Invention

Major Concepts So Far:

1. Rhetorical Situation - The thing that determines your choices
a. Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject
2. Rhetorical Appeals - The intended effects of your choices
a. Ethos - Character
b. Pathos - Emotion
c. Logos - Logic
3. Stasis Theory - How to approach a problem/question/prompt
a. Fact, Definition, Quality, Policy
4. Commonplaces, Framing, Decorum - Misc key terms
a. Identifying values/beliefs/trends
b. Attaching values to concepts
c. Being aware of what is expected of you in different situations (or what expectations are put on
others in different situations)
Writing Process

1. Invention
2. Writing
3. Revision
*These can mix and match occasionally. You can write a bit, come back to
it later, revise a little bit, and so forth.
Invention

- Conversation
- Brainstorming
- Research
- Stasis Theory
- Outlining
Writing Takes Time

- Most of the work in writing comes before any writing

occurs
- A process, not merely a product.
- The more time spent in the invention stage, the easier the
writing stage is.
- Don’t think of writing simply as only writing, but think of it
as your ability to communicate and express your ideas.
- Writing can be about any topic - so having knowledge
about topics is great, but also time consuming.
Nate Silver, ABC data analyst and writer of Amazon’s #1
non fiction book in 2012
“I cringe when I see advice like: “Just start typing and figure it out
on the page.”

Don’t do this. Most of the writing process is figuring out what you
want to say. And if you haven’t figured it out, typing doesn’t help.
Worse, you may become attached to your inadequate first draft. It
often takes longer to improve a bad copy than to start with a blank
page.”
Writer’s Block?

- Avoid perfection paralysis

- Take a break
- Have conversations
- “Devil’s advocate”
- Stream of consciousness
- Jot down notes on your conversations, readings, ideas
that pop into your head.
Rhetorical Situation - Audience
Use the rhetorical situation when pondering your writing task.
Particularly focus on the idea of audience.
● Who is the audience for your writing?
● Do you think your audience is interested in the topic? Why or why not?
● Why should your audience be interested in this topic?
● What does your audience already know about this topic?
● What does your audience need to know about this topic?
● What experiences has your audience had that would influence them on this topic?
● What do you hope the audience will gain from your text?
Rhetorical Situation - Purpose

There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject
But you need to narrow down your choices.
Regardless of your topic, address the question - "So what?" Why
should you write about this, and why should anyone read it?
Some brainstorming questions
Talk to your “reader”

● What questions would they ask?

● What different kinds of readers might you have?

Ask yourself questions

Journalistic questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What?

Stasis questions: What are the facts? What is the nature of the issue? How
serious is the issue? Who is affected? What should we do?
Definition (stasis theory) questions
● How does the dictionary define ____?
● What do I mean by ____?
● What group of things does ____ belong to?
● How is ____ different from other things?
● What parts can ____ be divided into?
● Does ____ mean something now that it didn't years ago? If so, what?
● What other words mean about the same as ____?
● What are some concrete examples of ____?
● When is the meaning of ____ misunderstood?
Comparison/Contrast
What is ____ similar to? In what ways?
What is ____ different from? In what ways?
____ is superior (inferior) to what? How?
____ is most unlike (like) what? How?

Relationship
What causes ____?
What are the effects of ____?
What is the purpose of ____? - What is the consequence of ____?
What comes before (after) ____?

Testimony
What have I heard people say about ____?
What are some facts of statistics about ____?
Can I quote any proverbs, poems, or sayings about ____?
Are there any laws about ____?
Circumstance
Is ____ possible or impossible?
What qualities, conditions, or circumstances make ____ possible or impossible?
When did ____ happen previously?
Who can do ____?
If ____ starts, what makes it end?
What would it take for ____ to happen now?
What would prevent ___ from happening?
Contrasting features
How is ____ different from things similar to it?
How has ____ been different for me?
Variation
How much can ____ change and still be itself?
How is ____ changing?
How much does ____ change from day to day?
What are the different varieties of ____?
Distribution
Where and when does ____ take place?
What is the larger thing of which ___ is a part?
What is the function of ____ in this larger thing?
Activity:

1. Navigate to the New York Times Student Opinion

Page
2. Select a prompt that captures your interest that was
published during this school year.
3. Read through the hyperlinked essay
4. Practice some of the brainstorming strategies from
our lecture
Stasis Theory (again)

1. Facts
a. Compile information
2. Definition
a. Determine framing
3. Quality
a. Determine scope
4. Policy
a. Create your thesis statement
Thesis Statements

- An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies

this claim with specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a
policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an
interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince
the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.
What does a Thesis do?

1. Articulates your arguments central argument.

2. Condenses the main takeaway
3. Helps reader’s see the focus of your argument.
4. Creates the backbone of your argument
5. Opens the space for debate and discussion
Thesis features
1. Is specific
2. Contains the scope of the argument
3. Contains an action verb
4. Usually placed in the introduction of an essay.

Example:
High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue
community service projects before entering college in order to increase their
maturity and global awareness.
Why create an outline?

- Helps organize ideas

- Presents your material in logical form
- Shows the relationship between ideas
- Defines boundaries and groups
- Separation of style and content
4 Steps to Creating an Outline
1. Brainstorm
a. Generate a list of potential ideas
2. Organize
a. Group items based on common features or unifying trait
3. Order
a. Place your organized groups in a specific sequence
i. For example:
1. Generic to Specific
2. Abstract to Concrete
ii. Here is where you can consider inductive vs deductive reasoning.
4. Label
a. Create headings for your groups
Mind Map (or hexagonal thinking)

Hexagonal thinking is a method for approaching the brainstorming

process and then assisting you with the outlining process for writing a
paper or presentation.
The idea is to use the hexagonal shape to help organize ideas and
concepts next to each other based on connections you have made
between them.
Some concepts may share multiple edges, some may branch off and only
share a single edge.
The Process
1. Create a list of terms, keywords, concepts, characters, motifs, themes,
devices, terminology, plot details, etc.
2. Agree with your group on the list of terms. Try to keep the terms relevant to
the content material.
3. Begin with what your group feels is a core concept and place that hexagon
down.
4. Debate which terms relate to that concept and place the hexagons next to it,
sharing an edge.
5. Continue going through the list of terms placing the hexagons down next to
the words that share a connection.
6. Be able to communicate why a hexagon is placed where it is - don’t try to
rationalize too much and have things that are too loose clustered together.
TERMS
EXAMPLE WEB

Carbon Dioxide Renewable

Energy
Mitigation

Paris Alternative
Fossil Fuels Agreement Energy
Climate
Emissions UNFCC
Change

Greenhouse
Gases

Global Methane
Warming
Ice Caps

Polar Bears Sea Level

Rise
Three types of essay development
The Toulmin Method is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. The Toulmin
Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The Rogerian Method seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives
that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on
reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability
to define the terms of the argument in such a way that: (1) your position seems like a reasonable compromise and (2) you
seem compassionate and empathetic.

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by
the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical
arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of
classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.
Classical Method (Aristotle)
The basic format of the Classical Method is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue.
By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the
information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if
necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the
other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of
pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.
Rogerian Method
The basic format of the Rogerian Method is as follows:

Introduction: Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View: Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing
side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding): This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain
circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position: By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain
your own stance.

Statement of Contexts: Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain
contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits: You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By
explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.
Toulmin Method
Claim: Explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds): You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove
your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge): Provide reasoning about how your data supports your claim

Backing (Foundation): Provide any additional data andr reasoning to support your reasoning(warrant) on your
data(grounds)

Qualifier Explore the limitations and boundaries of your claim. In a single sentence, this would include words such as
“many” or “some”. In an expanded form, it is acknowledging the weaknesses of your claim, or identifying where it will mostly
be successful.

Counterclaim and Rebuttal: In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim.
Outline Example
Purdue Owl Link
Activity

- For your prompt yesterday:

1. Follow the four steps for outlining:
- Brainstorm, Organize, Order, Label
- Create a list of terms/keywords/topics/evidence
- Then, create a hexagon map that contains the terms from your
list.
2. Decide on which approach you would like to practice for your
outline
- Toulmin, Rogerian, Aristotle
3. Create an outline for your essay