In-Class Activities
By the end of the module students are able to:
1. Students are able to conduct an experiment (C4) in their research writing by
looking at the previous research from the given theme.
2. Students are able to apply (C4) functional expressions given in their
introductory and concluding paragraphs in their research writing.
INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
An effective introduction explains the purpose, scope, and methodology of the paper to the
reader. The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any questions asked in the title, as
well as summarising the main points under discussion. With coursework, it may be better to
write the introduction after writing the main body.
Introduction components
Introductions are usually no more than about 10% of the total length of an assignment.
Therefore, in a 2,000-word essay, the introduction would be approximately 200 words.
➢ See Unit 1.5 From Understanding Essay Titles to Planning
a) What components are normally found in an essay introduction? Choose from the following
list.
b) Read the following extracts from introductions to articles and decide which of the
components listed above (i – x) they are examples of.
A) In the past 20 years the ability of trial juries to assess complex or lengthy cases has
been widely debated.
B) The rest of the paper is organised as follows. The second section explains why
corporate governance is important for economic prosperity. The third section
presents the model specification and describes the data and variables used in our
empirical analysis. The fourth section reports and discusses the empirical results. The
fifth section concludes.
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C) We attempted to test our hypothesis by comparing the reactions of a random sample
of postgraduates with a group of first-year students.
D) There is no clear empirical evidence sustaining a ‘managerial myopia’ argument. Pugh
et al. (1992) find evidence that supports such a theory, but Meulbrook et al.(1990),
Mahoney et al. (1997), Garvey and Hanka (1999) and a study by the Office of the
Chief Economist of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1985) find no evidence.
E) ‘Social cohesion’ is usually defined in reference to common aims and objectives, social
order, social solidarity, and the sense of place attachment.
F) This study will focus on mergers in the media business between 2000 and 2010, since
with more recent examples an accurate assessment of the consequences cannot yet
be made.
G) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme
warm and cold temperatures over the globe since 1870.
Taken from Bailey p. 76-77
❖ Introduction structure
There is no standard pattern for an introduction, since much depends on the type of
research you are conducting and the length of your work, but this is a common
structure:
a) Definition of key terms, if needed
b) Relevant background information
c) Review of work by other writers on the topic
d) Purpose or aim of the paper
e) Your research methods
f) Any limitations you imposed
g) An outline of your paper
❑ Underline the following sections (a-g) of the introduction above:
a) Definition
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Certain words or phrases in the title may need clarifying because they are not
widely understood or are used in a special sense.
b) Context
It is useful to remind the reader of the wider context of your work. This may also
show the value of the study you have carried out
c) Reference to other researchers
While a longer article may have a separate literature review, in a shorter essay it is
still important to show familiarity with researchers who have studied this topic
previously. This may also reveal a gap in research which justifies your work.
d) Aim
The aim of your research must be clearly stated so the reader knows what you are
trying to do.
e) Method
The method demonstrates the process that you undertook to achieve the given
aim.
f) Limitations
You cannot deal with every aspect of this topic in an essay, so you must make
clear the boundaries of your study.
g) Outline
Understanding the structure of your work will help the reader to follow your
argument.
➢ See Unit 2.4 Definitions
Taken from Bailey p. 77-79
❖ Opening sentences
It can be difficult to start writing an essay, but especially in exams, hesitation will waste
valuable time. The first few sentences should be general but not vague in order to help
the reader focus on the topic. They often have the following pattern:
It is important to avoid opening sentences which are over-general and vague.
Compare:
Nowadays there is a lot of competition among different news providers. ×
In the last 20 years newspapers have faced strong competition from the internet for news and
entertainment.
❑ Working quickly, write introductory sentences for three of the following titles.
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a) How important is it for companies to have women as senior managers?
b) Are there any technological solutions to global warming?
c) What can be done to reduce infant mortality in developing countries?
d) Compare the urbanisation process in two contrasting countries.
➢ See Unit 2.6 Generalisations
Taken from Bailey p. 79-80
❖ Conclusions
Conclusions tend to be shorter and more varied in format than introductions. Some
articles may have a ‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’. But student papers should
generally have a final section which summarises the arguments and makes it clear to the
reader that the original question has been answered.
❑ Which of the following are generally acceptable in conclusions?
a) A statement showing how your aim has been achieved.
b) A discussion of the implications of your research.
c) Some new information on the topic not mentioned before.
d) A short review of the main points of your study.
e) Some suggestions for further research.
f) The limitations of your study.
g) Comparison with the results of similar studies.
h) A quotation which appears to sum up your work.
❑ Match the following extracts from conclusions with the preceding acceptable
features of conclusions. Example: a = vi
i) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be considered in
evaluating its findings.
ii) These results suggest that the risk of flooding on this coast has increased
significantly and is likely to worsen.
iii) Several hurdles that we encountered provide a point of departure for subsequent
studies.
iv) Our review of 13 studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates that the effect
of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may either be temporary or
permanent.
v) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with other
similar studies conducted in other countries (Baron and Norman, 1992).
vi) This study has clearly illustrated the drawbacks to family ownership of retail
businesses.
Taken from Bailey p. 80
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❖ Conclusion structure
Although there is no fixed pattern, a common structure for an essay conclusion is:
a) Summary of main findings or results
b) Link back to the original question to show it has been answered
c) Reference of the limitations of your work (e.g. geographical)
d) Suggestions for future possible related research
e) Comments on the implications of your research
Taken from Bailey p. 81
❖ Practice
The following sentences form the conclusion to the essay titled ‘Evaluate the
experience of e-learning for students in higher education’, whose introduction was
given on page 2. The sentences have been mixed up. Put them into a logical order (1–
5).
a) This finding was clear, despite the agreed convenience of e-learning.
b) Given the constraints of the small and limited sample, there is clearly room for
further research in this field, in particular to explore whether certain disciplines
are more suited to this mode of learning than others.
c) However, our survey of nearly 200 students found a strong preference for
traditional classroom teaching.
d) But in general, it would appear that e-learning is unlikely to be acceptable as a
primary teaching method in higher education.
e) This study found that little relevant research on the HE student experience of e-
learning has been conducted, and the research that has been reported
indicates a mixed reaction to it.
Taken from Bailey p. 81
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