Notes on Heating and Cooling Load Calculations

• (Based on chapter 5 Thermal Distribution Systems from

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by W.F. Stoecker and J.W.
Jones (pages 108–122, Chapter 5)
 5-1 — Thermal Distribution Systems
1. Purpose of Thermal Distribution
• Once heating and cooling loads in a conditioned space have been determined (as
described in Chapter 4), energy must be transferred to or from the space to
maintain the desired indoor conditions.
• This transfer requires moving thermal energy between:
– A central source or sink (boiler, refrigeration unit, chiller, etc.)
– The conditioned spaces themselves.
2. Mediums of Energy Transfer
• Air, water, and occasionally refrigerant serve as the transport media in most
systems.
• These media convey thermal energy in one of two directions:
– From the space to the sink (for cooling)
– From the source to the space (for heating)
3. Definition
• The thermal distribution system is the assembly of components that transfers heat
between the conditioned spaces and the heat source or sink.
• It also introduces outdoor ventilation air to maintain indoor air quality and meet
occupancy requirements.
Functional Overview
• The system links conditioned zones with central plant equipment.
• It includes:
– Ducts or pipes for distributing the thermal medium.
– Fans or pumps for moving air or water.
– Control devices for temperature and humidity regulation.
– Mixing and ventilation arrangements for outdoor air.
5. System Classification
• Thermal distribution systems fall into two major categories:
A. Air Systems
• These use air as the primary carrier of heating or cooling energy.
• Single-Zone System (Classic)
– Used for areas requiring precise conditions such as auditoriums, laboratories, or
clean rooms.
– Serves one zone with a single thermostat and humidistat.
– Components: air filter, heating coil, cooling coil, fan, humidifier, and return-air path.
– Provides heating, cooling, humidification, and dehumidification as required.
• Multi-Zone Air Systems
– Serve several zones from one central air-handling unit.
– Each zone has its own temperature control.
– Common types (to be detailed later in the chapter):
• Terminal Reheat System
• Dual-Duct or Multi-Zone System
• Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) System
B. Water Systems
• These use hot or chilled water distributed to coils in each zone.
• Two-Pipe System
– One pair of pipes alternately carries hot or chilled water.
– Cannot heat and cool simultaneously in different zones.
• Four-Pipe System
– Two pairs of pipes: one for heating water, one for chilled water.
– Allows simultaneous heating and cooling in different zones.
– Provides greater flexibility but at higher cost.
6. Design Approach
• Component sizing and capacity selection for air and water
systems are discussed in later chapters (6 and 7).
• This chapter focuses on system configurations, i.e., how the
components are arranged and interact to meet zone
conditions.
7. Typical Applications
• Single-Zone Systems: auditoriums, large halls, research labs, areas
requiring close control of temperature and humidity.
• Multi-Zone Systems: office buildings, hospitals, schools, and
complexes with varying exposure, occupancy, and internal loads.
• Water Systems: buildings where duct space is limited or where fan-
coil or convector units are preferred.
8. Functions Beyond Heating and Cooling
• A complete thermal distribution system performs:
• Air circulation for uniform conditions.
• Ventilation for fresh-air supply and contaminant removal.
• Filtration for air purity.
• Humidity control via humidifiers or dehumidifiers.
• Energy recovery in modern systems to reduce overall energy
consumption.
 5-2: Classic Single-Zone System
Overview
• This is the simplest air-conditioning system
configuration.
• Used for spaces where precise temperature and
humidity are required — e.g., auditoriums,
laboratories, or clean rooms.
• Each system serves one thermal zone, controlled
by:
– A thermostat for temperature.
– A humidistat for humidity.
System Components (Figure 5-1)
• Cooling Coil – reduces dry-bulb temperature; condenses moisture
if below dew point.
• Heating Coil – warms air during winter or reheat operations.
• Fan – circulates supply air to and from the conditioned space.
• Humidifier – adds moisture to maintain humidity set point.
• Return-Air Fan – maintains pressure balance between inside and
outside air.
• Outdoor-Air Control Interface – mixes fresh and return air at
points A and B.
 Operating Modes and Psychrometric
Processes (Figure 5-2)
(a) Heating and Humidification
• Cold, dry air at point A enters the heating coil.
• Heated and then humidified by direct steam injection.
• Steam humidification increases humidity ratio with
little temperature change.
(b) Cooling and Dehumidification with Reheat
• Warm air is cooled below its dew point → moisture
condenses on coil surface.
• For low RH or high latent loads, reheat coil warms air
post-cooling.
• This steepens the process line between entering and
leaving air (higher sensible heat ratio).
 5-3: Outdoor-Air Control
Purpose
• Introduces fresh ventilation air to maintain
indoor air quality.
• Reduces CO₂ buildup and dilutes contaminants.
• Typical Ratios
• 10–20% of supply air as outdoor air in comfort
systems.
• In special areas (e.g., hospital ORs, animal labs):
100% outdoor air (no recirculation).
 System Arrangement (Figure 5-3)
System Arrangement (Figure 5-3)
• Return air from space (point B) splits:
– Part exhausted outdoors.
– Part recirculated and mixed with outdoor air (point A).
• Controlled by three sets of dampers:
– Outdoor-air damper
– Exhaust-air damper
– Recirculated-air damper
• Dampers move simultaneously but oppositely:
– When outdoor and exhaust dampers open, the recirculation damper
closes, and vice versa.
• Design Goals
• Maintain mixed-air temperature ≈ 13–14°C (optimum for cooling).
• Maintain minimum outdoor-air fraction at all times.
Outdoor-Air Control Strategy (Figure 5-4)
Example 5-1
Energy Conservation and Enthalpy Control
5-4: Single-Zone-System Design Calculations
Example 5-2
 Section 5-5 — Multiple-Zone Systems
Purpose
• In large buildings, installing a separate single-zone system for each space is uneconomical.
• Thus, the central system is expanded to serve multiple zones, each having distinct loads
or exposures.
Definition of a Zone
• A zone is any area controlled by one thermostat.
It can be:
• One room
• One floor
• One façade (north, south, etc.)
• Or an interior region
Types of Multiple-Zone Systems
A. Constant-Volume Systems
• Terminal-Reheat System
• Dual-Duct / Multizone System
B. Variable-Volume Systems (VAV)
• Single-Purpose Cooling or Heating
• Cooling with Reheat
• Dual-Duct Variable-Volume
Section 5-6 — Terminal-Reheat System
Schematic Overview (Figure 5-9)
• All supply air is cooled to about 13 °C
for dehumidification.
• Each zone thermostat controls a reheat coil in that zone.
• Reheat coils may use hot water or electricity.
Advantages
• Excellent temperature and humidity control.
• Compact ductwork due to low airflow requirement per
zone.
Disadvantages
• High energy use, because air is first over-cooled then reheated.
• Energy penalties can be mitigated by:
– Raising supply-air temperature until one coil shuts off.
– Energy recovery from condenser heat, lighting, or exhaust streams (see
reference 1 in the text: Gilles, 1974).
 Section 5-7 Dual-Duct / Multizone System
Schematic Description (Figure 5-10)
• Air from supply fan divides into two parallel ducts:
– Hot Duct → through heating coil
– Cold Duct → through cooling coil
• Each zone has a mixing box that blends warm and
cool air to achieve set temperature.
• Control via zone thermostat.
Performance Characteristics
• Can provide simultaneous heating and cooling in
different zones.
• Responsive to load changes.
• Disadvantages:
– Two full-size ducts ⇒ higher installation cost.
– Simultaneous heating and cooling losses reduce energy efficiency.
• Energy recovery opportunity:
When outdoor air ≈ 13 °C, cooling coil can be bypassed for “free cooling.”
Multizone System
• Thermally identical to dual-duct, but all mixing boxes are located centrally.
• Each mixed-air stream then has its own duct to the zone.
 Section 5-8 — Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) Systems
Concept
• Overcomes energy waste of constant-volume systems.
• Adjusts airflow rate to meet load changes while maintaining constant supply-air temperature.
2. VAV Configurations
A. Cooling-Only or Heating-Only (Figure 5-11)
• Single stream of constant-temperature air serves all zones.
• Each zone thermostat controls a damper to vary flow.
• Cooling-only systems widely used for interior zones with
year-round cooling demand.
• Problem: At very light loads, low airflow causes poor air
mixing or ventilation deficiency.
B. VAV Reheat System
• Same as cooling-only VAV but each branch includes a reheat coil.
• Sequence:
– As cooling demand decreases, damper throttles to ~ 25–30 % of full flow.
– At minimum flow, reheat coil activates to maintain temperature.
• Minor thermal bucking occurs, but at reduced airflow ⇒ modest energy loss.
• Combines good ventilation with improved efficiency.
C. VAV Dual-Duct System (Figure 5-12)
• Similar to constant-volume dual-duct but variable flow from both warm and cool ducts.
• Mixing box dampers modulate:
– Reduce warm & cool flows to minimum before switching to opposite coil.
• Results in variable total flow, maintaining minimum airflow for ventilation.
 Section 5-9 — Water Systems
Concept
• Use water instead of air as the distribution medium for
heating/cooling.
• Thermal exchange with room air via fan-coil units, unit ventilators,
or convectors.
Advantages
• Occupy less space (small pipes vs. ducts).
• Lower first cost.
Limitations
• No central humidity control.
• Ventilation uncertain unless each unit admits outdoor air.
• Risk of coil freezing in cold weather.
• Need condensate drains → higher maintenance.
System Types
• A. Two-Pipe System
• One coil per terminal.
• Carries either hot or chilled water—not both simultaneously.
• Economical but lacks simultaneous heating/cooling capability.
• B. Four-Pipe System (Figure 5-13)
• Two supply & two return lines:
– Hot-water circuit
– Chilled-water circuit
• Each terminal has two coils; thermostat sequences valves:
– Hot-water coil off before chilled water admitted, and vice versa.
• Allows simultaneous heating & cooling in different zones.
Convectors and Hybrid Use
• Convectors (no fan) → used mainly for heating; unsuitable for cooling
due to condensate issues.
• Common application:
Combine convectors in perimeter zones with VAV cooling in interior
zones — efficient mixed system.
 Section 5-10 — Unitary Systems
Definition
• Factory-assembled, self-contained HVAC units serving a single zone or
small group.
• Contain:
– Evaporator coil, fan, compressor, condenser, controls.
• May be:
– Single package (everything in one unit), or
– Split system (indoor evaporator + remote condenser/compressor).
Advantages
• Lower first and installation cost (mass production).
• Pre-tested and rated by manufacturer.
• Zoned operation (each unit serves one area).
• Simple maintenance and replacement.
3. Disadvantages
• Limited component-sizing flexibility.
• Each unit must meet peak load ⇒ higher connected power.
• More noise and potential aesthetic concerns (for window units).
Typical Configurations
Practice Problems: