Module-3

Electrical Power Generation Electrical Safety Measures and Protection

Solar Photo Voltaic Power Generation

Solar electric systems convert sunlight to ―DC‖ or direct current electricity—the same type of
electricity that is produced by every-day batteries where electrons flow in one direction. Solar
cells, generally consisting of 2 layers of silicon (semi-conductor material) and a separation
layer, are wired together and assembled into panels or modules. When the cells are exposed
to sunlight, photons from the sun interact with electrons in the upper silicon layer, basically
knocking them loose from their associated atoms. The loose electrons are attracted to atoms
in the lower layer of silicon and travel through the wire to get there. This movement of
electrons from one side of the cell to the other through the wire is electrical current. The term
―photovoltaic‖ (or PV for short) is nicely descriptive of this process.

When a solar panel is manufactured, the PV cells are wired together in ―series‖. The output
voltage of the panel depends on the number of cells in the series. Common nominal output
voltages are 12, 18, and 24 volts DC. The output wattage is dependent on the efficiency of the
cells and the size or area of each cell in the panel. The larger and more efficient the cells, the
greater the wattage will be per square foot. Panels made using more efficient cells tend to be
more-expensive.

When the installer assembles a PV system, an exact number of panels are wired in series
strings to achieve the target voltage required by the inverter or other load. Then groups of
panel strings are often wired together in ―parallel‖ in order to increase the wattage of the
system. Once all these components are in place, the sun provides the energy and the system
simply manufactures electricity!

The solar cell is the basic building block of a PV system. It converts solar energy directly into
electricity through a process known as the photovoltaic effect.

An individual solar cell doesn't generate much power. The amount varies, but it is around 1
or 2 watts. But you can increase the solar power generated by joining them together into a
larger unit called a PV module. PV modules are also known as solar power panels. The power
output of a PV module ranges from 10 watts to 300 watts. To generate even more power, PV
modules can be combined to form a PV array.

A PV array can consist of any number of modules. This modularity makes photovoltaic
systems very flexible. They are able to meet any electrical requirement, whether the amount
of power needed is small or large.

Fig. Symbol of a solar/PV cell.

Power Plant Layout of Solar Photovoltaic System

A photovoltaic power plant is a large-scale PV system that is connected to the grid and
designed to produce bulk electrical power from solar radiation. A photovoltaic power plant
consists of several components, such as:

Solar modules: The basic units of a PV system, made up of solar cells that turn light into
electricity. Solar cells, typically made from silicon, absorb photons and release electrons,
creating an electric current. Solar modules can be arranged in series, parallel, or series-
parallel configurations, depending on the system‘s voltage and current needs.

Mounting structures: They can be fixed or adjustable. Fixed structures are cheaper but don‘t
follow the sun‘s movement, possibly reducing output. Adjustable structures tilt or rotate to
track the sun, enhancing energy production. They can be manual or automatic, depending on
the control needed.

Inverters: These are devices that convert the direct current (DC) produced by the solar
modules into alternating current (AC) that can be fed into the grid or used by AC loads.
Charge controllers: Regulate the voltage and current from solar modules to prevent battery
overcharging or over-discharging.

Batteries: These are devices that store excess electricity generated by the solar modules or
arrays for later use when there is no sunlight or when the grid is down.

Meters: These are devices that measure and display various parameters of the system, such
as voltage, current, power, energy, temperature, or irradiance.

Cables: These are wires that transmit electricity between different components of the system.
Cables can be classified into two types: DC cables and AC cables. DC cables carry direct
current from the solar modules to the inverters or batteries, while AC cables carry alternating
current from the inverters to the grid or loads.

Electric Shock

An electric shock is the physiological reaction from the human body when electric current
passes through the body.
Effects of the Electric Shock
Current (mA) Effect Time Duration
0.2 to 10 Beginning level in affecting Not critical
the ability to see, hear etc.
10 to 16 Muscles contract Minutes
30 Breathing difficult, ‗safe‘ Seconds
limit
50 Irregular heartbeat A Few seconds
60 Respiratory problems, cannot
breathe
Greater than 60 Heart fibrillation, electric
burns
Safety precautions to avoid electric shock:
1. Make sure the appliance or the socket is properly earthed.
 2. Don't overload a socket by plugging in more appliances into the same socket.
3. Make sure the plastic cover on the wires is intact.
4. Don't touch current carrying equipment with wet hands.
5. Use proper safety equipment like gloves and right tools to do electric repairs.

Earthing and its Types

Earthing is defined as ―the process in which the diversion of the electric current under
abnormal conditions directly to the earth through low resistance wires.‖

Need of Earthing

1. Safety of People: If a fault occurs (like insulation failure), exposed metal parts of
equipment can become live. Without earthing, anyone touching these parts may get a severe
or fatal electric shock. Earthing provides a safe low-resistance path for fault current to flow
into the ground instead of passing through a human body.
2. Protection of Equipment: Prevents damage to electrical equipment (transformers,
inverters, motors, etc.) by allowing excess fault current to flow safely into the ground.
Reduces the risk of fire due to overheating from fault currents.
3. Protection Against Lightning: While lightning, earthing provides a safe path for lightning
discharges to flow into the ground, protecting transmission lines and other electrical
equipment‘s in outdoor substations.

Earthing procedure (House Purpose)

 For Earthing a building first, dig a pit to bury the ground electrode. The pit should be
close to the house and about 3meters deep.
 Fill the pit with a layer of salt, and charcoal (or Earthing compound) and place the
earth rod vertically inside the pit. Fill the remaining portion of the pit with some salt,
and charcoal (or Earthing compound) layer.
 Connect the Earthing link to the electrode using earth wires.

Types of Earthing:
There are various types of earthing systems used in different situations. Each type has its own
characteristics and suitability based on factors like soil resistivity and available space. The
following are some commonly used types of earthing:
1. Plate Earthing
Plate earthing involves burying a metal plate, typically made of copper or galvanized iron, in
the ground. The plate acts as an electrode and is connected to the electrical system. Plate
earthing is commonly used in residential and small commercial buildings.
2. Pipe Earthing
Pipe earthing utilizes a metal pipe, such as a galvanized iron pipe or a copper pipe, as the
electrode. The pipe is driven vertically into the ground, and the electrical system is connected
to it. Pipe earthing is suitable for areas with high soil resistivity.
3. Rod Earthing
Rod earthing involves the use of a metal rod, usually made of copper or galvanized iron,
driven vertically into the ground. The electrical system is connected to the rod. Rod earthing
is effective in areas with low soil resistivity.
4. Strip Earthing
Strip earthing employs a metal strip, such as a copper strip or a galvanized iron strip, buried
horizontally in a trench. The strip acts as the electrode and is connected to the electrical
system. Strip earthing is commonly used in industrial and commercial settings.

Domestic Electricity bill Calculation (Simple Numerical Problem)

Number of Power Daily Use in Energy Consumption
Appliances Rating Hours

4 LED Bulb 9-watt each 10 4 x 9W x 10 = 360 watt-hr

1 Cooler 400-watt 6 1 x 400W x 6 = 2,400 watt-hr

2 Ceiling fans 70-watt each 18 2 x 70W x 18 = 2,520 watt-hr

1 TV 100-watt 4 1 x 100W x 4 = 400 watt-hr

1 Refrigerator 300-watt 12 1 x 300W x 12 = 3,600 watt-

hr

Here‘s what the total will be 9,280 Watt Hour

1 watt = 0.001 kW

Therefore, your daily load is 9.28 kWh or 9.28 units per day. Considering that you use these
appliances for the same number of hours daily, your monthly power consumption will be 9.28
x 30 = 278.4 units per month. If the electricity tariff for your region is Rs.8 per unit, your
monthly energy bill will be Rs.2,227.20/-

Necessity of Electrical Equipment Protection

Electrical equipment protection is necessary to keep people safe from electric shock.

It prevents fire hazards caused by short circuits and overloads.

It helps to avoid damage to costly machines like motors and transformers.

Protection devices ensure uninterrupted and reliable power supply.

They also protect against lightning and overvoltage.

Overall, protection increases the safety, reliability, and life of electrical systems.
What is a Fuse?

• A Fuse is a protective device used to protect the electrical equipment against

overloads and/or short circuits. It works on the principle of heating effect that is
associated with the current.
• Made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity, least oxidation like
silver copper etc.
• Inserted in series with circuit
• Under normal condition fuse element is at temperature below melting point.
• In case of short circuit or overload condition fuse melts and blows away, thereby
disconnecting circuit protected by it.
• Fuses are used in low voltage and medium voltage circuits.
Advantages:
1. It is the cheapest form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which
requires elaborate equipment for automatic action.
4. It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.
5. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit
conditions.
6. The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for overcurrent
protection.
7. The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit
breakers.
Disadvantages:
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
2. On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained
unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of the
protected apparatus.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

When the current overflow occurs through MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker, the bimetallic
strip gets heated and deflects by bending. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a
latch. The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the current flow in the circuit. This
process helps safeguard the appliances or devices from the hazards of overload or
overcurrent. To restart the current flow, MCB must be turned ON manually.
In the case of short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly in an unpredictable way,
leading to the electromechanical displacement of the plunger associated with a solenoid. The
plunger hits the trip lever, which causes the automatic release of the latch mechanism by
opening the circuit breaker contacts.
An MCB is a simple, easily operable device and is maintenance-free too. MCB can be easily
replaced. The trip unit is the key part of the MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker on which the
unit operates. The bi-metal present in the MCB circuit protects against overload current, and
the electromagnet in the circuit protects against short-circuit current.

Advantages:

1. MCBs are more sensitive to detecting changes in current flow than fuses.
2. It responds quickly against short circuits and overload due to its sensitivity.
3. It can be reused as there is no need of changing any wire, unlike the fuses.
4. It has less maintenance cost as compared to fuses.
5. MCB‘s are more reliable electrical safety devices as compared to fuses due to their
quick response and current sensitivity.
6. Simple to use-it is very simple for resuming the supply just like a simple ON/OFF
switch and can control the circuit switch.
7. It automatically turns off the connections of electricity and supply can be resumed
easily again.

Disadvantages:

1. Slow tripping
2. Aging and wear
3. Vulnerability to heat
4. They are more expensive than fused switches.
5. Can not protect against earth faults.