hysics

bighest energy band filled with valence electrons is called valence band. T
Valence Band (E): The completely filled
the energy levels in the valence band are
highest valence band energy is denoted as E. All
valence band do not conduct electricity.
at absolute [Link] electrons in conduction
energy band next to valence band is called
Conduction Band(E): The lowest unflled allowed are
as E, All the energy levels in conduction band
band. The lowest conduction band energy is denoted enough and can conduct
Completely empty at absolute zero. The electrons
in conduction band are free
electricity.
Forbidden Energy Gap (E): The gap between top of valence
band and bottom of the conduction band in
energy gap. This E, is the
which no allowed energy levels for electrons can exist is called energy band gap or
density in
deciding factor whether a solid is good conductor, semi conductor or insulator. The electron
10rbldden gap is zero. Forbidden energy bands arise due to fixed energy states
of an atom; these will always
be present unless individual atomic levels broaden so much so that they overlap.
Classification of Solids on the Basis of Energy Bands: On the basis of energy bands solid can also be
classified into three types. i.e. (a) conductor, (b) insulator & (c) semi-conductor.
(a) Conductor:
i. Conduction band can be partially filled and valence band can be partially empty with avery Small
energy gap as in case of alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc...), noble metals (Cu, Ag &Au) and third
group elements (Al, Ga, In &TI).
ii. Both conduction band and valence band are overlapped with each other (E, -0) as in case of metals
like Be, Mg, Zn etc....
iii. Due to overlapping a large number of ree eleetrons are available in conduction band so as to
conduct electricity.

Eenlcrtgioens
Conduction
eEnlcrgteosn Overlappíng
conduction band
band

Valence Ec Valence
band band

(b) Insulator:
The valence band of these substances is completely illed up where as conduction band is com
pletely empty. example in
For
i. The forbidden energy gap between valence band & conduction band is very large.
case of diamondE =6eV.
insulators require very large amount of energy for the electrons to be
ii. Because of large energy gap
pushed from the valence band
to the conduction band.

cEnlergtions E, >3 eV
Empty
conduction
band

Ey Valence
band

(4)
 Physics
Sölid & SemicoDductof
(c) Semiconductor:
1. At room temperature both conduction band and valence band are partially filled with a
mJmp
Small energy gap between them. e.g., (E), 1.1 eV, (E,)a =0.7 eV, (E,)ons = 1.4 eV
A fnartk

ji, At absolute zero conduction band is completely empty and valence band is completely filled. So a
semiconductor behaves as an insulator at this temperature. Oren a Seni- Corduior hehave
1. Because of small energy gáp, a small amount of energy is required for the electrons to be pushed
from the valence band to the conduction band.

Eelnctrgoines 2
E,
E, <3 ev

Classification of Semiconductor : On the basis of the source and the nature of the charge
carriers
semiconductors are classified into two categories such as :(a) intrinsic semiconductor & (b) extrinsic
[Link] semiconductor.
with aodaing no mpwity | Totey Natu
Intrinsic Semiconductor : The extremely pure form of semiconductors areknown as intrinsic fr
semiconductor. Example :- Ge, Si etc.
At room temperature some of the valence electrons have enough
thermal energy to brake their
covalent bonds & get excited into the conduction band.
The vacancies occupied in the valence band as a result of
excitation of electrons to the
conduction band are called holes. holos are alw c|s fo
iij und n valenhard
The holes behave like free positive charges equal in mágnitude to the electronic charge.
\i. In a semiconductor all the atoms are bonded by covalent bonds.
When an electron hole pair is thermally created, a (shar ng o eeitren)
le ee valence electron in a neighbouring atom can have
1sufficient thermal energy to jump into the position nergy
e ee of the hole & reconstruct the covalent bond.
P e e i The holes move in opposite directions to that of E
the
valence electrons.
l e . In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of holes in
valence band is equal to the number of free electrons
in conduction band. In equilibrium the electron concentration (n) &the hole concentration (n)
are equal. i.e., n = p=n, where n, is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
viii. For a pure semiconductor at a constant temperature rate of recombination & the rate of
generation of electron-hole pairs are equal. So that the electron-hole
concentration remains
constant at the thermal equilibrium. |Total net turant Inet
oO0ix. Since in pure semiconductor the number of free electrons and noies are very shal so
conductivity is very-very small.
x. Their electrical conductivity depends upon temperatüre.
wi The Fermi energy level lies exactly at the middle of forbidden energy
xilThe mobility of an electron in conduction band is greater than the mobilityie.E,= E, 12
gap.
bandas the electrons in the valence band are bound bctween the of a hole in the
[Link] atons of a
mazm
semiconducto:.
 Solid &Semiconductor
Rhysics.
wConduetivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor: Although in an intrinsic semiconductor the [Link]
Froa
of electrons &holes are equal but nearly (2/3 )rd of current flowing through it isconstituted by the
electrons. This is because the mobility of electrons is greater than the mobility of holes.
Let a semiconductor block of length l and area of cross seçtion A. Let n is the number of electrons
per unit volume andp is the number of holes per unit volume in the semiconductor. ILet Vis the apnlied
potential. If I,is the current due to electron and I, is the current due to holes then total current / throuch
the semiconductor is I=I, +1,
I= neAv t pedv, (where v, and v, are the drift velocity of electrons and holes
respectively) E’.

J= I/A = nev,t pev,

How condutiviy oE = nev,t pev,
Semiconductor
- nev, t pev, =
neu,t peh
Note »G=n(H, +H)e
ankSWhere 4, and , are the mobility of electrons and holes respectively and n, is the intrinsic
carrier concentration.
Variation of conductivity of a semiconductor with temperature: The conductivity of a
E
semiconductor is given by, o = (nu, +pu)e =o, exp|-2k7 As the temperature increases, the
mobilities , and u, of electrons and holes decrease due to the increase in their colision frequency, But
due to the small energy gap of semiconductors, more and more electrons [n ce)from the valence
band cross over to the conduction band. The increase in garrier çoncentrations, n and p is so large that
the decrease in the values of , and , has no influencel(The overall effect that the conductivity
increases or the resistivity decreases with the increase of temperature)
A Mass Action Law: Under thermal equilibriumthe product of free electronconcentration (n) &the hole
concentration (p) is a constant & is equal to n where n, is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
i.e. np =n?
Recombination :Recombination is the process in which free electron in the conduction band jump into
the valency band to combine with the holes) In this process the minimum energy
released in the form of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the band gap energy. E
hc
mathomafeE, =E,- E,=hv =
Fermi Energy (E) : Fermi energy level may be defined as the energy which corresponds to the centre
of gravity of conduction electrons and holes weighted according to their energies.. an)
Doping : The process of deliberate addition of a desirable inmpurity to apure semiconductor so as tÝ
increase its conductivity is called doping. The impurity atoms added are called dopants.
Requirements for Doping :
i. The semiconductor material should be of very high purity, 99.9999% or more.
The concentration of the dopant atoms should be very small, about 1part per million.
ii. The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the semiconductor atonm. For thËs
the atoms of third and fifth group of the periodic table are most suitable.
iv. The dopant atoms should not distrot the crystal lattice. oesto y Nalear
V. The dopant atom should neatly replace the semiconductor atom.
(6)
 *Physics
(b) Extrinsic Semiconductor:A pure semiconductor
Solid &Semiconductor
to which an impurity at controlled rate is added to
make it more conductive is known as extrinsic
semiconductor. Depending upon the type of impurity added
extrinsic semiconductor can þe classified as : (i) n-type
semiconductor and p-type _emiconautonre!
i n-type semiconductor:(When a small amount of
pure semiconductor, the extrinsic semiconductor
pentavalent impurity(As, Sb etc)
etc) is added to a
thus formed is known as n-type semiconductor.)
Explanation : When a small amount of pentavalent impurity like As
added to Ge-crystal, each atom of the impurity fits in having 5-valence electrons is
the Ge crystal in such a way that its four
valence electrons form covalent bonds with
4-neighbouring Ge-atoms. Where as the 5th - electron
of the As atom finds no place in covalent bonds &
is thus free. The energy necessary for the
bound 5ih - electron to be detached fromn the impurity atom loosely
about 0.01 eV for Ge (&0.05 eV for Si).
Asthe electron is released from the impurity atom, the
later becomes a positively charged immobile
ion. Since the impurity atom donates excess free
electrons to the semiconductor they are known as
[Link] electrons being negetively charged
particle the semiconductor containing donor type
impurities are referred as n-type semiconductor. ) X

Ge

eBanerngdy
-Excess
electron

When donor impurities are added to a

to the loosely bound valence electrons semiconductor an allowable energy levels corresponding
is introduced in the forbidden gap
band as donor level. below the conduction
In n-type semiconductor the number of
freee electrons is increased over the
concentration. intrinsic carrier
bles
The number of holes also fall below the
intrinsic level, because the rate of recombination of
electrons with holes increases due to the excess
electrons.
In an n-type semiconductor the charge carriers are
predominantly electrons. The electrons are
thus the majority carriers & the holes are the minority
carriers in such semiconductor.
The n-type semiconductor is neutral as a whole.
The n-type semiconductor is more conductive than
p-type as the mobility of clectrons is greater
than that of the holes.
Fermi energy level shifted towards the conduction band.
(i) p-tyDe semiconductor: (When a small amount of trivalent dndium. qalltium
impurity (In, Ga, etc...) is added to a
pure semiconductor, the extrinsic semiconductor thus
formed is known as p-type semiconductor. )
Explanation: When a small amount of trivalent impurity like Ga' having
added to Ge-crystal, each atom of the impurity fits in the 3-valence electrons is
Ge-crystal in such a way that its 3-valence
electrons form covalent bonds with 3-neighbouring Ge-atoms. In
the 4t-covalent bond only Ge
atom contributes one valence electron while Ga-atom has no
valence electron to contribute.
(7)
 Physics Solid & Semiconductor
Hence the 4th -covalent bond is incomplete having one electron short. This missing electrön is
called a hole. Thus, each Ga-atom provides one hole, in the Ge-crystal. An electron is jumped into
the hole from the neighbouring covalnet bond, there by breaking it &the energy required for it is
near about 0.01 eV for Ge. As the impurity atom accepts an electron, it becomes a negatively
charged immobile ion, since the impurity atöm accepts electron, they are called acceptor. The holes
being positively charged particle the semiconductor containing acceptor type impurities are
referred as p-type semiconductor.

eBnarngdy
Ga

Hole þ B

Ge

"The unfilled energy level produced by the introduction of trivalent impurity in the
lies just above the valency band. This allowable energy levelis called semiconductor
acceptor level.
Inap-type semiconductor the holes constitute the largest number of charge carriers,
thus the
holes are the majority carriers &the free electrons are the
minority carriers.
The p-type semiconductor ís neutral as a whole.
L.4(Amanis)Since the mobility of holes is less than the electrons, so the p-type semiconductor is less
konductive than that of the n-type semiconductor.
Fermi energy level shifted towards the valance band.
p-n Junction : Whenever a p-type semi conductor is
suitably joined to an n-type semi conductor, the
contact surface so formed is called p-n junction. It is the basic
building blockof many semi-conductor
devices like diodes, transistors etc.
Formation of p-n Junction:Ap-njunction is formed either by alloying or by diffusion method.
Alloying :In this process a pellet of trivalent indium (n) placed over the n-type slice
of semicon
ductor is heated to a temperature of 500°C. As a result of which some In is a adsorbed into the n
type semi conductor to produce a p-region. Hence a p-n junction is formed.
ii. Diffusion : In this process In vapour is passed over the n-type semiconductor in a furnace at a
temperature of 1200° C. At such a high temperature some In atom diffuse into the n-type semicon
ductor, resulting a p-n junction.
p-n Junction Diode :It is atwo terminal device with metalic contactsat the ends for the application of an
external voltage.
(a) Unbiased p-n Junction Diode :
Ás SOon as the p-n junction is formed a concentration-gradient is established about the
junction, thereby resulting a process called diffusion. Inthis process electrons diffuse from
n-side to p-side and holes diffuse from p-side to n-side giving rise to diffusion current from
p-side to n-side.
When an electron diffuses from n-side to p-side, it leaves behind a positive donor immobile
jon on n-side. As the electrons continue to diffuse from n-side top-side, a layer of nositive
junction is developed.
charge (or fve spacercharge region) on n-side of the
(8)
 EPhysics Solid & Semiconductor
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p-side to n-side, it leaves behind a negative acceptor
immobile ion on p-side. As the holes continue to diffuse from p-side to n-side, alayer of
nagative charge (or -ve space charge region) on p-side of the junction is developed.
This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region
as the electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the
region ofits free charges.

(Symbol of Junction-Diode)

diusion cuen fluws

Pto n-type side

-

flows from n-P6il

The width of the depletion layer is about 1um .This width depends on the dopping level. For
heavy dopping depletion layer is physically thin, because diffusing charge carriers should not
have to travel far across the junction for recombination (short life time). Opposite is the case
for light dopping.
Due to positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space-charge
region on p-side of the junction, an electric field is directed fron positive charge towards
negative charge. Due to this field, electrons on p-side of the junction move to n-side and holes
on n-side of the junction move to p-side thereby constituting the drift current in a direction
opposite to the diffusion current i.e., from n-side to p-side.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues,
the space-charge regions on either side ofthe junction extend, thus increasing the electric field
strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion curent equals the
drift current.
The loss of electrons from the n-region and gain of electrons by the p-region causes a difference
of potential across the junction called barrier potential (V). The polarity of this potential is
equilibrium exists. Under
such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of
equilibrium there is no current across the p-n junction.
junction diode and 0.7 volt for Si p-n
R h e barrier potentialis nearly 0.3 volt, for Ge p-n
On1

junction diode respectively.

O n e

semiconductor, (ii) temperature, and

The barrier potential V,depends on (i) the nature of the
ye (iii) the amount of doping.
(9)
 Solid & Semiconductor

source or a battery
is,
Physics terminal ofa d.c
junction Diode: When
the positive junction.
semiconductor of a p-n
orward biased p-h connected to n-type
o
Connected & negative terminal is
to p-type
biased.) electric field
The junction is said to be forward potential acts in such a way that, it establishes an
forward weidth de
In this case the applied potential. As a result, the depletion layer
to barrier under forward bias is
which reduces the field'due The effective barrier height
hight is reduced.
volt for
Creases and the barrier
forward potential (0.3 volt for Ge p-n junction&& 0.7
(V:o) At a particular value of
completely eliminated.
Sip-n junction)the barrier potential is by the forward voltage the majority carriers start
eliminated
ne barrier potential is electrons from n-type diffuse to p-type & holes trom p-type At
lusing across the junction i.e. known as minority carrier injection.
under forward bjas is
ditnuse to [Link] process the minoritycarrier concentration
increases significantly
(ejunction boufdary, on each side,
campared to the locations far from the junction.
urrent fro) P to
n.
resuts a foru rd
This

(vY)

I : a. - 0.4

Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction
edge of p-side to the other end of of p-side. Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse frem
the junction edge of n-side to the otehr end of n-side. This motion of charged carriers on either
side gives rise to forward current (L) from p-side to n-side across the junction. Greater the
value of forward voltage, greater will be the forward current.
(The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across the
p-side and n-side of the junction is negligiblA, This is because the resistance of the depletion
region (a region where there are no free charges) is very high compared to the resistance of n
side and p-side.
. Due to forward biasing, the junction ofers low resistance to the flow of current through it. An
ideal junction diode hás zero forward resistance.
3 c) Reverse biased p-n junction Diode: When the positive terminal of ad.c source is connected to n
type &negative terminal is connected to p-type semiconductor of ap-n junction, the junction
dirlsttery is said to be reverse biased.
In this case the applied reverse potential acts in such away that it establishes an electric field
along the direction of the field due to barrier potential. As aresult, the barrier height increases
and the depletion region widens. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V +V,).
The increased barrier potentialprevents the flow of majority charge carriers across the junc
tion Thus. difusion current, decreases enormously campared to the diode under forward bias.
Since the iunction width increases it offers ahigh resistance (about 1o o)to the current flow
infinite resistanee
due to majority charge carriers. An ideal junction diode has
The minority carriers which are thermally generated n the depletion region get drifted towerds
the junction by the barrier potential.
 Physics
Solid& Sémiconductor
The applied voltage acts as a forward bias for the minority carriers, the
battery drives these
minority carriers across the junction, there by producing a small current called
the reverse
current /the reverse saturation current (I,) from n-side to p-side.
Since the minority charge carriers are thermally generated, reverse current is
extremely tem
perature dependent, but not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small
voltage
is sufficient to sweep the minoritycarriers from one side of the junction to the other side.

NA)

(v,+VJ)
Bmark

VCharacteristics :
The I~V relationship for a biased p -njunction diode is given by:I=IO(eaV/ KT -1).
Where I,=The reverse
saturation current, q =Charge of the carrier, v =Applied voltage., k= Boltzmann's constant
and T = Kelvin
temperature.
er The experimental circuit arrangement for studying I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode is shown
below.
Voltneler(V)
Voltmeter()

On

Milllammeter
(mA) Microammeter
(HA)
An Switch
Switch

(Forward Biased) (Reverse Biased)

The I~Vcharacteristics for ap-n junction diode (both in forward &reverse bias) are shown below.
CONCLUSION:
i. At zero external voltage no current flows through the diode.
100
ii. With increase in forward bias the current increases slightly tiil the 80

barrier potential is wiped ot g o B0

cmianper)
40

ii. After knee voltage (the forward voltage at which the current through 20
the diode starts rising abruptly, i.e., 0.3 v:for Ge & 0.7 v for Si) the &o 40 20
vS. v
10

forward current rises very rapidly. i.e., expoDentially. 20

1V. The reverse current increases slightly with the increase in reverse
voltage after that it becomes almost constant.
At certain reverse voltage the reverse current rises shaply to alarge vaiue, because at this voltage the
junction breaks & resistance of barrier region falls suddenly.
(11)
 Solid & Somiconductor

SPhysics or voltage is converted

into a
G
which an alternating current
FICATION: The process by
rectification.
dircct current or voltage is called have low resis
converts AC. to DC. is called rectifier. These devices
Rectifier: The device which reverse
resistance to the current in the
current flow in one dircction & relatively high
Tance to the
direction. current with
CTassiftcation : Rectifiers can be classified
into two categories basing upon the output
(HWR)
respect tothe input AC. signal. i.e., (i) Half wave rectifier
bridge type]
(i) Full wave rectifier (FWR)[centre tap and
where the output
0SHalf wave rectifier (HWR): An electronic device containing single diode,
Current flows only for the positive half cycle of the input A
C.. signal is called half wave rectifier.
up/stepdoWn
Circuit details : Ahalf wave rectifier circuit consists of an AC. generator, astep
transformer and a junction diode (D) in series to the load resistance K;:

Operation :
When AC. supply is switched on an alternating voltage appears across the terminals A&5 at
secondary winding as a result of mutual induction.
During positive half cycle of the input AC. signal the terminal-A becomes positive with re
spect to terminal-B & hence the junction diode becomes' forward biased. Therefore it conducts A
current through the load re_istance R:
On the other hand during negative half cycle of the input AC. signal the terminal-A becomes
negative with respect to terminal-B &hence the junction diode becomes reverse biased. There
fore it doesn't conduct any current thoughthe load. of Resistone oR .
Hence the output current across the load is completely discontinuous &fluctuating DC,
The fluctuating DC. consists of sum of pure DC. & AC. of different harmonics.
Full waverectifier: An electrical device containing two diodes (or, four diodes) where the output
full wave
current flows for both positiye & negative half cycles of the input AC. signal is called
rectifier.
Centre tap full waverectifier:
Circuit detail: This type of full wave rectifier consists of,an AC. generator, a centre-tapped trang
R. Becausc of centre tannino
former, two identical junctËon diodes D, & D, & a load resistance
has equal number of turns.
each half of the transformer secondary

RL
20v
icput
Out put
NB
D,
(12)
Physics Solid & Semiconductor

Operation :
When A.C. supply is switched on an alternating voltage appears across the terminals-A & B at
secondary winding as a result of mutual induction.
As each half of the transformer secondary has equal number of turns the voltage induced in
each half ofthe secondary is equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
During positive half cycle of the input AC. signal the terminal-A becomes positive and termi
nal-B becomes negative. This makes the diode D, forward biased & the diode D, reverse
biased. Therefore diode D, conducts current across the load where as diode D, doesn't conduct
any current.

On the other hand during negative half cycle of the input AC. signal., the terminal-B
becomes
positive and terminal-A becomes negative. This makes the diode D, forward biased &
the
diode D, reversed biased. Therefore, diode D, conducts current
across the load where as the
diode D, doesn't conduct any current.
In this case current flows through the load
resistance R, in same direction during positive as
well as negative half cycle of the input AC. signal.
The out put current is continuous but
fluctuating. The fluctuating DC. consists of sum of pure
DC. &AC. of different harmonics.
The fundamental frequency of the AC.
contained in rectified fluctuating DC. isstwice
frequency of the supplied AC. to the rectifier. that of
Rectification efficiency (7 ):It is defined as the
ratio of DC. output power to the AC.
power. i.e. n= Pac x100 input
Efficiency of HWR: F=40.6%
Efficiency of FWR: n=81.2%
Ripple factor:(R.F The undesirable AC.
components present in the putput fluctuating DC.
rectifier is called ripples)The ripple factor of
gives the measure of these
decides the effectiveness of rectifier. fluctuating currents &
Smaller the value of this factor lesser
nent in comparison to DC. is the ACcompo
component in the output of rectifier, hence
effective is the rectifier. more

Ripple Factor (R.F)=

[Link] for HWR is 1.21

Ripple Factor for FWR is 0.482
 Physics Transistagr
TRANSISTOR
Asemiconductor device consisting of two p-njunctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type
emiconductor between a pair of opposite types is known as transistor.
Itwas invented in 1948 by J. Bardecn & W. H. Brattain in Bell telephone laboratory in U.S.A.
It is also called bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
Transistor is a combination of two words, i.c., transfer and resistor. It means that the current is
transferred from a low resistance path to a high resistance pathwithin the device.
Classification: Transistor can be classified in to two types. Such as: npn-transistor & pnp-transistor.
(a) npntransistor: A transistor in which two blocks of n-type semiconductors are separated by a thin
layer of p-type semiconductor is known as npn-transistor.
Construction:
It isa three terminal device consistingof an emitter, a base & a collector.
The emitter is moderately thick & heavily doped as it is the source of carrier.
The base is very thin & lightly doped so as to minimize the recombination between the emitted
electrons &holes of its own.
The collector is moderately doped but larger in size so as to dissipate the heat by radiation from it's
surface.

Emitter, Collector
Emítter Base Collector

H Base

Working: CSymbot ic Yepresen tatien )

For the transistor to work in active mode, its input junction is always forward biased and the out put
junction is reverse biased. The input emitter - base junction of n-p-n transistor is forward biased by
connecting n-type emitter to the negative terminal of battery VEB and the output collector - base
junction is reverse biased by connecting n-type collector tothe positive terminal of battery VCs. In
th»active state of the transistor the emitter base-junction ats as low resistance path whíle the base
collector junction acts as a high resistance path.
Emitter base Collector base
junction. junction
1-p-n
E C

Forward Reverse B
biasing lg biasing

VcR
The forward bias of the emiter-base circuit repels the electrons of emitter towards the base,emitted
seting
up emitter current I.. As the base is very thin and lightly doped, a very few electrons (<5%)
from the emitter combine with the holes of base, giving rise to base current Ig and the remaining
electrons are
electrons (>95%) are pulled by the collector which is at high positive potential. The
inally collected by the positive terrminal of battry Vcp, giving rise to collector current
Lç.
collector circuit, however to be
Ihås, it is seen that almost the entire emitter current flows in the
current & the collector current., as per
more precise. the ernitter current is the sum of base
ACLt Kirchhoffs current law. i.e., Ig =Ip lc.
 Physics Transistor

As soon as an clectron from the emitter combines with a hole in the base region, an electron leavega9
the negative terminal of the battery VER and at the same time the positive terminal of battery VEB
Teceives an electron from the base. Similarly, coresponding to each electron that goes from
cOllector to positive terminal of VCB, an electron enters the emitter from negative terminal of VEB:)\
DDap-transistor:
layer
Atransistor in which two blocks of p-type semiconductors are separated by a thin
ofn-type semiconductor is known as pnp-transistor.
Construction:
It is a three terminal device consisting of an
emitter, a
The emitter is moderately thick &heavily doped as it isbase & a collector.
the source of carier.
&&ele
electrons very
of itsthin &lightly doped so as to minimize the recombination between the emitted holes
own.
Ine collector is moderately doped but larger in size so as to dissipate
surface. the heat by radiation from it s

Emitter Base Collector Emitter \Collector

B
Base
Working:
For the transistor to work in active mode,
its input junction is always forward biased
junction is reverse biased. The input emitter- and
base junction of pnp-transistor is forwardthe out put
connecting p-type emitter to the positive terminal of battery biased by
junction is reverse biasedoy connecting p-type VEB and the output collector base
the active state of the transistor the emitter collector to the negative terminal of battery VCB. In
base-junction acts as low resistance path while the base
collector junction acts as a high resistance path.
Emitter base Collector base
junction junction
E

Forward Reverse B
biasing biasing

The forward bias of the emitter-base circuit repels the holes of emitter towards
of base towards the emitter. As the base is very thin and lightly doped, mosttheofbase and electrons
entering it pass on to collector while a very few of them (<5%) recombine with thetheelectrons
holes (>95%)
of the
base region.
As soon as a hole eor bines with an electron, an electron from the negative terminal of the
battery
VEB enters the base. This sets up a small base current lg. Each hole entering the collector region
combines with an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VcB and gets neutralized. This
creates collector current lc. Inside the p-n-p transistor, the çurrent conduction is due to holes while
electrons are the charge carriers in the external circuit.
Thus, it is seen that almost the entire emiter current flows in the collector circuit, however to he
more precise, the emitter current is the sum of base current & the collector current 2s nar
Kirchhoff's current law. i.e., Ig =Ig +lc.
 Physics
Transistor
Configurations of a Transistor:
Atransistor is athree element device. One
terminal
circuits. This terminal is connected to the ground andhas to be always common to the input and the output
a transistor can be used in one of the following three
serves as a reference point for the entire circuit. So
configurations.
Common-base configuration (CB).
Common-emitter configuration (CE).
Common-collector configuration (CC).
The three types of circuit arrangements for an
npn-transistor are showrn below.

VaE.
VAB

(CB)
3m
VCurrent gains in a transistor / Current (CE) (CC)
defined for a transistor. amplification factors: There are three types of current gains
(a) Common base current
amplification factor
collector current to the small change in the (a): It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the
emitter current when the collector-base
voltage is kept
constant. Thus a= <
Jven
(b) Common emitter current
amplification factor (p ): It is defined as the ratio of
the collector current to the small the smallchange in
change in the base current when the
constant. Thus B=
collector-emitter voltage is kept
JVcE
(c) Common collector current
amplification factor (y): It is the ratio of change in
the change in base current, keeping emitter curent to
collector-emitter voltage to be constant.
Thus Y= Al
Alp
Relation between (a)& (B): For both npn and
For small change in current pnp-transistors, we have Ig = Ip + lç
we can write al= Al,
+Al,
-= 0.; = Ale.
Ale Al
Note: The commercial value ofa is -a-and |B
about 0.95 to 0.99 and 'B is about 20 to
independent of currept if the emitter-base junction is
100. The (a )and (B ) are
reverse biased. The above definitionsof a forvward biased and the collector-base junction is
forward biased or reverse and 8 do not hold when both the junetions of a transistor are
biased.
Relation between (a) &(Y): For
both npn & pnp-transistors ye have I Iç+ lp
=> Al, = Al +Al, => Al, = Al - Al
Now y= e Al,
Al, Al - Al -=>y=

Relation between o., B & Y: |p=axy

(21)
 Solid &Semiconductor
Physics
Example-1: A P-N-P transistor is used in common (25/26), determine collector-emitter voltage and
of base current. If the internal resistance of the
emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A change
2 mA transistor is 200 S2, calculate the voltage gain and
40 uA in the base current brings a change of power gain.
base-emitter
in collector current and 0.04 V in Solution: Cpllector current,
voltage. Find the (i) input resistance (Rinn) and (ii)
the base current amplification factor (B). If a load Voltage drop across R = 0.8/800=10 amp
of 6 k s2 is used, then also find the voltage gain of
R,
Now VcE = 8-0.8 == 7.2 volt.
the amplificr.
Solution: Given 4I,= 40uA = 40x 10A 25 10:
Current gain ß= 26
4I, = 2mA = 2x10-4
AVAr =0.04 volt, R, =6 kS2=6x10 .:.1,=x10 =1.04x10 amp
()Input Resistance, 25 800 100 =3.846
Voltage gain = BL X
ABE 0.04
40x 40-6
--10°2lk2. Rc 26 200 26
25 800 x4
(ii)Current amplification factor, Power gain B
2x10-3 Re 26 200 26
:50 =3.698
40x 40-6
Example-3: The inp't resistance of a transistor is
(iii) Voltage gain in common-emitter configuration,
1000 2. On changing its base current by 10 A,
A, =B = 5 0 x 6 x 1 0 =300.
1x10 the collector burent increases by 2 mA. If a load
Example2: An N-P-N transistor is connected in
resistancgß Skí2 is used in the circuit, calculate:
common emitter configuration in which collector (thaçurrenthgain (ii) voltage gain of the amplifier.
supply is V and the voltage drop across the load
resistance of 800 2 connected in the collector
circuit is 0.8 V. If current amplification factor is
Solution: Here, R, =10002 Example5: A charge of 9.2 mA in the base
current causes a change ofS mA in the collector
AI, =10uA=104
current for a common emitter amplifier. (i) Find the
R =5 kl= 5x102, A1, = 2mA 2x04 a.c. current gain of the transistor, (ii) If the input
(i) Current gain, resistance is 2 ks2 and its voltage gain is 75,
calculate the load resistance used in the circuit.
41,_2x10-3 =200
B= Solution: Here 4/, =0.2mA, 4I, =5mA
10-5
5 mA
(ii) Voltage gain, =25
() B= 0.2 mA
A,=B 0px5x10
1000
=1000.
Rin (i) As A,= B R
Example-4: A transistor has a current

amplification factor (current gain) of 50. in a CE 4,R 75x 2ks2 =6 ks2

amplifier circuit, the collector resistance is chosen 25
transistor in
as 552 and the input resistance is 1 S2. Calculate Example-6: The current gain of a
Find the voltage
the output voltage if input voltage is 0.01 V. common baae arrangement is 0.95.
resistance of output
Solution: Here B= 50, R, = 5ks2=5x10's2, gain and power gain if load
resistance is 200 S2.
circuit is 400 k s2 and input
Rp =1ks=lx10° Q,V =0.01V, V, =? Solution: Voltage gain
I he voltage gain of a common emitter amplitier 400×10 =[Link] gain
-0.95×
a. 200
A, = B R R
R Voltage gain x
Current gain
1805.
=1900 x 0.95 =
BRV 50x5x10 x 0.01 =2.5 V
lx10