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REFLECTION OF LIGHT

1. Real and virtual image

Real image is always inverted and virtual image is always erect. Real image can be taken on the
screen but virtual image can not be taken on the screen.

2. Formation of image by plane mirror

It is virtual and erect of the same size as the object, laterally inverted and as far behind the mirror as
the object in front.

3. Deviation produced by a mirror

(i) By single mirror; at an angle of incidence i, it is
  180   2i .
(ii) By two mirrors at an angle  , the deviation
  360   2 .

4. Number of images
Suppose  is the angle between the mirrors, then
360  360 
(i) if is even integer, then number of images n   1 for all positions of the object.
 
360 
(ii) if is odd integer, then

360   360  
n if the object is placed off the bisector of the mirrors, and   1 , when object is
   
placed on the bisector
n  3 for   90  and 5 for 60  and 72  .

5. Spherical mirror
For radius of curvature R, the focal length of spherical mirror will be f  R / 2 . For convex mirror it is
+ f and for concave mirror it is – f.

6. Mirror Formula
1 1 1 2
  
v u f R

7. Magnification
size of image
m .
size of object

 v
Lateral magnification, m 
O u

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Longitudinal magnification for short object

v2
mL   2
 m 2 .
u b
A (m 2  )  (mb ) 
Magnification of area m area  i   m3
A0 b

b
(m )(mb ) 
m area   m2 
b

Volume magnification  m4

8. Velocity of image
 v2 
v i   2  v 0
 u 

REFRACTION AND DISPERSION

9. Snell’s law
2 sini
1 2  
1 sinr
If medium 1  air
sin i
1  1   
sin r
v1
Also 1 2  ,.
v2
1
and 1 2 
1 2

10. Image formation by refraction

(i) When object is in denser medium and observer in rarer medium, then
RD
 . 1
AD
 1   AD
s RD
Apparent shift S  RD1  . 
 
(ii) When object is in rarer medium and observer in denser medium, then
AH
 .
RH

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11. Total internal reflection (TIR)

(i) TIR occurs when light ray passes from denser to rarer medium.

(ii) Angle of incidence in denser medium must be greater than critical angle. Critical angle is given
by

1
sin C  .

Critical angle for water to air is 49  and for glass to air is 42  .

(iii) A fish inside water at a depth h can see outside world in horizontal circle of radius r, where
h
r .
2  1

12. Deviation produced by prism

For the prism, angle of refraction A, we have
r1  r2  A
and A
ie  A 
at minimum deviation, 
   m , r1  r2 , i  e.
i e
r1 r2
we have
 A  m 
sin 
  2 
A
sin
2
For small angled prism
  (  1)A
(i) Condition of minimum deviation i  e and r1  r2 .
(ii) Condition of maximum deviation; either of i or e should be 90  .
(iii) Condition of no emergence, A  2C

13. Dispersion produced by prism

The refractive index of material of a prism depends on wavelength of light. It approximately is given
by Cauchy’s equation as :
B
A 2 .

Here A and B are constants.

angular dispersion  v  R
Dispersive power,  
mean deviation y

or

 v  R

y 1

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14. Combination of prisms
(i) Dispersion without deviation:
For two small angled prisms, we have

( y  1)
A'   A
(' y 1)
The total dispersion D  ( v  R ) A  ( v  R )A'

(ii) Deviation with dispersion:

For two small angled prisms, we have

( v   R )
A'   A
(' v ' R )
The total deviation
  ( y  1) A  (' y 1) A '.

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE, LENSES AND PHOTOMETRY

15. Refraction formula through single spherical surface

1 2 1  1
  1 2
v u R
 2 1  2  1
or   .
v u R

16. (i) Lateral magnification

 v
m  1 .
O  2u
(ii) Longitudinal magnification
1 v 2
mL 
 2 u2

17. Lens formula

1 1 1
  .
v u f
Lens maker’s formula
1  1 1 
 (  1)   . (assuming that medium outside is
f  R 1 R 2 
air)

18. If 1 and  3 are the refractive indexes on both sides of the lens material of refractive index  2 ,
then
 3  1 ( 2   1 ) ( 3   2 )
  
v u R1 R2

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19. Lateral magnification,
 v f
m  
O u uf

20. Velocity of image

v2
vi  vo
u2

21. Minimum distance between object and its real image

Dmin  4f
and Dmax   .
22. Deviation produced by a lens

h
 .
f
where h is the height of incident of ray on the lens of focal length f.

23. Combined focal length

(i) when lenses are placed in contact
 1 1
   .......,
f f1 f 2
and P  P1  P2  ......
(ii) If two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f 2 are placed at a separation of d, the equivalent focal
length

1 1 1 d
   .
f f1 f 2 f1f 2
and p  p1  p 2  dp1p 2.

24. When one face of a lens is silvered, it behaves as a concave mirror. If f e is the effective focal
length of the lens, then
1 2 1
   .
f e f  fm
(i) Plano-convex lens silvered at plane surface, then
R
fe  .
2(  1)
(ii) Plano-convex lens silvered at convex surface
R
f
2
25. Aberration
It is the defect in the image formed by the lens.
Axial or chromatic aberration
f  fR  f v  f y .

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26. Condition of achromatism

(i) For two lenses placed in contact
1 2
  0.
f1 f2
(ii) For two lenses placed at a separation d,
  f   2 f1 
d 12 .
 1   2 
(iii) Two convex lens made of same material can be free from chromatic aberration, if
f f
d 1 2 .
2

27. Simple microscope

D
Angular magnification, M  1
fe
Here D = 25 cm.
28. Compound microscope
(i) When final image is formed at near point
v0  D
M  1  
u0  fe 
Length of the microscope
L  | v 0 |  | ue |
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity
v0 D
M
u0 fe
Length of the microscope
L  | v 0 | fe .
29. Astronomical telescope
(i) When final image is formed at near point
f0  f 
M 1  e  .
fe  D
Length of the telescope, L  f0  | u e |
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity
f0
M
fe
Length of the telescope, L  f0  f e .

WAVE OPTICS

30. Interference: When two or more coherent waves travels in same direction, nearly in a line, they and
superpose gives interference.
* Interference is the phenomenon of conservation of energy. For two waves of amplitudes a1 and
a2

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y1  a1 sin t.
y 2  a 2 sin(t  )
y  y1  y 2  A sin(t  )
The resultant wave

where A 2  a12  a 22  2a1a 2  cos 

or   1   2  2 1 2 cos 
a 2 sin 
and tan  
a1  a 2 cos 

(i) Constructive interference:

A max  a1  a 2
for   2n, n  0, 1, 2, .............
or x  n

(ii) Destructive interference:

A min  a1  a 2
for   (2n  1) , n  0, 1, 2, .......
or x  (2n  1)  / 2
 max (a1  a 2 )2

 min (a1  a 2 )2
(iii) For a1  a 2
 max  4a 2
 min  0
   max cos2 ( / 2)
* If waves are incoherent, they will not interfere, then
 max  a 2  a 2  2a 2

31. Young’s double slits experiment : x  dsin  d tan 

dy n
 .
D

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D
(i) For constructive interference yn  n
d

D

d

(2n  1) D
(ii) For destructive interference yn 
2 d

D
 .
d

Angular fringe width:

 
  .
D d
32. Displacement of fringes:

If a transparent plane is introduced in path of the light wave, the path of wave is increased by
(  1)t .
Displacement of fringes : Entire fringe pattern shift towards side of plate. Fringe width remains
same.

D(  1)t
The displacement of the fringe 
d
33. Interference in thin films :
(a) In reflected light :


2t cos r  (2n  1) , n  1, 2, ...... for destructive interference
2
and 2t cos r  n, n  0, 1, 2, .............. for destructive interference

(b) In transmitted light :

2t cos r  n, n  0, 1, 2,.............. for constructive interference


and 2t cos r  (2n  1) , n  1, 2, ........ for destructive interference
2

34. Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit : Diffraction occurs due to super position between the
wavelets originated from same wave front. For diffraction, size of aperture is order of wave length of
wave.

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a sin   , for first order minima

1
Width of principal maxima  2  2 sin ( / a)

35. Polarization : Symmetry to asymmetry of vibration of optic vector is called polarisation.

* When natural light falls on polariser, its intensity become half the incident.
Malus Law :  0   0 cos 2 
Brewste’s law :   tan ip .

ELECTRON, PHOTON, ATOM, PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND X-RAY

36. Plank’s hypothesis:

Light propagate in small packets of energy, called photon. Each photon having energy
E  hv  hc /  .
* Rest mass of photon is zero.
Momentum of photon  hv / c  h / 
Number of photon per second emitted by a source of power p is

P
N
(hc /  )
37. Photoelectric effect:
The emission of electron from metal surface by light is called photo electric effect (PEE).
Einstein’s photo – electric equation
E  W0  K.E max
or hv  hv 0  (1/ 2)mvmax
2

hc hc 1
  mv max2

 0 2
With increase in intensity of incident light, photoelectric current increase but maximum K.E. of
electron remains same.
With increase in frequency of incident light, photo electric current will not change but maximum K.E.
of photo- electrons increases.

38. Bohr’s Model:

(i) Electrons revolve around the certain circular orbits orbits without radiating energy, such that

1 e 2 mv 2 r v
 Ze e
4 0 r r
nh
(ii) Quantization of orbit mvr  , n  1, 2,........
2
(iii) Quantization of energy hv  E 2  E 1 .
(iv) Mass of revolving electron remains constant.
rn  (0.53 / Z)n 2 Å
c Z z
Vm  m / s  (2.18  10 6 ) m / s
137 n n
 T. E.  K.E.  (P.E. / 2)
E n (T.E)  ( 13.6Z 2 / n 2 )eV

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39. Wave number:
Spectrum of hydrogen atom:
1. Lymen Ultraviolet n1  1, n 2  2
2. Balmer Visible n1  2, n2  3
3. Paschen Infrared n1  3, n2  4
4. Brackett Infrared n1  4, n2  5
5. Pfund Infrared n1  5, n2  6

40. X-rays (0.1 Å - 100 Å)

When fast moving electrons strike to a target of high melting point and atomic mass, X-rays are
produced.

 Intensity of X-rays is proportional to filament current.

 Penetrating power is proportional to potential difference across filament & target
 X-rays of   4 Å are called soft and X-rays   4 Å are called hard X-rays.

41. X-rays Spectra:

1. Continuous spectrum are produced due to declaration of electrons.

2. Characteristic spectrum are produced due to knock out of bound electrons from the inner orbit
and the vacancy so caused is filled by electrons from higher orbits.
EL  Ek  h k
E M  E k  h k
vc
Energy of X-rays  hv 

hv h
Dynamic mass of X-rays   .
c 2
c
Minimum wavelength of continuous X-rays
hc
 min  .
eV
Bragg’s law 2d sin  n (n  1, 2, ...)
Intensity of X-rays after passing through a medium of thickness x is I  l 0 e kx .

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
42. Radius of nucleus R  R 0 A 1/ 3
 Size of nucleus is of the order of 10 15 m.
 Size of atom is of the order of 10 10 m.
 Nuclear density is of the order of 1017 kg/ m3
43. Mass defects (M)  Mass of nucleons (M)  Mass of nucleus (A).

44. 1 amu  1.66  10 27 kg  931 MeV .

45. B.E  mc 2

46. Pair annihilation: 1 e

0
 1 e 0  2   photons

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0 0
Pair production: Rest mass energy of 1 e or 1E is order of 0.51 MeV.

0
1 1e

heavy 
nucleus  electron & positron
  photons 
11 e 0
47. Radioactivity
(i) Spontaneous disintegration of nucleus is called radioactivity.
* It is matter of chance, for any atom to disintegrate first. The life time of radioactive atoms will
therefore be from zero to infinite.

(ii) N  N0 e  t .
t
Also N  N0 (1/ 2)n , n  = No. of half life is
t 1/ 2
(iii) Mean life T  (1/ )  1.44t 1/ 2 .
*   particle is not initially present in nucleus, but is produced due to disintegration of neutron
0n
1
1 H1  1  0  v  .

dN
(iv) Activity (A) : A   N
dt
Also A  A 0 e  t .
S.I. unit of radioactivity is becquerel.
1 becquerel  1 disintegration/s.
* 1 rutherford  10 6 disintegration/s.
* 1 cuire  3.7  10 10 disintegration/s.

ELECTRONICS
48. According to band theory, the substance is a semi conductor if forbidden gap is order of 1 eV.
 For Ge, E g  0.7eV and for Si, E g  1.1eV.
49. Conductivity of a semiconductor
  e(ne  e  nh  h )
for intrinsic semiconductor n e  nh
for extrinsic semiconductor
(a) N-type n e   nh
(b) P-type nh   n e
 In N-type semiconductor, impurity added is pentavalent, (Antimony, Arsenic etc.)
 In P-type semiconductor, impurity added is trivalent. (Aluminium,, Boron, Indium etc)

P N P N
50. Forward bias Re verse bias

 For an ideal junction diode, forward resistance R f  0 and reverse resistance R r   .

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51. Transistor (Willium Shockley):

Function : Amplification oscillation (A.C  D.C) and modulation
For any transistor, i e  ib  i c .

I c
52. Current gain:  in common base
I e
Ic
 in common emitter
Ib
 
 and 
1  1 
R2
53. Voltage gain: Av   in common base
R1
R
A v   2 in common emitter
R1
R2
54. Power gain: Ap  2 in common base
R1
R
A p   2 2 in common emitter
R1

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