National Commission for

Indian System of Medicine

Introduction to Science in Samskrit

Presented by Prepared by
Lakshminarasimhan Krishnamurthi Samskrit Promotion Foundation
Agriculture In India
Agriculture In India: From Ancient Indian Literature
• The earliest evidence is from Mehrgarh (8000 BCE onward) North West and from sites in the Deccan,
Central India, Kashmir and the Northwest.
• Process of domestication of plants and cereals would have taken quite a long time.
• Evidence of cereals can be traced at Mehrgarh and in the Vindhyas in 6,000 BCE.
• Vedic literature gives plentiful evidence to agriculture.
• In Reveda Vihere is abundance of shlokas which refer to agriculture.
• According to Rgveda, cultivated fields are called “kshetra” and fertile ones “urvara” which might
indicate alluvial lands as well.
• Another term used in connection with agriculture is “sita”.
• The term “krshti” in Rgveda which denotes people in general, but agriculturists in particular.
• Rgveda refers to the preservation of seeds which indicates that agriculture
• Also references to agriculture is foound in Satapathabrahmana, Taittiriyasamhita,
Vajasaneyasamhita, Chandogyopanisad too
 Agriculture –From Tamil Literature
Tholkappiyam
The poem Tholkappiyam was written by the poet Tholkappier during 200 BC. It gives descriptions of
various agricultural aspects

Thirukkural: Plenty of reference is found in Thirukkural too

• The poem was composed by a gifted poet named Thirvalluvar during 70 BC. It consists of 1330
couplets (133 topics each having 10 couplets).
• It is the pride of Sangam Tamil literature and its greatness can be realized from the fact that it has
been translated into English and several other languages.
• Importance of agriculture is mentioned as below;
 “World spins around many industries. All such industries spin around agriculture.”
 “Farmers alone live an independent life; others worship them and are second to them.”
 “If farmers stop cultivation, even rishis (sages) cannot survive.”
 Krishi-Parashara
• It has been established scientifically that the genesis of agriculture in India as a means of sustaining human life can
be traced back to a period around 7000 BC.
• That means for well over 9000 years, we have been cultivating our land for our daily needs of food-stuff. But when
did we Indians make an attempt to collect information relating to agriculture and prepare a book out of such
information? This is an extremely difficult question to answer. When there was no script, neither a picture script nor
a Brahmi or Kharoshtri script was in existence, how did we compose on the model of Rigveda and other Vedas,
verses in meters which could be learned and memorized and be passed on from one generation to the next by oral
transmission? One can speculate like this in an interminable way. No firm and satisfactory explanation is possible at
present.
• The book Krishi-Parashara reflects the ancient history of India. It is a profound treatise on agriculture and relates to
meteorological problems composed or compiled in Sanskrit by a sage named Parashara.
• A careful perusal of the book Krishi-Parashara, translated by Nalini Sadhale convinces us that if it is not the first
book of agriculture in India, then it would qualify to be designated as one of the oldest books on agriculture.
• This book throws new insights into ancient Indian knowledge of farm practices and crop production which can be
dated back to the 1* century
• This treatise can be classified as one of the oldest texts on Indian agriculture containing several references to crop
management, farm implements, and astrology-based prediction of rainfall.
 Krishi-Parashara
• It is significant that out of 243 verses in this treatise, at least 117 verses have the astrological
component.
• As nearly half the verses have that component, it is a reflection on the dominant role that astrology
played in the lives of Indians in that’ period. (Predictive Science / Like the role played by
Meteorological Department)
• Displaying a remarkable quest for agricultural activities, this ancient book is replete with theories on
farm and cattle management, manure, plant protection, water harvesting, collection and storage of
seed, and sowing and planting techniques.
• The book also contains description on meteorological concepts composed or compiled in Sanskrit, by
the sage Parashara.
• Using this text, an attempt was made to determine the region and period in which the sage Parashara
might have lived and composed his book Krishi-Parashara.
• A rough indication is available in verse 86 of this book when the sage Parashara states that bullocks
nourished on sugarcane fodder, barley, wheat and such other food .
 Krishi-Parashara
• In verse 167, Parashara refers to the names of seeds of sesame, rice and barley. Unfortunately, this
information is inadequate for deciding the area which the sage covered in his text and to specify the
region of the agricultural operations described in his book.
• A very significant fact regarding the agricultural activities in the region is disclosed by the sage in verse
10 when he states, “Farming depends wholly on rainfall.” Obviously, this means that no canal-irrigation
and well-irrigation systems had been developed for sustaining crop production in his area.
• The food grains specifically mentioned by the sage, and his emphatic statement that the crops in his
area were completely rainfed create an impression in our minds that he probably lived in the
northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent in which agriculture as a vocation had its genesis.
• The sage Parashara shows a remarkable quest for agricultural activities since he knows from his personal
experience the intimate and close relationship between agriculture and rainfall.
• It would be pertinent to note here that the sage makes full use of his astrological knowledge for
predicting the availability of rainwater during the different stages of crop growth.
• Thus he enables us to study his concepts of clouds and rainfall and indirectly provides us with a method
for identifying the period of history in which he lived and complied his book, Krishi-Parashara.
 Krishi-Parashara
• As per the monsoon rain dates mentioned in his work, it is clear that he lived in the northwestern
parts of India in a region lying between 30° and 34° N which forms a region over which the Western
disturbances pass from the west to the east, every year, during December to May.
• The western disturbances are low pressure areas which emanate from around the coastal areas of
the Mediterranean Sea.
• From June, these disturbances shift to the north and follow a Passage which is beyond 35° N and
hence they do not affect the weather of the Indian subcontinent.
• It is significant that the sage Parashara Stresses that to know the quantum of monthly rainfall, the
observer of the weather has to work everyday and keep track of the direction of winds by fixing a rod
with a flag attached to it (verse 33).
• This was the forerunner of the modern wind-vane in its simplest form.
• According to Parashara, wind from the north or the west brings rain and that from the east or the
south indicates absence of rain,
• This observation further confirms that the sage refers to rainfall from the western disturbances.
Krishi-Parashara
 Kashyapiya-Krishi-suktih

भाग – 1 धान्यािद कृिषकम कथनम् ।

Orderly exposition of Grain-agriculture
भाग – 2 शाकािद कृिषकमकथनम् ।
Orderly exposition of Vegetable husbandry
भाग – 3 भोज्याभोज्यकमथनम् ।
Orderly exposition of edibles and non-edibles
भाग – 4 िविवध हव्य िनवेदन क्रमकथनम् ।
Orderly exposition of sacrificial offerings
 Kashyapiya-Krishi-suktih – Section 1
The first section consists of nearly six hundred verses covering about three quarters of the entire treatise.
It is further subdivided into fourteen different sub-sections:
1. Introduction (verses 1-24) (24 verses)
2. Division of land (verses 25-60) (36 verses)
3. Construction of water reservoirs (verses 61-110) (50 verses)
4. Construction of canals, wells, etc. (verses 111-181) (71 verses)
5. Characteristics of good farmers and village officers (verses 182-248) (67 verses)
6. Procurement of tools, implements, and other Resources (verses 249-271) (23 verses)
7. Plow worship (verses 272-278) (7 verses)
8. Worship of bullocks (verses 279-286) (8 verses)
9. Characteristics of good cows and bullocks (verses 287-320) (34 verses)
[Link] of farming and determining land for rice and pulses (verses 321-343) (23 verses)
[Link] of seeds (verses 344—41 1 ) (68 verses)
[Link] for sowing seeds (verses 412-427) (16 verses)
[Link] procedure for grain crops (verses 428—525) (98 verses)
[Link] of pulses and other crops (verses 526—606) (81 verses)
 Kashyapiya-Krishi-suktih – Section 2
This section consists of nearly of 178 verses and deals with cultivation of vegetables.
• He says,” Rice, Pulses, Vegetables prepared with right condiments make a good meal”
• He also says “By growing rice on fertile lands and Pulses on non-fertile lands people should cook food
for themselves.”
• He also says “ People should plan their food based on season, region, tradition and custom. Rice
pulses, vegetables, milk and milk products must be included in the diet in the order of preference
• This section also talks about Public Sector Farming, marketing of Agri products, standardisation of
weights and measures
• Propagation and protection of forests
• Mines and their management
• Ornaments
• Taxes etc

Kashyapiya-Krishi-suktih – Section 3 & 4

This section consists of nearly of 72 verses and deals with sociao religious topics
 Support to agriculture by the ruler
• Kashyapa has repeatedly stressed the need fora genuine support to farm activities by the king or ruler
concerned. In the modern context, this would mean support from the central and state governments.
• The ruler’s support is required in
• identifying land for agriculture (I. 32-33, 46, 57-58),
• building water reservoirs (I. 61, 64, 69-72, 80-82, 89-92),
• planting trees on the banks of water reservoirs (I. 93, 99),
• constructing canals and wells (I. 111, 125, 135, 147—150, 155-160, 163),
• water harvesting (I. 179-181),
• making seed available (I. 375),
• ensuring sustenance to people (II. 83),
• giving donation of land and subsidies to “weaker” people (II. 94-96),
• arranging markets (II. 106— 115),
• standardizing weights and measures (II. 116-125),
 Support to agriculture by the ruler
• afforestation (II. 143-151),
• locating mines producing metals such as iron, copper, and zinc (brass ?), gold, and silver (II. 158-
160), and
• collecting taxes (II. 173-174).
• Kashyapa has thus strongly suggested a very major role for the ruler (governments today!) in fully
supporting various agricultural activities. He has emphasized that happiness all around can be felt only
if there was food security.
• People of all castes were freely encouraged to practice agriculture
• Kashyapa has repeatedly stressed that agriculture is a virtuous profession and all people, regardless of
their
 Kashyapiyakrishisukti
• Irrigated Crop Production
• Kashyapa was supportive of Irrigated Crop Production
• Around 180 verses talk about Water reservoirs, canals and wells.
• Emphasised water harvesting
• Construction of water reservoirs, canals, maintenance of reservoirs are mentioned
• Planting of trees around them is also mentioned.
• Tools & Implements
• Kashyapa suggests strong wood for various purposes such as tinduka, sarjakatinisha
• Use of manure is also explained
• Gratitude to everything which is used is also mentioned
• Selection of Good Cows and Bullocks
• Kashyapa has expressed importance of good quality of bulls and cows.
• Many traits are explained to categorise them
• Bufellos and goats are also mentioned in the texts
• On cattle he says” Rain falls undoubtedly in that country where a thousand cows and treated
affectionately. Gods are pleased by protection and donation of cows”
 Kashyapiyakrishisukti
• Planting time and selection of lands
• Kashyapa talks about developing yielding capacity of fields.
• This is about sustainability of the quality of land.
• Planting to start with rainy season
• He talks about planting in summer too if water is available
• Divided the land in to two major categories :suitable for Rice and lands suitable for other crops
• Low fields with good water supply for rice & highlands for other crops
• Collection & Preservation of seeds
• Kashyapa gives lot of importance to collection of seeds and preservation of seeds
• Preservation of multiple varieties of rice and cereals
• Cultivation of pulses other crops, Vegetables, fruits and others
• Kashyapa talks about pulses, barley, sugarcane, planting techniques of differnet crops
• Vegetables fruits and trees are also mentioned
• Wisdom regarding nutrition is mentioined in the text
• Gardents, forests, mining is also mentioned
• “As time changes, King should also review the manner and mode of agricultural techniques for sowing the
seeds, different techniques for cool and warm climates etc.
• Edibles and non-edibles : 42 verses on what should be and should not be eaten.
 Kashyapiyakrishisukti : Section 4
• Sacrificial Offerings
These 30 verses deal with offering of varied food preparations to Lord Vishnu
• Payasanna
• Appupa
• Vataka
• Polika
• modaka
• Sarkarabandi
• Atirasa
• Temana
• Kadhi
• Jalepika etc.
• Plat diversity
• 125 varieties of plants are discussed
• Most of these species are of Inidan origin only.
It looks like Kashyapa belonged to the peninsular India or UP region
 Surapala’s Vrikshyaurveda
• Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira of the sixth century deals with widely ranging subjects such as
astronomy, physics, geology, horticulture, archaeology, etc. It contains a chapter titled
Vrikshayurveda.
• It also contains chapters on allied subjects such as divining groundwater, productivity and non-
productivity of land as indicated by natural vegetation, etc. However, beyond establishing the
antiquity of the sastra, it cannot give any definite clues to any full-fledged, independent texts on
Vrikshayurveda.
• In the opening verse itself Varahamihira states, “After studying various sastras of the ancient sages
and after being convinced about their authenticity, I propose to explain the same in a clear manner
in this composition which is neither too brief nor too exhaustive” (Brhatsamhita Chapter 1, verse 2).
This proves beyond doubt that the science of Vrikshayurveda was well developed even prior to the
sixth century.
• Unfortunately, not a single text of that antiquity has been preserved.
Sarngadharapaddhati (written by Sarngadhara), belonging to the thirteenth century, is yet another
ancient text which in its chapter “Upavanavinoda” deals with an allied subject, viz.,
“arbori-horticulture”.
 Surapala’s Vrikshyaurveda
The chapter brings under its fold topics like planting, soil, nourishment of plants, plant diseases and
remedies, groundwater resources, etc.
Copy of the Vrukshayurveda Manuscript was received from Bodlein Librarary, Oxford UK by Dr Y L Nene of
Asian Agri History Foundation, New Delhi , which is presented here.
The colophon of the manuscript mentions that the author is Surapala a scholar in the cour of Bhimapala.
Surapala is stated to be “Vaidyavidyavarenya”. An epithet “Siddhayoga” is open to several interpretations,
in the period of the text.
• “Upavanavinoda” shares with Vrikshayurveda of Surapala almost all the topics.
• Many verses are identical and several others, although worded differently have an identical content.
• The writer concludes the chapter with a note: “These are from different sciences about
Vrikshayurveda.”
• Thus like Varahamihira, he too, admits that his work is a compilation in which information from various
texts on Vrikshayurveda is culled together.
• In spite of the striking resemblance between Upavanavinoda and Vrikshayurveda of Surapala, the
former cannot be considered as a complete and independent text on Vrikshayurveda. The hopes of
tracing any independent text of Vrikshayurveda were given up by scholars.
Topics of Verses in Surapala’s Vrikshyaurveda
1. Benediction
2. Introductory composition
3. Glorification of trees
4. Glorification of planting specific trees
5. Merits and demerits of trees planted around the house
6. Soil
7. Classification of plants and multiplication
8. Seed
9. Sowing
10. Planting
11. Protection of plants
12. Nourishment
13. Dangers, diseases, and ailments of plants, and treatment®
14. Horticultural wonders
15. Pleasure gardens
16. Groundwater
17. Suitability or otherwise of land for crop and animal production as indicated by natural vegetation
18. Colophon
 Biodiversity Perspective
• Vrikshayurveda, which means “The Science of Plant Life’, mainly deals with various Species of trees
and their healthy growth and productivity.
• The text mentions about 170 species of plants, including herbs, shrubs, and trees. There are 325
systematically arranged verses, beginning with a salutation to Lord Ganesha, followed by
glorification of trees, and composition on tree-planting and production.
• Various chapters deal with the raising of orchards, agri-horticulture, and tree-planting near houses.
• Special references are made on procuring, preserving, and treatment of seeds and planting
materials; Preparation of pits for planting; selection of land (soil); methods of irrigation and ways to
locate groundwater; nourishment and fertilizers;
• Water availability, Crop Production, Animal Production are all dealt with in this book
 Ailments
• The disease of all types of trees is stated to be of two varieties: internal and external.
• The internal ones are those which are caused by vata, pitta, and kafa (humors); and external ones are
those which are caused by insects, cold weather, etc.
• Among these, the diseases caused by vata are due to the land that becomes arid on account of
excessive supply of dry and pungent matters.
• These diseases are: thinness and crookedness of trunk, appearance of knots on the trunk or leaves,
and the fruits being hard, with less juice and less sweetness.
• The diseases of the kafa type occur in winter and in spring if the trees are excessively watered with
materials which are sweet, oily, sour, or cold.
• External disease is caused by various factors like, heat, stromy winds, fire, lightening, struck by axe,
faulty seed, ants and insects, creepers, friction with other trees
 Treatment
• Diseases caused by imbalance of vata can be cured by flesh, marrow, and ghee.
The sprinkling of kunapa water also removes all the disorders caused by the vata
element.
• The diseases of the vata type can be quickly warded off by liberal fumigation of
the mixture of the fat of the hog, oil of the Gangetic porpoise, ghee, hemp, hair
of the horses, and cow’s horn—boiled and set to a decoction.
 Plant Protection & Ailments
• Plant protection was already recognized as an important activity.
• Details of the symptoms of various disorders must have been observed over long periods before
arriving at definite descriptions and attributing specific symptoms to various causes.
• There had been no other attempt in the world by which plant disorders were classified into two
groups; i.e, internal and external before the time of Surpala.
• Further it is very significant that physiology of trees was considered similar to those of humans and
therefore classifying the internal disorders into vata, kafa, and pitta kinds (humors) as had been done
in case of humans.
• Several of the symptoms described can be attributed today to fungi, bacteria,
 Material recommended for treatment
• Hog fat • Cow Dung
• Porpoise oil • Liquid Manure (Kunapa water)
• Ghee (clarified butter) • Kusta, ativisa, Ramatha, Usana
• Hemp (sun hemp?) • Flesh (Bird & Animal)
• Horse hair • Cow Urine
• Wine
• Cow/buffalo horn
• Lotus
• Panchamula (roots of five plant species)
• Crab Shells
• White mustard
• Sugar
• Sesame (tila)
• Arjuna
• Ash • Barley
• Milk (Cow/buffalo) • Wheat
• Honey • Goat Sheep Dung
• Yastimadhu (licorice) • Bones of animals
• Madhuka (Mahnua (Indian Butter tree) • Jaggery
• Fruits of Triphala • Brihati etc.
Thank You
National Commission for
Indian System of Medicine