motion.
MTM table may provide full cycle time or developments by the components as related to
other motions.
An example of apply pressure is the final tightening action made with a screwdriver or
spanner.

Full cycle time:

Symbol Description TMU

APA AF+DM+RLF x (10.6)
APB (apply pressure includes APA+G2 Y (16.2)
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regrasp)
Component time:

Symbol Description TMU

AF Apply Force x (3.4)
DM Dwell, Minimum Y (4.2)
RLF ReLease Force z (3.0)
5. Grasp (G)
Grasp is the basic element employed when the predominant purpose is to secure sufficient
control of one or more objects with the fingers or hand to permit the performance of the next
required basic element.
The time for grasp is affected by
 Nature of destination
 Type of grasp
The classes of grasp with the description of each type are as follows:
Type of grasp Case Time, Description
TMU
1A 2.0 Any size (small, medium or large) object by itself,
easily grasped
1B 3.5 Object very small or lying close against a flat surface
1C1 7.3 Diameter larger than 12mm Interference with
Pick- up
1C2 8.7 Dia between 6mm to 12mm grasp on bottom
1C3 10.8 Dia less than 6 mm and one side of
nearly cylindrical
object
Regrasp 2 5.6 Change grasp without relinquishing control
Transfer 3 5.6 Control transferred from one hand to the other
4A 7.3 Larger than 25x25x25mm Object jumbled
4B 9.1 6x6x3mm to 25x25x25mm with other objects
Select
4C 12.9 Smaller than 6x6x3mm so that search and
select occur
Contact 5 0 Contact, sliding or hook grasp

6. Position (P)
Position is the basic element employed to align, orient and engage one object with another
object, where the motions used are so minor that they do not justify classification as other
basic elements.
The time for position is affected by:
(i) Classes of fit.
(ii) Symmetry and
(iii) Ease of handling
(i)Classes of fit:
 Loose fit (1): no pressure required
 Close fit (2): light pressure required
 Exact fit (3): heavy pressure required

(ii) Symmetry
 Symmetrical part – S
 Non Symmetrical part – NS

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 Semi Symmetrical part - SS

(iii) Ease of handling

 Ease to handle – E
 Difficult to handle – D

7. Release (RL)
Release is the basic element to relinquish control of an object by the fingers or hand.
The two classifications of release are:
(i) Normal Release: simple opening of fingers
(ii) Contact release: the release begins and is completed at the instant the following reach
begins (no time allowed).
Case Time, TMU Description
1 2.0 Normal Release performed by opening fingers as
independent motion.
2 0.0 Contact release

8. Disengage (D)
Disengage is the basic element used to break contact between one object and another.
It includes an involuntary movement resulting from the sudden ending of resistance.
The time for disengage is affected by the following 3 variables:
(i) Class of fit
(ii) Ease of handling and
(iii) Case of handling

Class of fit Ease to handle Difficult to

(E) handle (D)
1. Loose fit- very slight effort, blends with 4.0 5.7
subsequent move
2. Close fit- Normal effort, slight recoil 7.5 11.8
3. Tight fit- considerable effort, hand recoils 22.9 34.7
markedly

9. Eye action or Eye times (E):

Eye action is an action with the purpose of either recognizing a reading distinguishable
characteristic of an object or shifting the aim of the axis of vision to a new viewing area.
In most work, time for moving and focusing the eye is not a limiting factor and consequently
does not affect the time for the operation. When the eyes do direct the hands or body
movements, however, eye time must be considered.
There are two types of eye time
(i) Eye focus time – EF
(ii) Eye Travel time – ET.
(i) Eye Focus time (EF) : it is the time required to focus the eye on an object and look at it
long enough to determine certain readily distinguishable characteristic within the area which
may be seen without shifting the eye.
Eye focus time = 7.3 TMU
(ii) Eye Travel time (ET): it is affected by the distance between points from and to which the
eye travels and the perpendicular distance from the syse to the line of travel.
Eye travel time = 15.2 * T/D TMU, with a maximum values of 20 TMU. Where, T= the
distance between points from and to which the eye travels.
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D= the perpendicular distance from the eye to the line of travel T.

Note: Area of normal vision = circle 4” in diameter, 16” from eyes.

10. Body, Leg & Foot Motions (B, L & FM):

Type Symbol Description
FM Hinged at ankle
FMP With heavy pressure
LEG-FOOT MOTION
LM Leg motion hinged at knee or hip in any
direction
SIDE STEP SS-C1 Complete when leading leg contacts floor
SS-C2 Lagging leg must contact floor before next
HORIZONTAL

motion can be made

MOTION

TURN BODY TBC1 Complete when leading leg contacts floor

TBC2 Lagging leg must contact floor before next
motion can be made.
WALK W-FT Unobstructed per foot
W-P Unobstructed per pace
W-PO Obstructed per pace
SIT From standing position
STD Stand from sitting position
B, S, KOK Bend, Stop, Kneel on One Knee
VERTICAL MOTION AB, AS, AKOK Arise from Bend, Arise from Stop, Arise from
Kneel on One Knee
KBK Kneel on Both Knees
AKBK Arise from Kneel on Both Knees

Note:-
FM- Foot Motion
FMP- Foot Motion with heavy Pressure
LM – Leg or foreleg Motion
SS- Side Step
TB- Turn Body
W- Walk
WM- Walk-per meter- unobstructed
WP- Walk-per pace- unobstructed
WPO- Walk-per pace- Obstructed
WF- Walk-per foot- unobstructed

MTM Application Procedure

Whether the operation is existing or established or proposed for determining the standard
time or selecting the best and most economic method, following procedure is used:
1. Establish basic method.
2. Operational information (the analyzer must be very clear about them)
 Quality specification
 Production requirement
 Equipment and tool used/ required
 Location of plant and its working conditions
 Material used to manufacture the part
 Part/component sketch/drawing

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 Operations involved
3. Prepare detailed elemental breakdown
(i) Break the activity (existing/ proposed) into small work elements and then MTM
motions.
(ii) Describe each element with its details and record the description on the sheet.
(iii) Record on the MTM analysis sheet, the various motions to be carried out by both
hands, by left hand and by right hand.
(iv) Check the motion sequence very thoroughly and no motion of any kind should be
overlooked.
(v) Sign the study sheet with data.
4. Carrying out the complete study:
Breakdown the operation into intermediate size elements composed of not more than 12
motions each.
Ex: Get and place, get the part, place the part on the fixture, clamp the fixture, engage the
feed, etc. this step is important to successful visualization of the motions required. Now
identify the MTM motions required to execute each of these intermediate size elements.
5. Assign TMUS to each element:
Once, all the motions have been detailed out in MTM motions enter time values on the
synthesis sheet. While assigning the time value some precautions to be taken about the
elements, which are preformed at same time.
Uses of Methods Time Measurement:
 Developing effective methods and planning in advance of beginning the production.
 Improving the existing methods
 Establishing time standards
 Developing time formulae for standard data.
 Cost estimating
 Aiding product designs
 Developing effective tool designs
 Selecting effective equipments
 Training the supervisors to become methods- conscious.
 Setting time study and wage rate grievances
 Operator training
 Research in such subjects as operating methods, training and performance rating.
Recording the Analysis
In MTM, the task (basic motion) is recorded according to the element of work. It consists of
1st – symbol of element of work. Ex: reach, move, etc
2nd – Distance moved in inch on degree turned
3rd – cases
4th – Weight in pound

Limiting and Simultaneous motion:-

In performing most industrial operations, it is desirable to have more than one body member
in motion at a time usually the most effective method of performing an operation can be
approached when 2 or more body members are in motion at the same time.
If 2 or more motions are combined or over lapped, all can be performed in the time required
to perform the one demanding the greatest amount of time or the limiting motion i.e., limiting
motion is one that demands the greatest amount of time.
When 2 motions are performed at the same time by the body member, they are called
combined motion.

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When 2 motions are performed by different body members, they are called simultaneous
motion.

Work Factor (WF):

Work factor is based on a concept of having a catalogue of manual motion and mental
process times arranged in such a manner that an appropriate time can be obtained for every
manually controlled motion likely to be encountered in any work situation. In the work factor
system this catalogue is known as the ‘motion time table’ and the ‘mental process time table’.

Standard elements of work factor system

In the work factor system, work is divided into 8-standard elements in the order to analyze an
operation in an orderly sequence and to provide a practical method of calculating time values
so that once an element has been analyzed its established time values can be used when
ever the element occurs again.
The eight standard elements are:
1. Transport T
(a) Reach (R)
(b) Move (M)
2. Grasp -G
3. Release -R
4. Preposition - PP
5. Assemble - ASY
6. Use - USE
7. Disassemble - DSY
8. Mental process - MP

1. Transport – transport motions are made by the body members in reaching to objects and
in moving objects from one location to another.
2. Grasp- Grasp is the act of obtaining manual control on one or more objects. It begins at
the end of reach and ends when control on the object has been obtained.
3. Preposition – it is the cat of turning and orienting an object to a correct position for a
subsequent element of work.
4. Assembly- assembly is the act of joining two or more objects together. Assemble usually
begins after a move and ends after the objects have been joined together.
5. Use- it is the act of working with a tool or other device or of using one or more body
members as a tool. It may also include machine and process time.
6. Disassemble- it is the act of separating objects, which have previously been joined
together. This element is opposite of assemble.
7. Release – it is the act of body member separating itself from an object. It is opposite of
grasp.
8. Mental process – it is the act of using the central and peripheral nervous system to
perform work, many mental processes occur simultaneously with manual motions, so that
time requirements cannot be observed separately from motions they control. Such processes
are termed as concurrent process. Their times are included in the work factor system of
manual motion times. In another case mental processes, which perform independent of the
related- body-member motions, such processes are said to be sequential processes.
Ex: identify, decide, compute, memorize and recollect.

Four Major variables of work factor system:

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1. Body member, which performs the motions: this is the part of the body actually
performing the motion and can be identified very easily by simple observation. Work factor
system provides motion times for the following body members used in performance of
manual work: Finger, Hand, Arm, and Forearm swivel, Trunk, Foot, Leg and Head.

2. Distance through which the body member moves: it is the variable which can be easily
determined by measuring the linear distance between the starting and stopping points of the
motion involved. If a change in direction in the path of motion is necessary are made for
convenience, measurement is made of the actual length of motion path rather than the
straight line distance between the starting and stopping points from consistency point of view
the measurement of motion distance is made with respect to following points:

Body member Point of measurement

Finger- hand Finger tip
Arm Knuckle
Fore arm swivel Knuckle
Trunk Shoulder tip
Leg Ankle or hip
Head Nose tip
Foot Toe tip
3. Weight or resistance involved in making the motion: greater the weight of the object to
be carried or resistance against which the motion is made. Greater is the time required to
execute the motion, further a given amount of weight or resistance has a greater slowing
down effect on a female operator than on a male operator and on a smaller body member
rather than a bigger body member. Weight or resistances are both measured in units of
weight but forearm swivel is measured in units of torque.
4. Manual control required by the motions function: certain work motions require some
sort of manual control for their successful execution with increasing exactness in the motion
both the amount of control and degree of difficulty increases and the net effect is slowing
down of the motion. Thus, as required manual control increases time to perform a motion
increases. There are 4 types of manual control:
 Definite stop (D)
 Steering (S)
 Precaution (P)
 Change of direction (U)
These are termed as WF – the time to perform a motion increases with the type and number
of work factors involved.
In recording the analysis of a given work motion the standard elements of the operation are
first described. The motions within the standard element are identified by listing in sequence
the body members used, distance moved and the work factors involved in the motion.

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