Force

Types of Force

●​ A force is defined as:

A push or a pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object

●​ Forces can affect bodies in a variety of ways:

○​ Changes in speed: forces can cause bodies to speed up or slow
down.
○​ Changes in direction: forces can cause bodies to change their
direction of travel.
○​ Changes in shape: forces can cause bodies to stretch, compress, or
deform.

Tension

●​ Tension is:

The force experienced by a cable, rope, or string when pulled, hung, rotated, or
supported

●​ This is normally labelled as T on free body diagrams.

Normal Contact Force

●​ The normal contact force is:

The force arising when an object rests against another object acting at a 90°
angle to the plane of contact

●​ It is sometimes also referred to as the reaction force.

●​ This is normally labelled as N or R on free body diagrams.
●​ This force arises from Newton's Third Law.

Upthrust
●​ Upthrust is:

The upward buoyancy force acting on an object when it is in a fluid

 ●​ Upthrust can occur in liquids and gases.

Friction
●​ Friction is:

The force that arises when two surfaces are in contact with each other

●​ Friction always opposes the motion

●​ This is normally labelled as F or Fr on free body diagrams.

Each force is represented as a vector arrow, where each arrow:

○​ Is scaled to the magnitude of the force it represents

○​ Points in the direction that the force acts
○​ Is labelled with the name of the force it represents

Resultant Forces on a Straight Line

●​ A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating
on a body.
●​ When many forces are applied to an object, they can be combined (added)
to produce one final force, which describes the combined action of all of
the
●​ This single resultant force determines:
○​ The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the
forces
○​ The magnitude of the final force experienced by the object
●​ The resultant force is sometimes called the net force.
●​ Forces can combine to produce
○​ Balanced forces
○​ Unbalanced forces
●​ Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that
they cancel each other out and no resultant force acts on the body.
○​ For example, the weight of a book on a desk is balanced by the
normal force of the desk.
○​ As a result, noresultant force is experienced by the book; the book
and the table are equal and balanced.
 ●​ Unbalanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that
they do not cancel out completely and there is a resultant force on the
object.
○​ For example, imagine two people playing a game of tug-of-war,
working against each other on opposite sides of the rope.
○​ If person A pulls with 80 N to the left and person B pulls with 100 N
to the right, these forces do not cancel each other out completely.
○​ Since person B pulled with more force than person A, the forces will
be unbalanced, and the rope will experience a resultant force of 20
N to the right.
●​ Resultant forces can be calculated by adding or subtracting all of the
forces acting on the object.
○​ Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each
other.
○​ Forces working in the same direction are added together
●​ If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will
be no resultant force; the forces are said to be balanced.

Resultant Forces on Different Objects

The resultant force is the net force acting on the object when all the individual
forces have been added and the directional components accounted for.

●​ Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing on either side.
○​ In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched; the box
doesn't move.
○​ In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same
side of the box; it moves to the right with their combined strength.
 ○​ In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other
and are not evenly matched, so there is a resultant force to the left.

Newton's First Law of Motion

●​ Newton's first law of motion states:

Objects will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.

●​ This means if the resultant force acting on an object is zero:

○​ The object will remain stationary if it was stationary before.
○​ The object will continue to move at the same velocity if it was moving.
●​ When the resultant force is not zero
○​ The speed of the object can change.
○​ The direction of the object can change.

Applying Newton's First Law

●​ Newton's first law is used to explain why things move with a constant (or uniform)
velocity.
○​ If the forces acting on an object are balanced, then the resultant force is
zero.
○​ The velocity (i.e. speed and direction) can only change if a resultant force
acts on the object.

Newton's Second Law

●​ Newton's second law of motion states:

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and

inversely proportional to the object's mass.

●​ Newton's second law explains the following important principles:

○​ An object will accelerate (change its velocity) in response to a resultant
force.
○​ The bigger this resultant force, the larger the acceleration.
○​ For a given force, the greater the object's mass, the smaller the
acceleration experienced.
 Calculations Using Newton's Second Law
●​ Newton's second law can be expressed as an equation:

F = ma

●​ Where:
○​ F = resultant force on the object in Newtons (N)
○​ m = mass of the object in kilograms (kg).
○​ a = acceleration of the object in metres per second squared (m/s2).
●​ The force and the acceleration act in the same direction.
●​ This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:

Equation Triangle for Newton's Second Law

Force, mass, acceleration formula triangle; you can use this if you need support with the
rearrangement until you feel able to do it on your own.

Newton's Third Law

●​ Newton's third law of motion states:

Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and
opposite.
●​ The pair of forces exerted by the interacting objects are known as force pairs.
●​ Newton's third law explains the forces that enable someone to walk.
○​ The foot exerts a push force on the ground.
○​ The ground exerts a push force on the foot.
○​ Vector diagrams can be used to represent Newton's third law.
○​ Use the following three rules to help you identify a third law pair:
1.​ The two forces in a third-law pair act on different objects.
2.​ The two forces in a third-law pair are always equal in size but act in opposite
directions.
3.​ The two forces are always the same type: weight, normal contact force, etc.
○​ The forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Investigating Springs
●​ When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can
change.
●​ The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation
into the properties of a material

Experimental Set-Up to Measure the Extension of a Spring

To measure the extension of a spring, masses are hung from the spring, and the
extension of the spring is measured with a ruler.

●​ Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

●​ A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to
the bottom, and the position of the spring is measured against the ruler.
●​ The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table.
●​ A further mass is added and the new position measured.
●​ The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added.
●​ The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again until it has
been carried out a total of three times, and averages can then be taken.
●​ Once measurements have been taken:
○​ The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the
spring (in kg) by 9.81 N/kg (the gravitational field strength).
○​ The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original
position of the spring from each of the subsequent positions.
●​ Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should
be plotted

Force-Extension Graph

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

 Hooke's Law
●​ Hooke’s law states that:

The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force.

Force = spring constant * Extension

F = kx

●​ Where:
○​ F is the force applied.
○​ k is the spring constant.
○​ x is the extension of the spring.

●​ The spring constant is the force per unit extension.

○​ The units are N/m.
○​ The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is.
●​ Directly proportional means that as the force is increased, the extension
increases.
○​ If the force is doubled, then the extension will double.
○​ If the force is halved, then the extension will also halve.
●​ The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which the relationship between
force and extension is no longer directly proportional.
○​ This limit varies according to the material.

Circular Motion
●​ Velocity is a vector quantity, and the velocity of an object is its speed in a given
direction.
●​ When an object travels along a circular path, its velocity is always changing.
○​ The speed of the object moving in a circle might be constant - that is, it is
travelling the same distance every second.
○​ However, the direction of travel is always changing as the object moves
along the circular path.
●​ This means that an object moving in circular motion travels at a constant speed
but has a changing velocity.
 ●​ When a force acts at 90 degrees to an object’s direction of travel, the force will
cause that object to change direction

An Impact Force Causing a Change in the Motion of a Car

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the force.

●​ If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep
changing its direction while remaining at a constant speed and travel in a circle.
●​ This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or a satellite orbits a planet).

The Moon Orbiting the Earth

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This
causes it to travel in a circular path.
 ●​ The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number
of factors:
○​ The mass of the object​

■​ A greater mass requires a greater force when the speed and radius
are constant.
○​ The speed of the object​

■​ A faster-moving object requires greater force when the mass and

radius are constant.
○​ The radius of the circle​

■​ A smaller radius requires greater force to keep the speed and

radius constant.

Friction
●​ Friction is a force that works in opposition to the motion of an object.
○​ This slows down the motion of the object.
●​ When friction is present, energy is transferred in the form of heat.
○​ This raises the temperature (thermal energy) of the object and its
surroundings.
○​ The work done against the frictional forces causes this rise in the
temperature
●​ Friction in solids is caused by imperfections in the surfaces of the objects moving
over one another.
○​ Not only does this slow the object down but also causes an increase in
thermal energy.

Motion of Objects & Drag

Friction in Fluids
●​ Gases and liquids are known as fluids.
○​ Fluids are different from solids because the particles in fluids can move
around.
●​ Friction acts on objects moving through gases and liquids as the particles collide
with the object.
○​ This type of friction is called drag.
●​ Air resistance is a type of friction that slows the motion of an object.
●​ Particles bump into the object as it moves through the air.
 ○​ As a result, the object heats up due to the work done against the frictional
forces.

Stopping Distances
●​ The stopping distance of a car is defined as:

The total distance travelled during the time it takes for a car to stop in response to some
emergency

●​ It can be written as an equation involving two distances:

Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance

●​ Where:
○​ Thinking distance = the distance travelled in the time it takes the driver to
react (reaction time) in metres (m).
○​ Braking distance = the distance travelled under the braking force in metres
(m).
○​ Stopping distance = the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance,
in metres (m).
●​ For a given braking force, the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the
stopping distance.

Factors affecting Stopping Distance

●​ There are various factors which can affect a vehicle's stopping distance. These
are:
○​ Vehicle speed - the greater the speed, the greater the vehicle's braking
distance will be (because the brakes will need to do more work to bring
the vehicle to a stop).
○​ Vehicle mass - a heavy vehicle, such as a lorry, takes longer to stop
○​ Road conditions—wet or icy roads make it harder to decelerate
○​ Driver reaction time - a driver's thinking distance depends on their reaction
time. Being tired or intoxicated (i.e. alcohol or drugs) can increase reaction
time.
 Moments

●​ As well as causing objects to speed up, slow down, change direction, and
deform, forces can also cause objects to rotate.
●​ An example of a rotation caused by a force is on one side of a pivot (a fixed point
that the object can rotate around).
○​ This rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise.

Pivot Point on a Metal Bar

The force will cause the object to rotate clockwise about the pivot.

●​ A moment is defined as:

The turning effect of a force about a pivot

●​ The size of a moment is defined by the equation:

M=F×d

●​ Where:
○​ M = moment in Newton metres (Nm)
○​ F = force in newtons (N)
○​ d = perpendicular distance of the force to the pivot in metres (m).
 Moment of a Spanner

The moment depends on the force and perpendicular distance to the pivot.

●​ This is why, for example, the door handle is placed on the opposite side to the
hinge.
○​ This means for a given force, the perpendicular distance from the pivot
(the hinge) is larger.
○​ This creates a larger moment (turning effect) to make it easier to open the
door.
●​ Opening a door with a handle close to the pivot would be much harder, and
would require a lot more force.
●​ Some other examples involving moments include:
○​ Using a crowbar to prize open something
○​ Turning a tap on or off
○​ A wheelbarrow
○​ Scissors

The Principle of Moments

●​ The term equilibrium means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing without
any change.
●​ Therefore:
○​ If the object is moving, it will continue to move (in a straight line).
○​ If it is stationary, it will remain stationary
○​ The object will also not start or stop turning.
●​ The above conditions require two things:
○​ The forces on the object must be balanced.
■​ There must be no resultant force.
 ○​ The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of
anticlockwise moments.
■​ There must be no resultant moment.

A Moving Car and a Balanced Beam in Equilibrium

When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in
equilibrium.

●​ If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium.

The Principle of Moments

●​ The principle of moments states that:

If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total
anticlockwise moment about that pivot.

●​ Remember that the moment = force × distance from a pivot.

●​ The forces should be perpendicular to the distance from the pivot.
○​ For example, on a horizontal beam, the forces that will cause a moment
are those directed upwards or downwards.

Centre of Gravity
●​ The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object
may be considered to act.
 ●​ For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in
the middle of the body behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre.
●​ For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at
the point of symmetry

Centre of Gravity of Differently Shaped Objects

The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry.

Stability
Stability
●​ The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability.
●​ An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base.

Stability of Objects
The object on the right will topple, as its centre of gravity is no longer over its base.

●​ The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of gravity, and it is more
stable.
●​ The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of gravity, and the object
is more likely to topple over if pushed.

Stability of Objects with Different Sized Bases

The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of gravity.
 Investigating the Centre of Gravity
●​ When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its
centre of gravity comes to rest below the pivoting point.
●​ This can be used to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape:

Method for Finding the Centre of Gravity for Irregular Shapes

Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape

●​ The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to
settle.
●​ A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot, and a pencil is used to
draw a vertical line from the pivot (the centre of gravity must be somewhere on
this line).
●​ The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points.
●​ The centre of gravity is located at the point where all three lines cross.