Introduction

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important examples
related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other branches of
engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical
supporting structures are important. When designing a structure to serve a specified function for
public use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into
consideration economic and environmental constraints.
This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of
material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response. Once a preliminary
design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its
required stiffness and strength. To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made
as to how the members are supported and connected together.
The loadings are determined from codes and local specifications, and the forces in the members
and their displacements are found using the theory of structural analysis, which is the subject
matter of this course.

1
Classification of structures
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of elements composing a structure and to be
able to classify structures as to their form and function. We will introduce some of these aspects now and expand
on them at appropriate points throughout the course.
Structural Elements. Some of the more common elements from which structures are composed are as follows.
1- Tie Rods.
Are structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the
nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.

2
2- Beams.
Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads.
Quite often they are classified according to the way they are supported, as indicated in
Fig. below. In particular, when the cross section varies the beam is referred to as
tapered or hunched . Beam cross sections may also be “built up "by adding plates to
their top and bottom. Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment;
however, if they are short and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become
quite large and this force may govern their design

3
3- Columns.
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to
as columns, Fig. below. Tubes and wide-flange cross sections are often used for metal
columns, and circular and square cross sections with reinforcing rods are used for
those made of concrete. Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load and
a bending moment as shown in the figure. These members are referred to as beam
columns.

4
Types of Structures.
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures. Ranked in order of
complexity of their force analysis, they are as follows.
1- Trusses.
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss
may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion. Planar trusses are
composed of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas
space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for derricks and towers.
Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend are converted into
tensile or compressive forces in the members. Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss, compared
to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a given load.

5
2- Cables and Arches.
Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the arch .
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges, and building
roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans
that are greater than 150 ft (50 m).Because they are always in tension, cables will not become unstable and suddenl
collapse, as may happen with beams or trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for construction and
increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other hand, is limited only by their sag , weight , and
methods of anchorage. The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the
cable. The arch must be rigid , however r ,in order to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary loadings
involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design. Arches are frequently used in bridge
structures,, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.

6
3-Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin or fixed connected. Like trusses,
frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally “indeterminate "from a standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived
from the moment interactions between the beams and the columns at the rigid joints.

4-Surface Structures.
A surface structures made from a material having a very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a
membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced
concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic parabolic , and are referred to as thin plates
or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in tension or compression, with very
little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-dimensional
geometry of their surface. Such an analysis is beyond the scope of this text and is instead covered in texts devoted entirely
to this subject. 7
Loads on Structures
The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand all the loads to which it is
subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer
must, therefore, consider all the loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned
life span. The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to their nature and
source into three classes: (1) dead loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other material
permanently attached to it; (2) live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure; and
(3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow, and earthquakes.
1- Dead Loads.
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any objects that are
permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns,
beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous
attachments.
2- Live Loads.
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily
placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces. The minimum live loads specified in codes are determined
from studying the history of their effects on existing structures. Usually, these loads include additional protection
against excessive deflection or sudden overload. Various types of live loads will now be discussed.
Building Loads.
The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads, which depend on the purpose for which
the building is designed. These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state, or national codes. A representative
8
sample of such minimum live loadings, taken from the ASCE 7-10 Standard.
Highway Bridge Loads.
The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the heaviest vehicle loading encountered is that
caused by a series of trucks. Specifications for truck loadings on highway bridges are reported in the LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications of the American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
Railroad Bridge Loads.
The loadings on railroad bridges. These types of loads are specified in the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges
published by the American Railroad Engineers Association (AREA).
Impact Loads.
Moving vehicles may bounce or sides way as they move over a bridge, and therefore they impart an impact to the
deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to impact is called the impact factor.
3- Environmental Loads
Wind Loads.
When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of pressure,
which causes a wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density and velocity of the air, the
angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure, and the roughness of its surface. For design
purposes, wind loadings can be treated using either a static or a dynamic approach.
Snow Loads.
In some countries ,roof loading due to snow can be quite severe, and therefore protection against possible failure is
of primary concern. Design loadings typically depend on the building’s general shape and roof geometry, wind
exposure, location, its importance, and whether or not it is heated. Like wind, snow loads in the ASCE 7-10 Standard
are generally determined from a zone map reporting 50-year recurrence intervals of an extreme snow depth
9
Earthquake Loads.
Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and its response
characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion caused by the ground’s motion and the lateral
resistance of the structure. Their magnitude depends on the amount and type of ground accelerations and the mass
and stiffness of the structure.
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure.
When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure developed by these loadings
becomes an important criterion for their design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships,
bulkheads, and retaining walls. Here the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the intensity
of the loadings on the structure.
Other Natural Loads.
Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the design of a structure, depending on its
location or use. These include the effect of blast, temperature changes, and differential settlement of the
foundation.

10
 Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures
Support Connections.
Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby restricting their movements under the action of
applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures; but supports prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces, or
reactions, to neutralize the effects of loads, thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium. The type of reaction a support exerts
on a structure depends on the type of supporting device used and the type of movement it prevents. A support that prevents
translation of the structure in a particular direction exerts a reaction force on the structure in that direction. Similarly, a support
that prevents rotation of the structure about a particular axis exerts a reaction couple on the structure about that axis.
The three types of joints most often specified are the pin connection, the roller support, and the fixed joint.

11
Equations of Equilibrium
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a system of
forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also in equilibrium
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or one of its members is in equilibrium when it maintains a balance
of force and moment. In general this requires that the force and moment equations of equilibrium be satisfied along
three independent axes, namely,

The principal load-carrying portions of most structures, however, lie in a single plane, and since the loads are also
coplanar, the above requirements for equilibrium reduce to

Here ΣFx and ΣFy represent, respectively, the algebraic sums of the x and y components of all the forces acting on the
structure or one of its members, and ΣMo represents the algebraic sum of the moments of these force components
about an axis perpendicular to the x–y plane (the z axis) and passing through point O
12
1- Determinacy.
The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. When all the forces
in a structure can be determined strictly from these equations, the structure is referred to as statically
determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than available equilibrium equations are called statically
indeterminate. As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either statically determinate or statically
indeterminate by drawing free-body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its members, and then
comparing the total number of unknown reactive force and moment components with the total number of available
equilibrium equations.* For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium equations for each part, so that
if there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction components, we have

r=3n Statically Determinate

r>3n Statically Indeterminate
These equations, which are referred to as compatibility equations, must be equal in number to the degree of
indeterminacy of the structure.
If a structure is supported by more than three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be determined from the three
equations of equilibrium. Such structures are termed statically indeterminate externally. The reactions in excess of
those necessary for equilibrium are called external redundant, and the number of external redundant is referred to
as the degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if a structure has r reactions and ( r > 3) , then the degree of external
indeterminacy can be written as .

Ie = r-3 13
14
15
16
2-Stability.
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the equations of
equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or constrained by their supports. Two situations may
occur where the conditions for proper constraint have not been met.
Partial Constraints.
In some cases a structure or one of its members may have fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium
( r < 3n ) that must be satisfied. The structure then becomes only partially constrained.. Here the equation will not
be satisfied for the loading conditions and therefore the member will be externally unstable.

Improper Constraints.
In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as there are equations of equilibrium ; however, Instability or
movement of a structure or its members can develop because of improper constraining by the supports. This can
occur if all the support reactions are concurrent at a point. An example of this is shown below . From the free-
body diagram of the beam it is seen that the summation of moments about point O will not be equal to zero (p.d≠0)
thus rotation about point O will take place.

17
Another case in which improper constraining leads to instability occurs when the reactive forces are all parallel. An
example of this case is shown below .Here when an inclined force P is applied, the summation of forces in the
horizontal direction will not equal zero.

In general , then, a structure will be geometrically unstable—that is, it will move slightly or collapse—if there are
fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium; or if there are enough reactions, instability will occur if the lines
of action of the reactive forces intersect at a common point or are parallel to one another. If the structure consists of
several members or components, local instability of one or several of these members can generally be determined
by inspection. If the members form a collapsible mechanism, the structure will be unstable. We will now formalize
these statements for a coplanar structure having n members or components with run known reactions. Since three
equilibrium equations are available for each member or component, we have

18
19
Procedure for Analysis Statically Indeterminate Structures
1- Free-Body Diagrams
• Disassemble the structure and draw a free-body diagram of each member. Also, it may be convenient to
supplement a member free-body diagram with a free-body diagram of the entire structure. Some or all of the
support reactions can then be determined using this diagram.
• Recall that reactive forces common to two members act with equal magnitudes but opposite directions on the
respective free body diagrams of the members.
• All two-force members should be identified. These members, regardless of their shape, have no external loads on
them, and therefore their free-body diagrams are represented with equal but opposite collinear forces acting on
their ends.
• In many cases it is possible to tell by inspection the proper arrowhead sense of direction of an unknown force or
couple moment ;however, if this seems difficult, the directional sense can be assumed.

20
2- Equations of Equilibrium
• Count the total number of unknowns to make sure that an equivalent number of equilibrium equations can be
written for solution. Except for two-force members, recall that in general three equilibrium equations can be written
for each member.
• Many times, the solution for the unknowns will be straightforward if the moment equation is applied about a
point (O) that lies at the intersection of the lines of action of as many unknown forces as possible.
• When applying the force equations and orient the x and y axes along lines that will provide the simplest reduction
of the forces into their x and y components.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative magnitude for an unknown force or couple moment,
it indicates that its arrowhead sense of direction is opposite to that which was assumed on the free-body diagram.

21
Ex.1 Determine the reactions on the beam shown below

SOLUTION
1-Free-Body Diagram.
As shown in Fig. above , the 60-kN force is resolved into Fx and Fy components .Further more, the 7-m
dimension line is not needed since a couple moment is a free vector and can therefore act anywhere on the
beam for the purpose of computing the external reactions.
2-Equations of Equilibrium.
Applying the equations of equilibrium ,we have ;

→+ ΣFx =0
Ax – 60cos600 = 0 Ax = 30 KN
+
ΣMA = 0 -(60)sin60(10)+60 cos 60(1)+By (14) -50 =0
By = 38.5 KN
+↑Σfy = 0 -60sin60 +38.5 +Ay = 0
Ay = 13.4 KN 22
23
Ex>3- Determine the reactions on the beam shown below .Assume A is a pin and the support at B is a
roller (smooth surface).

SOLUTION
1- Free-Body Diagram.
As shown in Fig. below ,the support (“roller”) at B exerts a normal force on the beam at its point of contact. The line of
action of this force is defined by the 3–4–5 triangle.
Equations of Equilibrium. Resolving into x and y components and
summing moments about A yields a direct solution for NB .

+ MA = 0 -3500(3.5) +(4/5) NB 4 + (3/5) NB (10) = 0

NB = 1331.5 N

+ → Fx = 0 Ax - (4/5) (1331.5) = 0
Ax = 1070 N 24
+↑FY = 0 Ay -3500 +(3/5) (1331.5) =0 Ay = 2700 N
25
EX. Determine the reactions at the support for the frame shown in Figure shown below

Solution
1- Free-Body Diagram
The free-body diagram of the frame is shown below . Note that the trapezoidal loading distribution has been divided into two
simpler, uniform, and triangular, distributions whose areas and centroids are easier to compute.

26
2- Static Determinacy
The frame is internally stable with r = 3. Therefore, it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions
By applying the three equations of equilibrium, we obtain

+→Fx = 0 Ax +2(15) = 0

Ax = - 30 KN Ax = 30 KN ←

+↑Fy = 0 Ay – 2(9) –(1/2)(3)(9) = 0

Ay = 31.5 KN↑

+ MA = 0

MA – 2(15)(15/2) – 2 (9)(9/2) – (1/2) (3)(9)(2/3)(9) = 0

MA = 387 KN.m

27
Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points. The members commonly
used in construction consist of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or channels. The joint connections are usually
formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a gusset plate, or by simply
passing a large bolt or pin through each of the members. Planar trusses lie in a single plane and are often used to
support roofs and bridges

Assumptions for Design

The analysis of trusses is usually based on the following simplifying assumptions:
1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in plane trusses and by frictionless ball-and-
socket joints in space trusses.
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centers of the adjacent joints.28
Because of these two assumptions, each truss member acts as an axial force member, and therefore the forces
acting at the ends of the member must be directed along the axis of the member.
If the force tends to elongate the member, it is a tensile force (T), Fig. a; whereas if the force tends to shorten the
member, it is a compressive force (C),Fig. b. In the actual design of a truss it is important to state whether the force
is tensile or compressive. Most often, compression members must be made thicker than tension members, because
of the buckling or sudden instability that may occur in compression members.

Classification of coplanar Trusses

Before beginning the force analysis of a truss, it is important to classify the truss as simple,compound,or complex,
and then to be able to specify its determinacy and stability.
In general there are three types of coplanar trusses
1- Simple Truss
2- Compound Truss
29
3- Complex Truss
1- Simple Truss
The basic truss element ABC of Fig. (a) can be enlarged by attaching two new members, BD and CD, to two of the
existing joints B and C and by connecting them to form a new joint D, as shown in Fig. (b). As long as the new joint D
does not lie on the straight line passing through the existing joints B and C, the new enlarged truss will be internally
stable. The truss can be further enlarged by repeating the same procedure (as shown in Fig. (c)) as many times as
desired. Trusses constructed by this procedure are called simple trusses. The basic truss element of the simple
trusses is identified as ABC in these figures. A simple truss is formed by enlarging the basic truss element, which
contains three members and three joints, by adding two additional members for each additional joint, so the total
number of members (b) in a simple truss is given by

b= 3+2 (j-3) = 2j-3

Where j = Total number of joints ,including those attached to the supports

30
2- Compound Truss.
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or more simple trusses together. Quite often this type of truss is
used to support loads acting over a large span, since it is cheaper to construct a somewhat lighter compound truss
than to use a heavier single simple truss.
There are three ways in which simple trusses are joined together to form a compound truss. The trusses may be
connected by a common joint and bar. An example is given in Fig. a, where the shaded truss ABC is connected to
the shaded truss CDE in this manner. The trusses may be joined by three bars, as in the case of the shaded truss ABC
connected to the larger truss DEF, Fig. b. And finally, the trusses may be joined where bars of a large simple truss,
called the main truss, have been substituted by simple trusses, called secondary trusses. An example is shown in
Fig. c, where dashed members of the main truss ABCDE have been replaced by the secondary shaded trusses. If this
truss carried roof loads, the use of the secondary trusses might be more economical, since the dashed members
may be subjected to excessive bending, whereas the secondary trusses can better transfer the load.

31
3- Complex Truss. A complex truss is one that cannot be classified as being either simple or compound. The truss in
Fig. below is an example

In general before beginning the force analysis of a truss, it is important to

classify the truss as simple , compound, or complex, and then to be able to
specify its determinacy and stability.

32
Determinacy of Truss.
For any problem in truss analysis, it should be realized that the total number of unknowns includes the forces in( b)
number of bars of the truss and the total number of external support reactions( r) .
Since the truss members are all straight axial force members lying in the same plane, the force system acting at each
joint is coplanar and concurrent. Consequently, rotational or moment equilibrium is automatically satisfied at the
joint (or pin), and it is only necessary to satisfy ΣFx = 0 and FY = 0 to ensure translational or force equilibrium.
Therefore, only two equations of equilibrium can be written for each joint, and if there are j number of joints, the
total number of equations available for solution is 2j. By simply comparing the total number of unknowns (b+r)
with the total number of available equilibrium equations, it is therefore possible to specify the determinacy for
either a simple, compound, or complex truss. We have

degree of indeterminacy is specified by the difference in the numbers

DOD= (b+r) – 2j

33
Stability.
If ( b+r)< 2j a truss will be unstable, that is, it will collapse, since there will be an insufficient number of bars or
reactions to constrain all the joints.
Also, a truss can be unstable if it is statically determinate or statically indeterminate. In this case the stability will
have to be determined either by inspection or by a force analysis.
External Stability.
A structure (or truss) is externally unstable if all of its reactions are concurrent or parallel. For example, the two
trusses in Fig. below are externally unstable since the support reactions have lines of action that are either
concurrent or parallel

Internal Stability.
The internal stability of a truss can often be checked by careful
inspection of the arrangement of its members.. If a truss is
constructed so that it does not hold its joints in a fixed position, it
will be unstable or have a “critical form. "An obvious example of
this is shown in Fig. beside , where it can be seen that no restraint
or fixity is provided between joints C and F or B and E, and so the 34
truss will collapse under load
Classify each of the plane trusses shown in Figures shown below as stable ,unstable, statically determinate, or
statically indeterminate. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static
indeterminacy.
1-

roller hinge

Externally stable, since the reactions are not concurrent or parallel.

Since b=19 r=3 j=11
then b+r= 22 = 2j
The truss is statically determinate. By inspection the truss is internally stable

2-

Externally stable since the reactions are not concurrent or parallel .

Since b= 15 r=4 j= 9
Then b+r = 15+4 =19 > 2j = 18 The truss is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
By inspection the truss is internally stable 35
 3- hinge

roller

Externally stable.
Since b= 12 r= 3 j= 8
then b+r = 15 < 2j= 16 The truss is internally unstable and does not matter statically determinate or indetermina

4-

For this truss, b= 10 r= 3 j= 7

b+r 13 < 2j = 14 therefore the truss is internally
unstable. 36
5-

For this truss, b= 10 r= 4 j= 7

b+r 14 = 2j = 14 therefore the truss is internally
stable.
6-

This truss has b= 13, j = 8, and r= 3. Although b+r = 16 = 2j the truss is unstable, because it contains two rigid
portions ABCD and EFGH connected by three parallel members, BF;CE, and DH, which cannot prevent the
relative displacement, in the vertical direction, of one rigid part of the truss with respect to the other.
37
Analysis of SD Trusses
1- Method of Joints
In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members of a statically determinate truss are determined by
considering the equilibrium of its joints. Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of its joints must also be in
equilibrium. At each joint of the truss, the member forces and any applied loads and reactions form a coplanar
concurrent force system , which must satisfy two equilibrium equations.
ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0, in order for the joint to be in equilibrium. These two equilibrium equations must be satisfied at
each joint of the truss. There are only two equations of equilibrium at a joint, so they cannot be used to determine
more than two unknown forces.
When using the method of joints, it is necessary to draw each joint’s free-body diagram before applying the
equilibrium equations. Recall that the line of action of each member force acting on the joint is specified from the
geometry of the truss, since the force in a member passes along the axis of the member.
In all cases, the joint analysis should start at a joint having at least one known force and at most two unknown
forces, as in Fig. b. In this way, application of and yields two algebraic equations that can be solved for the two
unknowns. When applying these equations, the correct sense of an unknown member force can be determined
using one of two possible methods.

38
When applying these equations, the correct sense of an unknown member force can be determined using one of
two possible methods.
1. Always assume the unknown member forces acting on the joint’s free-body diagram to be in tension, i.e.,
“pulling” on the pin. If this is done, then numerical solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive
scalars for members in tension and negative scalars for members in compression
2. In more complicated cases, the sense of an unknown member force can be assumed; then, after applying the
equilibrium equations, the assumed sense can be verified from the numerical results. A positive answer
indicates that the sense is correct, whereas a negative answer indicates that the sense shown on the free-body
diagram must be reversed.
Procedure for Analysis using Method of Joints
1- Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at most two unknown forces. (If this
joint is at one of the supports, it may be necessary to calculate the external reactions at the supports by drawing a
free-body diagram of the entire truss.)
2- Use one of the two methods previously described for establishing the sense of an unknown force.
3- The x and y axes should be oriented such that the forces on the free-body diagram can be easily resolved into
their x and y components. Apply the two force equilibrium equations ΣFx = 0 , ΣFy = 0 and solve for the two unknown
member forces, and verify their correct directional sense.
4- Continue to analyze each of the other joints, where again it is necessary to choose a joint having at most two
unknowns and at least one known force.
5- Once the force in a member is found from the analysis of a joint at one of its ends, the result can be used to
analyze the forces acting on the joint at its other end . Remember, a member in compression “pushes "on the joint
39
and a member in tension "pulls” on the joint.
Ex 1- Determine the force in each member of the roof truss shown in the photo. The dimensions and loadings are
shown in Fig. below . State whether the members are in tension or compression.

40
Ex2- Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. below by the method of joints

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss is composed of 7 members and 5 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Thus, b+r= 2j. Since the
reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate. From the dimensions of the truss given
in Fig. (a), we find that all inclined members have slopes of 12:5. Since joint E has two unknown non-collinear forces, FCE and FDE,
acting on it, we can begin the method of joints without first calculating the support reactions , or the analysis can be started from
joint B after calculating the reactions at A and B.
41
1- Joint E
Focusing our attention on joint E we observe that in order to satisfy
ΣFx = 0, the horizontal component of FDE must push to the left into the joint with a magnitude of 25 kN to balance the 25 kN
external load acting to the right.
The slope of member DE is 12:5, so the magnitude of the vertical component of FDE is (12/5)(25)= 60 kN .
Thus, the force in member DE is compressive, with a magnitude of
FDE = 252 + 602 = 65 KN C
With the vertical component of FDE now known, we can see from the figure that FCE acts down ,therefore
Σ Fy = 0
60 -3- FCE =0
FCE = 30 KN ( C )
2- Joint C
ΣFX = 0
50 – FCD = 0
FCD = 50 KN ( C) FCE

Σ FY = o
30 – FCA = 0 FCD
FCA = 30 KN (T)
FCA
3- Joint D
Both of the unknown forces, FAD and FBD, acting at this joint have inclined directions, so we draw the free body diagram of this
joint as shown in Fig. below and determine the unknowns by solving the equilibrium equations simultaneously:
42
+→ΣFx =0
50 +( 5 /13) 65-(5/13) FAD + (5/13) FBD = 0

+ ↑Σ FY = 0
-(12/13 )65 – (12/13) FAD – (12/13) FBD =0
Solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain
FAD = 65 kN (T)
and FBD = 130 kN ( C )
4- Joint B
By considering the equilibrium of joint B in the horizontal direction
ΣFx =0 we obtain FAB.
FAB = 50 kN (T)

5- Joint B
+ ↑ΣFY = 0
By – 130 (12/13) =0
By = 120 KN ↑

6- Joint A
+ ΣFx = 0 + ΣFy =0
25+ 50 – AX = 0 120-30 – Ay =0
43
AX = 75 KN ← A Y = 90 KN ↓
Zero Force Members
Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if
one is able to first determine those members that support no
loading. These zero-force members may be necessary for the
stability of the truss during construction and to provide support
if the applied loading is changed.
The zero-force members of a truss can generally be determined
by inspection of the joints, and they occur in two cases.

Case 1. Consider the truss in Fig. a. The two members at joint C

are connected together at a right angle and there is no external
load on the joint. The free-body diagram of joint (C, Fig.b)
indicates that the force in each member must be zero in order
to maintain equilibrium. Furthermore, as in the case of joint A,
Fig. c, this must be true regardless of the angle, say between
the members.

44
Case 2. Zero-force members also occur at joints having a geometry as joint
D in Fig.a. Here no external load acts on the joint, so that a force summation
in the y direction, Fig. b, which is perpendicular to the two collinear
members, requires that FDF = 0 , Using this result, FC is also a zero-force
member, as indicated by the force analysis of joint F, Fig. c.

In summary, then, if only two non-collinear members

form a truss joint and no external load or support
reaction is applied to the joint, the members must be
zero-force members, Case [Link], if three members
form a truss joint for which two of the members are
collinear, the third member is a zero-force member,
provided no external force or support reaction is
45
applied to the joint, Case 2.
46
EX.4-Determine the force in each member of the three-hinged trussed arch shown in Fig. (a) by the method of
joints.

Solution
1- Static Determinacy
The truss contains 10 members and 7 joints and is supported by 4 reactions. Since b+r =14 = 2j and the reactions
and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.
2- Zero-Force Members
It can be seen from Fig. (a) that at joint C, three members, AC;CE, and CF, are connected, of which members AC and
CF are collinear. Since joint C does not have any external load applied to it, the non-collinear member CE is a zero-
force member.
FCE = 0
Similar reasoning can be used for joint D to identify member DG as a zero-force member.
FDG = 0
The slopes of the non-zero-force inclined members are shown in Fig. (a). 47
The free-body diagram of the entire truss is shown in Fig. (b). The method of joints can be started either at joint E,
or at joint G, since both of these joints have only two unknowns each.

Joint E
Beginning with joint E, we observe from Fig. (b) that in order for ΣFx = 0 to be satisfied, the force in member EF
must be compressive with a magnitude of 15 kN
+ΣFX = 0 FEF = 15 KN ( C )
Similarly, fromΣFy = 0, we obtain FAE.
FAE = 10 KN ( C )
Joint G
By considering the equilibrium of joint G in the horizontal direction
ΣFx = 0, we observe that the force in member FG is zero because member DG is a zero force member. 48
F =0
ΣFy = 0,
we obtain FBG.
FBG = 10 kN ( C )
Joint F
Next, we consider joint F. Both of the unknown forces, FCF and FDF, acting at this joint have inclined directions, so we draw the
free-body diagram of this joint as shown in Fig. (c) and determine the unknowns by solving the equilibrium equations
simultaneously:

+ΣFx = 0 15 (1/ 2 )FCF + (4/5) FDF = 0

+ΣFy = 0 - 20-(1/ 2) F CF – (3/5)FDF = 0

35
Solving these equations, we obtain
FDF = -25 KN FCF = -7.07 KN
So FDF = 25 KN ( C )
FCF = 7.07 KN (C ) 49
Joint C (See Fig. (b).)
In order for joint C to be in equilibrium, the two nonzero collinear forces acting at it must be equal and
opposite.
FAC = 7:07 kN ( C )
Joint D
Using a similar reasoning
FBD = 25 KN ( C )
Joint A
+ →Σ FX = 0
Ax – 7.07 ( 1/ 2) = 0
Ax = 5 KN →
+↑ΣF y =0
Ay _ 10 – 7.07 (1/ 2) = 0
Ay = 15 KN ↑
Joint B
+ →ΣFX = 0
25 (4/5) – BX = 0
B X = 20 KN ←
+↑ΣFY = 0
BY – 10 – 25 (15/25) = 0
BY = 25 KN ↑
50
Analysis of Trusses By The Method Of Sections
The method of joints, presented in the preceding section, proves to be very efficient when forces in all the
members of a truss are to be determined. However, if the forces in only certain members of a truss are desired, the
method of joints may not prove to be efficient, because it may involve calculation of forces in several other
members of the truss before a joint is reached that can be analyzed for a desired member force. The method of
sections enables us to determine forces in the specific members of trusses directly, without first calculating many
unnecessary member forces, as may be required by the method of joints.
The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an imaginary section through the
members whose forces are desired. The desired member forces are then determined by considering the
equilibrium of one of the two portions of the truss. Each portion of the truss is treated as a rigid body in
equilibrium, under the action of any applied loads and reactions and the forces in the members that have been cut
by the section. The unknown member forces are determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium to one
of the two portions of the truss. There are only three equilibrium equations available, so they cannot be used to
determine more than three unknown forces. Thus, in general, sections should be chosen that do not pass through
more than three members with unknown forces. In particular, note that the line of action of each force in a
sectioned member is specified from the geometry of the truss, since the force in a member passes along the axis of
the member . Also, the member forces acting on one part of the truss are equal but opposite to those acting on the
other part—Newton’s third law.
As shown in the figure below , members assumed to be in tension (BC and GC) are subjected to a “pull,” whereas
the member in compression (GF) is subjected to a “push.”
51
Procedure for Analysis
1- Free-Body Diagram
• Make a decision as to how to “cut” or section the truss through the members where forces are to be determined.
• Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to determine the truss’s external reactions, so
that the three equilibrium equations are used only to solve for member forces at the cut section.
• Draw the free-body diagram of that part of the sectioned truss which has the least number of forces on it.
• Use one of the two methods described in the previous for establishing the sense of an unknown force.
2- Equations of Equilibrium
• Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the intersection of the lines of action of two unknown
forces; in this way, the third unknown force is determined directly from the equation.
• If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed perpendicular to the direction of these
unknowns to determine directly the third unknown force. 52
EX.5 - Determine the force in members GF and GD of the truss shown in Fig. below. State whether the members
are in tension or compression. The reactions at the supports have been calculated.

SOLUTION
1- Free-Body Diagram.
Section (aa) be considered because this section passes through the required members .
The free-body diagram to the right of this section is shown in Fig. beside .
The distance EO can be determined by proportional triangles or realizing
that member GF drops vertically (4.5-3= 1.5) in 3m.
Hence to drop 4.5 m from G the distance from C to O must be 9m.
Also, the angles that FGD and FGF make with the horizontal are tan-1 (4.5/3) = 56.30
and tan-1 (4.5/9)= 26.60 respectively
53
Equations of Equilibrium.
The force in GF can be determined directly by applying ΣMD =0 For the calculation use the principle of
transmissibility and slide FGF to point O .Thus

+ ΣMD =0
-FGF sin 26.60 + 7(3) = 0
FGF = 7.83 KN ( C )

The force in GD is determined directly by applying ΣM0 =0 . For simplicity use the principle of transmissibility and
slide to D. Hence,

+m M0 = 0

-7(3) + 2(6) +FGD sin56.30 (6) = 0

FGD = 180 KN (C)

54
Ex.5-
Determine the forces in members CD;DG, and GH of the truss shown in Fig. below by the method of sections.

Solution
Section the truss
A section aa is passed through the three members of interest, CD;DG, and GH, cutting the truss into two portions, ACGE and DHI.
To avoid the calculation of support reactions, we will use the right-hand portion, DHI, to calculate the member forces.
Member Forces .
The free-body diagram of the portion DHI of the truss is shown below.

55
All three unknown forces FCD;FDG, and FGH, are assumed to be tensile and are indicated by arrows pulling away
from the corresponding joints on the diagram. The slope of the inclined force, FDG, is also shown on the free-body
diagram. The desired member forces are calculated by applying the equilibrium equations as follows .

+ MD = 0
- 15 (16) + FGH (12) = 0
FGH = 20 KN (T)

+↑ΣFY = 0
-30 – 15 +(3/5) FDG = 0
FDG = 75 KN (T)

+→ΣFX = 0
-20 – (4/5)75 –FCD =0
FCD = -80 KN
The negative answer for FCD indicates that our initial assumption about this force being tensile was incorrect, and FCD
is actually a compressive force.
FCD = 80 KN ( C )

56
Ex. 6 - Determine the forces in members FJ;HJ, and HK of the K truss shown in Fig. below by the method of
sections

Solution
From Fig. above, we can observe that the horizontal section aa passing through the three members of interest, FJ;HJ,
and HK, also cuts an additional member FI, thereby releasing four unknowns, which cannot be determined by three
equations of equilibrium. Trusses such as the one being considered here with the members arranged in the form of
the letter K can be analyzed by a section curved around the middle joint, like section bb shown in Fig. above.

57
To avoid the calculation of support reactions, we will use the upper portion IKNL of the truss above section bb for
analysis.
The free body diagram of this portion is shown in Fig. below . It can be seen that although section (bb) has cut four
members, FI;IJ;JK, and HK, forces in members FI and HK can be determined by summing moments about points K
and I, respectively, because the lines of action of three of the four unknowns pass through these points.
We will, therefore, first compute FHK by considering section (bb) and then use section (aa) to determine FFJ and FHJ
Section b-b
+ MI = 0
-25 (8) – F HK (12) =0
FHK = -16.6 KN
FHK = 16.6 KN ( C )

Section a-a
The free-body diagram of the portion IKNL of the truss above section
a-a is shown in Fig. below . To determine FHJ, we sum moments about F,
which is the point of intersection of the lines of action of FFI and FFJ. Thus,
+ MF=0
-25(16) -50(8) + 16.67(12) –(3/5)FHJ (6) =0
FHJ = -62.5 KN
FHJ = 62.5 KN ( C )
By summing forces in the horizontal direction, we obtain
58
+→FX = 0 25 +50 – (3/5) FFJ – (3/5) 62.5 = 0 FFJ = 62.5 KN ( T )
Analysis of Compound Trusses
It was stated that compound trusses are formed by connecting two or more simple trusses together either by bars
or by joints. Occasionally this type of truss is best analyzed by applying both the method of joints and the method of
sections. It is often convenient to first recognize the type of construction and then perform the analysis using the
following procedure.

Ex. Indicate how to analyze the compound truss shown in Fig. below .The reactions at the supports have been
calculated.

SOLUTION
The truss is a compound truss since the simple trusses ACH and CEG are connected by the pin at C and the bar HG.
Section a-a in the above figure acts through bar HG and two other members having unknown forces . A free-body
diagram for the left part is shown in Fig . below .The force in HG is determined as follows:
59
+ M =0
-(5) 4 +4(2) +FGH ( 4sin600 ) =0

FGH = 3.46 KN ( C )

We can now proceed to determine the force in each

member of the simple trusses using the method of
joints. For example ,the free-body diagram of the part
ACH is shown below .The joints of this truss can be
analyzed in the following sequence:
Joint A: Determine the force in AB and AI.
Joint H: Determine the force in HI and HJ.
Joint I: Determine the force in IJ and IB.
Joint B: Determine the force in BC and BJ.
Joint J: Determine the force in JC.

60
Complex Trusses
Trusses that can be classified neither as simple trusses nor as compound trusses are referred to as complex trusses.
Two examples of complex trusses are shown in Fig. below . From an analytical viewpoint, the main difference
between simple or compound trusses and complex trusses stems from the fact that the methods of joints and
sections, as described previously, cannot be used for the analysis of complex trusses. We can see from Fig. below
that although the two complex trusses shown are statically determinate, after the computation of reactions the
method of joints cannot be applied because we cannot find a joint at which there are two or fewer unknown
member forces. Likewise, the method of sections cannot be employed, because every section would pass through
more than three members with unknown forces. The member forces in such trusses can be determined by writing
two equilibrium equations in terms of unknown member forces for each joint of the truss and then solving the
system of 2j equations simultaneously. Today, complex trusses are usually analyzed on computers using the matrix
formulation .

61
Procedure of Analysis of Complex Trusses
1- Reduction to Stable Simple Truss
Determine the reactions at the supports and begin by imagining how to analyze the truss by the method of joints,
i.e., progressing from joint to joint and solving for each member force. If a joint is reached where there are three
unknowns, remove one of the members at the joint and replace it by an imaginary member elsewhere in the truss.
By doing this, reconstruct the truss to be a stable simple truss. For example, in Fig. a it is observed that each joint
will have three unknown member forces acting on it. Hence we will remove member AD and replace it with the
imaginary member EC, Fig. b. This truss can now be analyzed by the method of joints for the two types of loading
that follow.

External Loading on Simple Truss

Load the simple truss with the actual loading P, then determine the force in each member i. In Fig. b, provided the
reactions have been determined, one could start at joint A to determine the forces in AB and AF, then joint F to
determine the forces in FE and FC, then joint D to determine the forces in DE and DC (both of which are zero), then
62
joint E to determine EB and EC, and finally joint B to determine the force in BC.
3- Remove External Loading from Simple Truss
Consider the simple truss without the external load P. Place equal but opposite collinear unit loads on the truss at
the two joints from which the member was removed. If these forces develop a force in the ith truss member, then
by proportion an unknown force x in the removed member would exert a force in the ith member. From Fig. c the
equal but opposite unit loads will create no reactions at A and C when the equations of equilibrium are applied to
the entire truss. The forces can be determined by analyzing the joints in the same sequence as before ,namely,
joint A, then joints F, D, E, and finally B. Superposition
4- Superposition
If the effects of the above two loadings are combined, the force in the ith member of the truss will be
Si = Si/ +xsi (1)
In particular, for the substituted member EC in Fig. b the force (SEC = SEC/ + xsEC ) . Since member EC does not
actually exist on the original truss , we will choose x to have a magnitude such that it yields zero force in EC .
Hence,
SEC/ + xsEC = 0 (2)

or x= - SEC/ / xsEC

Once the value of x has been determined, the force in the other members( i )of the complex truss can be
determined from Eq.(1).

63
Example - Determine the force in each member of the complex truss shown below .Joints B ,F , and D are on the
same horizontal line. State whether the members are in tension or compression.

SOLUTION
1- Reduction to Stable Simple Truss.
By inspection, each joint
has three unknown member forces. A joint analysis can be
performed by hand if, for example, member CF is removed
and member DB substituted, b. The resulting truss is stable
5 KN
and will not collapse

64
2- External Loading on Simple Truss.
As shown in Fig. b, the support reactions on the truss have been determined. Using the method of joints, we can first analyze
joint C to find the forces in members CB and CD; then joint F, where it is seen that FA and FE are zero-force members; then joint E
to determine the forces in members EB and ED ; then joint D to determine the forces in DA and DB; then finally joint B to
determine the force in BA. Considering tension as positive and compression as negative, these forces are recorded in column 2 of
Table 1.
3- Remove External Loading from Simple Truss.
The unit load acting on the truss is shown in Fig. c. These equal but opposite
forces create no external reactions on the truss. The joint analysis follows the
same sequence as discussed previously, namely, joints C,F, E,D, and B . The results
of the force analysis are recorded in column 3 of Table 1.

4-Superposition. We require
SDB = SDB/ + xsDB
Substituting the data for SDB and SDB/ where is negative
since the force is compressive, we have
-2.5 + x(1.167)=0
X= 2.143
The values of xs I are recorded in column 4 of Table 1,
and the actual member forces Si = Si/ +xsi are listed in
column 5.
65
 Internal Forces In Structural Members
In general, the internal loading for a coplanar structure will consist of a
1- normal force N,
2- shear force V, and
3- bending moment M.
Sign Convention,
we will need to establish a sign convention to define the “positive” and “negative” values of the internal forces.
Although the choice is arbitrary, the sign convention to be adopted here has been widely accepted in structural
engineering practice, and is illustrated in Fig. (a). On the left-hand face of the cut member the normal force( N) acts
to the right, the internal shear force (V) acts downward, and the moment( M) acts counterclockwise. In accordance
with Newton’s third law, an equal but opposite normal force, shear force, and bending moment must act on the
right-hand face of the member at the section. Perhaps an easy way to remember this sign convention is to isolate a
small segment of the member and note that positive normal force tends to elongate the segment , Fig.
(b);positive shear tends to rotate the segment clockwise, Fig. (c) ; and positive bending moment tends to bend the
segment concave upward, so as to “hold water,”(d).

66
Procedure for Analysis Where is the external forces acting to the left are
1-Support Reactions considered positive, whereas the external forces
Compute the support reactions by applying the acting to the right are considered to be negative
equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to the (see Fig. (b)). vice versa.
free body of the entire beam. (In cantilever beams, this - Determine the shear at the section by
step can be avoided by selecting the free, or externally algebraically summing the components in the
unsupported, portion of the beam for analysis direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam of
2- Free-Body Diagram all the external loads and reactions acting on the
• After the section is made, draw a free-body diagram of selected portion. If the left portion of the beam is
the segment that has the least number of loads on it. being used for analysis, then
At the section indicate the unknown resultants N, V, and the external forces acting upward are considered
M acting in their positive directions (Fig.a). positive, whereas the external forces acting
3- Equations of Equilibrium downward are considered to be negative (see Fig.
- Determine the axial force at the section by (c)). and vice versa.
algebraically summing the components in the direction - Determine the bending moment at the section by
parallel to the axis of the beam of all the external loads algebraically summing the moments about the
and support reactions acting on the selected portion. section of all the external forces plus the moments
According to the sign convention adopted in the of any external couples acting on the selected
preceding paragraphs, if the portion of the beam to the portion. If the left portion is being used for analysis,
left of the section is being used for computing the axial then the clockwise moments are considered to be
force, then the external forces acting to the left are positive, and the counterclockwise moments are
67
considered positive, considered negative (see Fig. (d)). and vice versa.
68
Example
Determine the axial force, shear, and bending moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. (a).

Solution
1- Reactions
Considering the equilibrium of the free body of the
entire beam (Fig. (b)),
+→ΣFx = 0 +↑ΣFy= 0
Ax – (4 /5)25=0 25-30-(3/5)(25) + Cy =0
Ax = 20 KN →
+ Mc = 0 Cy = 25 KN↑
Ay (36)+30(24)+ 3/ 5 (25)(12)=0
Ay =25 kN ↑ 69
Section bb
A section bb is passed through point B, cutting the beam into two portions, AB and BC .The portion AB, which is to
the left of the section, is used here to compute the internal forces.

1- Axial Force
Considering the external forces acting to the right as positive, we write
+→ΣFx = 0
N +20 =0
N= -20 KN (compression)

2- Shear
Considering the external forces acting upward as positive, we write
+↑ΣFy= 0
25-30 + V =0
V = 5KN ↑

3- Bending Moment
Considering the clockwise moments of the external forces about B as positive, we write
25(18) – 30 (6) + M =0
M = 270 KN.m ( counter Clockwise moment- positive )

70
Example
Determine the internal shear and moment acting at a section passing through point C in the beam shown in Fig.a.

SOLUTION
1- Support Reactions.
Replacing the distributed load by its resultant force and computing the reactions yields the results shown in Fig b.
Ay = 45KN ↑
By = 90 KN ↑
2-Free-Body Diagram.
Segment AC will be considered since it yields the simplest solution, Fig. c.
The distributed load intensity at C is computed by proportion, that is,
wc = (2m/6m)(45KN/m) = 15 KN/m
3- Equations of Equilibrium.
Nc =0
+↑ΣFy= 0
45-15 – Vc =0 Vc = 30 KN
+ Mc = 0 -45(2) + 15(0.667)+Mc = 0
71
Mc = 80KN.m
SHEAR AND MOMENT FUNCTIONS
The design of a beam requires a detailed knowledge of the variations of the internal shear force V and moment M
acting at each point along the axis of the beam.
For design purposes the beam’s resistance to shear, and particularly to bending, is more important than its ability to
resist normal forces.
Important Notes
1- The variations of V and M as a function of the position (x) of an arbitrary point along the beam’s axis can be
obtained by using the method of sections .Here, however, it is necessary to locate the imaginary section or cut at an
arbitrary distance x from one end of the beam rather than at a specific point
2- the internal shear and moment functions will be discontinuous, or their slope will be discontinuous, at points
where the type or magnitude of the distributed load changes or where concentrated forces or couple moments are
applied. Because of this, shear and moment functions must be determined for each region of the beam located
between any two discontinuities of loading
3- For beam below x1 , x2 and x3 coordinates will have to be used to describe the variation of V and M throughout
the length of the beam in Fig. a. These coordinates will be valid only within regions from A to B for x1 from B to C for
x2 and from C to D for x3 . Although each of these coordinates has the same origin , as noted here, this does not
have to be the case. Indeed, it may be easier to develop the shear and moment functions using coordinates having
origins at A, B, and D as shown in Fig. b. Here x1 and x2 are positive to the right and x3 is positive to the left.

72
Procedure for Analysis
The following procedure provides a method for determining the variation of shear and moment in a beam as a
function of position x.
1- Support Reactions
• Determine the support reactions on the beam and resolve all the external forces into components acting
perpendicular and parallel to the beam’s axis.
2-Shear and Moment Functions
• Specify separate coordinates x and associated origins, extending into regions of the beam between concentrated
forces and/or couple moments ,or where there is a discontinuity of distributed loading.
• Section the beam perpendicular to its axis at each distance x, and from the free-body diagram of one of the
segments determine the unknowns V and M at the cut section as functions of x. On the free body diagram, V and
M should be shown acting in their positive directions, in accordance with the sign convention.
• V is obtained from ΣFy =0 and M is obtained by summing moments about the point S located at the cut section
ΣMs = 0 ,
• The results can be checked by noting that dM/dx = V and dV/dx=w , where w is positive when it acts upward,
away from the beam.

73
74
Example
Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown in Fig.a as a function of x.

SOLUTION
Support Reactions.
The reactions at the fixed support are , Fig. b.
+→ΣFx = 0
Fx = 0

+↑Fy = 0
V = 4(12)+ 60 = 108 KN ↑

+ MA = 0
M = 4(12)(12/2) +60 (20) + 100 = 1588 KN.m
75
Shear and Moment Functions.
Since there is a discontinuity of distributed load at x= 12m , two regions of x must be considered in order to
describe the shear and moment functions for the entire beam .
Here x1 is appropriate for the left 12m and x2 can be used for the remaining segment. Consider Fig .c

Notice that V and M are shown in the positive 2- 12 ≤ x2 ≤ 24 m

directions, Fig–7c.
1- 0 ≤ x1 ≤ 12 m +↑ΣFy = 0
108 - -48 –V = 0 V = 60 KN
+↑ΣFy = 0
108 - -4x1 –V = 0 V = 108 - -4x1 + Ms = 0
1588- 108x2 + 48( x2 – 6) + M =0
+ Ms = 0
1588- 108x1 + 4x1 ( x1/2) +M =0 M= 60x2 - 1300

M= -1588+108x1 -2x12 76
Example
Determine the shear and moment in the beam shown in Fig. a as a function of x.

SOLUTION
Support Reactions. To determine the support reactions,
the distributed load is divided into a triangular and
rectangular loading, and these loadings are then
replaced by their resultant forces. These reactions have
been computed and are shown on the beam’s free body
diagram, Fig.b.
Shear and Moment Functions.
A free-body diagram of the cut section is shown in Fig. c. As above, the trapezoidal loading is replaced by
rectangular and triangular distributions. Note that the intensity of the triangular load at the cut is found by
proportion. The resultant force of each distributed loading and its location are indicated. Applying the equilibrium
77
equations, we have
78
 Shear and Moment Diagrams for a Beam

If the variations of V and M as functions of x obtained before are plotted, the graphs are termed the shear diagram
and moment diagram.
Consider the beam AD shown below.
Consider the free-body diagram for a small segment of the beam having a length Δx Fig. b. Since this segment has
been chosen at a point x along the beam that is not subjected to a concentrated force or couple, any results
obtained will not apply at points of concentrated loading.

The internal shear force and bending moment shown on the free body diagram are assumed to act in the positive
direction according to the established sign convention. Note that both the shear force and moment acting on the
right face must be increased by a small, finite amount in order to keep the segment in equilibrium. The distributed
loading has been replaced by a concentrated force (wx Δx) . Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have
79
80
81
82
Example
Find reactions, Shear Force, Location of zero shear forced, Maximum Moment.

Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMB = 0
RAy = 6 (12 –3)/ 12 = 4.5 kN
Σ FY = 0
RBY = 6-4.5 = 1.5 KN
2- Shear Force Functions
0≤x≤3m
V= 4.5 KN
3m ≤ x ≤ 12 m
V = 4.5 – 6 = -1.5 KN
3- Moment Functions
0≤x≤3m
M = 4.5 (x) KN.m
3m≤ x ≤ 12m
M= 4.5 x – 6 (x-3)
Max. moment occurs at x= 3m
Mmax = 3(4.5) = 13.5 KN.m 83
Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMB = 0
RAy = 5 (12)/ 10 = 6 kN
Σ FY = 0
RBY = -5+6 = 1.0 KN
2- Shear Force Functions
0≤x≤2m
V= - 5 KN
2m ≤ x ≤ 12 m
V = -5 + 6 = 1 KN
3- Moment Functions
0≤x≤2m
M = -5 (x) KN.m
2m≤ x ≤ 12m
M= - 5 (x) + 6 (x-2)
Max. moment occurs at x= 2 m
Mmax = -2(5) = -10 KN.m

84
Example
Find reactions, Shear Force, Location of zero shear forced, Maximum Moment, Mid-span moment
Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMc = 0
𝟏𝟎
RAy = [2 (10) ( +10 )]/ 20 = 15 kN
𝟐
Σ FY = 0
RcY = [2(10)]-15 = 5 KN
2- Shear moment Functions
0 ≤ x ≤ 10 m
V= 1 5 – 2(x) KN
10m ≤ x ≤ 20 m
V = 15 -2(10) = -5 KN
3- Moment Functions
0 ≤ x ≤ 10 m
𝒙
M = 15 (x) – [2(x) ( ) ]KN.m
𝟐
10m≤ x ≤ 20 m
𝟏𝟎
M= 15 (x) – [2(10) (x- ) ]
𝟐
Max. moment occurs when shear value equaled to zero, or
V=0= 15-2x x= 7.5 m Mmax = 15 (7.5)/2 = 56.25 KN.m 85
Example
Find reactions, Shear Force, Location of zero shear forced, 2m
Maximum Moment. Draw shear moment diagrams.
Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMA = 0
MA – 2 (5) – 0.25 (10) (10/2)-4(2) =0 2m
MA = 30.5 KN.m ( Anti-clockwise)
Σ FY = 0
RAY = [0.25(10)]+ 2 = 4.5 ↑ KN
ΣFX =0
RAX = 4 KN ←
2- Shear moment Functions
0≤x≤5m
V= 4.5 – 0.25(x) KN
5m ≤ x ≤ 10 m
V = 4.5 -0.25(x)-2
3- Moment Functions
0≤x≤5m
𝒙
M = -30.5 + 4.5 (x) – [0.25(x) ( ) ]KN.m
𝟐
5m≤ x ≤ 10 m 86
𝒙
M= - 30.5 +4.5 (x) – [0.25(x) ( ) ]-2(x-5)
Example
Calculate Reactions at A and B. Draw Shear Force Diagram. Find location of Zero Shear force. Find the Maximum
Moment. Draw the Moment Diagram
Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMB = 0
RAY (12)– 12 (8) – 4 (12) (12/2) =0
RAY = 32 KN ↑ Zero Shear Force
Σ FY = 0 determined from V= 0
RBY + RAY – 12 – 4 (12) = 0 0 = 32 -4(x)-12
RBY = -32+ 12 +4(12)= 28 KN↑ X = 5m from left
2- Shear Functions
0≤x≤4m
V= 32 – 4 (x) KN Max Moment determined from
4m ≤ x ≤ 12 m 𝟓
Mmax. 32(5) – [4(5) ( ) ]-12(5-4)
V = 32 -4(x)-12 𝟐
3- Moment Functions Mmax = 98 KN.m
0 ≤ x ≤ 4m
𝒙
M = 32 (x) – [4 (x) ( ) ] KN.m
𝟐
4m≤ x ≤ 12 m
𝒙
M= 32(x) – [4(x) ( ) ]-12(x-4) KN.m 87
𝟐
Example
A simply supported beam with a triangularly distributed downward load is shown in Fig. Calculate reaction; draw
shear force diagram; find location of V=0; calculate maximum moment, and draw the moment diagram.
Solution
1- Reactions
ΣMB = 0
RAY (9)– 1/2 (6)(9) (1/3) (9) =0
RAY = 9 KN ↑ Zero Shear Force determined
Σ FY = 0 from V= 0
RBY + RAY – ½(6)(9)= 0 0 = 9 –(1/3)x2
RBY = 18 KN↑ X = 5.2 m from left
2- Shear Functions
At section x from the left the load intensity is
𝟔 𝒘
= w = (6/9)x
𝟗 𝒙
0≤x≤9m
𝟔 Max Moment determined from
V= 9 – (1/2)( x) (x) KN
𝟗
Mmax. =9(5.2) – [(1/9)(5.2)3]
V= 9- (1/3)(x2 ) KN
Mmax = 31.2 KN.m
3- Moment Functions
0 ≤ x ≤ 9m
M = 9 (x) – [(1/3)(x2 ] (1/3)(x)
M = 9 (x) – (1/9)x3 KN.m 88
Example
Calculate Reactions at A , B and D . Draw Shear Force
Diagram. Find location of Zero Shear force. Find the
Maximum Moment. Draw the Moment Diagram
Solution
1- Reactions
Consider the part CD
ΣMC = 0
RDY (8)– 4 (8)(8/2) =0
RDY = 16 KN ↑
Σ FY = 0
RCY + RDY –(4)(8) = 0
RCy = 16 KN↑
Consider the part AC
ΣMB= 0
RAY (16) – 4(16)(16/2) + (4)(4)(4/2) + 16 (4) = 0
RAY = 26 KN

Σ FY = 0
RAY + RBY – (4)(20)- 16 = 0
RBY = 70 KN
89
2- Shear moment Functions
0 ≤ x ≤ 16 m
V= 26 – 4(x) KN
16m ≤ x ≤ 20 m
V = 26 -4(x)-76 (x-16)
Consider part CD from right
0≤x≤ 8 m
V = 16 -4 (x)
3- Moment Functions
0 ≤ x ≤ 16m
𝒙
M = 26 (x) – [4 (x) ( ) ] KN.m
𝟐
16m≤ x ≤ 20 m
𝒙
M= 26(x) – [4(x) ( ) ]+70(x-16) KN.m
𝟐
Consider part CD from right
0≤x≤ 8 m
M = 16 (x) -4 (x) (x/2)

Max. Positive Moment is

+ve Mmax = (1/2)(26)(6.5) = 84.5 KN.m
Max. Negative moment is
-ve Mmax = (1/2)(38)(16-6.5)- 84.5 = 96 KN.m 90
Shear and Moment Diagrams for Frames
Procedure for analysis - the following is a procedure for constructing the shear
and moment diagrams for a frame
1. Determine the support reactions for the frame, if possible.
2. Determine the support reactions R , V, and M at the end of each member
using the method of sections.
3. Construct both shear and moment diagrams just as for beams.
We will use the following sign convention: always draw the moment diagram
on the compression side of the member.

91
92
2- cut the frame into its component
members and find the internal reactions

93
94
Example:
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the following frame:
Solution:
1- Find the reactions at A & D
ΣMA = 0
RDY (16)– 0.8 (20)(20/2)-0.6 (16)(16/2) =0
RDY = 11.84 KN ↑
Σ FY = 0
RAY + RDY –(0.8)(20) = 0
RAy = 4.16 KN↑
Σ FX = 0
RAX -0.6(16)=0
RAX = 9.6 KN←

95
2- cut the frame into its
component members and find
the internal reactions

- Member AB
ΣMB = 0
MB - 9.6 (16.)+ 0.6 (16)(16/2)=0
MB =76.8KN.m
- Member CD
Σ FY = 0
ΣMC = 0
4.16-By =0
MC =0
By =4.15 KN↓
Σ FY = 0
Σ FX = 0
11.84 -Cy =0
-9.6+0.6(16)+Bx =0
Cy =11.84 KN↓
BX = 0 KN
Σ FX = 0
CX = 0 KN 96
97
98
Solution:
1- Find the reactions at A & D
ΣMD = 0
RAY (39)– 3 (30)[(30/2)+9]-3 (15)(15/2) =0
RAY = 64.04 KN ↑
Σ FY = 0
RAY + RDY –(3)(30)-3 (15)(9/15) = 0
R Dy = 52.96 KN↑
Σ FX = 0
RAX -3 (15)(12/15)=0
RAX = 36 KN←

2- cut the frame into its component members and find the internal
reactions
99
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112
Cables
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit loads
from one member to another. When used to support suspension roofs, bridges,
and trolley wheels, cables form the main load-carrying element in the structure. In
the force analysis of such systems, the weight of the cable itself may be neglected;
however, when cables are used as guys for radio antennas, electrical transmission
lines, and derricks, the cable weight may become important and must be included
in the structural analysis .
Two cases will be considered in the sections that follow:
1-Cable subjected to concentrated loads and
2-Cable subjected to a distributed load.

113
Assumptions
• Cable is flexible and in-extensible; hence does not resist any bending moment
or shear force (this is not always true - e.g., fatigue of cables); self weight of
cable neglected when external loads act on the cable
• Since only axial tensile forces are carried by the cable, the force in the cable is
tangential to the cable profile
• Since it is in-extensible, the length is always constant; as a consequence of the
cable profile not changing its length and form, it is assumed to be a rigid body
during analysis
• Even when a moving load is acting on the cable, the load is assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the cable (since the cable profile is not assumed to
change)

114
1-Cable subjected to concentrated loads
When a cable of negligible weight supports several concentrated loads, the cable takes the form
of several straight-line segments , each of which is subjected to a constant tensile force.
Consider, for example, the cable shown in Fig. below . Here θ specifies the angle of the cable’s
cord AB, and L is the cable’s span. If the distances L1 , L2 and L3 and the loads are known, then the
problem is to determine the nine unknowns consisting of the tension in each of the three
segments, the four components of reaction at A and B, and the sags YC and YD at the two points
C and D.

115
 For the solution we can write two equations of force equilibrium at each of points A,B,C, and D.
This results in a total of eight equations . To complete the solution , it will be necessary to know
something about the geometry of the cable in order to obtain the necessary ninth equation.
This can be done by specify one of the sags, either or instead of the cable length. By doing this,
the equilibrium equations are then sufficient for obtaining the unknown forces and the
remaining sag. Once the sag at each point of loading is obtained, can then be determined by
trigonometry. When performing an equilibrium analysis for a problem of this type, the forces in
the cable can also be obtained by writing the equations of equilibrium for the entire cable or
any portion thereof. The following example numerically illustrates these concepts.

116
117
118
119
2-Cable subjected to a distributed load.
Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the dead weight of girders or bridge decks
having very long spans . A suspension bridge is a typical example, in which the deck is suspended
from the cable using a series of close and equally spaced hangers. In order to analyze this
problem .Consider the part of the cable shown below :

120
Here the x ,y axes have their origin located at the lowest point on the cable, such that the slope
is zero at this point. The free-body diagram of a small segment of the cable having a length ΔS
is shown in fig. b. Since the tensile force in the cable changes continuously in both magnitude
and direction along the cable’s length, this change is denoted on the free-body diagram by The
distributed load is represented by its resultant force which acts at from point O. Applying the
equations of equilibrium yields

121
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124
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126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
Arches
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span structures.
Essentially, an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it receives its load mainly in compression
although , because of its rigidity , it must also resist some bending and shear depending upon
how it is loaded and shaped. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is subjected to
a uniform horizontally distributed vertical load , then from the analysis of cables it follows that
only compressive forces will be resisted by the arch. Under these conditions the arch shape is
called a funicular arch because no bending or shear forces occur within the arch.

141
Depending upon the application, several types of arches can be selected to support a loading.
1- Fixed arch, is often made from reinforced concrete. Although it may require less material to
construct than other types of arches , it must have solid foundation abutments since it is
indeterminate to the third degree and, consequently, additional stresses can be introduced into
the arch due to relative settlement of its
2-Two-hinged arch , is commonly made from metal or timber. It is indeterminate to the first
degree, and although it is not as rigid as a fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to settlement.
We could make this structure statically determinate by replacing one of the hinges with a roller.
Doing so, however, would remove the capacity of the structure to resist bending along its span ,
and as a result it would serve as a curved beam , and notes an arch.
3-Three-hinged arch which is also made from metal or timber, is statically determinate. Unlike
statically indeterminate arches, it is not affected by settlement or temperature changes.
4- Finally, if two and three-hinged arches are to be constructed without the need for larger
foundation abutments and if clearance is not a problem , then the supports can be connected
with a tie rod.A tied arch allows the structure to behave as a rigid unit, since the tie rod carries
the horizontal component of thrust at the supports. It is also unaffected by relative settlement
of the supports.
142
To provide some insight as to how arches transmit
loads, we will now consider the analysis of a three-
hinged arch such as the one shown. In this case, the
third hinge is located at the crown and the supports
are located at different elevations. In order to
determine the reactions at the supports, the arch is
disassembled and the free-body diagram of each
member is shown. Here there are six unknowns for
which six equations of equilibrium are available. One
method of solving this problem is to apply the
moment equilibrium equations about points A and B.
Simultaneous solution will yield the reactions and The
support reactions are then determined from the force
equations of equilibrium. Once obtained, the internal
normal force, shear, and moment loadings at any
point along the arch can be found using the method
of sections. Here, of course, the section should be
taken perpendicular to the axis of the arch at the 143
point considered .
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146
147
148
149
150
151
Influence Lines
In the previous we developed techniques for analyzing the forces in structural
members due to dead or fixed loads. It was shown that the shear and moment
diagrams represent the most descriptive methods for displaying the variation of
these loads in a member. If a structure is subjected to a live or moving load,
however, the variation of the shear and bending moment in the member is best
described using the influence line .
An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, moment,
or deflection at a specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves over
the member. Once this line is constructed, one can tell at a glance where the
moving load should be placed on the structure so that it creates the greatest
influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the magnitude of the associated
reaction, shear , moment, or deflection at the point can then be calculated from
the ordinates of the influence-line diagram . For these reasons , influence lines
play an important part in the design of bridges, industrial crane rails, conveyors ,
and other structures where loads move across their span. 152
Procedure for Analysis
For both of the following two procedures we will choose the moving force to have a
dimensionless magnitude of unity.
1- Tabulate Values
• Place a unit load at various locations, x, along the member, and at each location use statics to
determine the value of the function (reaction , shear, or moment) at the specified point.
• If the influence line for a vertical force reaction at a point on a beam is to be constructed,
consider the reaction to be positive at the point when it acts upward on the beam.
• If a shear or moment influence line is to be drawn for a point, take the shear or moment at the
point as positive according to the same sign convention used for drawing shear and moment
diagrams.
• All statically determinate beams will have influence lines that consist of straight line segments.
After some practice one should be able to minimize computations and locate the unit load only
at points representing the end points of each line segment.
• To avoid errors, it is recommended that one first construct a table, listing “unit load at x”
versus the corresponding value of the function calculated at the specific point; that is, “reaction
R,” “shear V,” or “moment M.” Once the load has been placed at various points along the span
of the member, the tabulated values can be plotted and the influence-line segments 153
2-Influence-Line Equations
• The influence line can also be constructed by placing the unit load at a variable
position x on the member and then computing the value of R , V, or M at the point
as a function of x . In this manner, the equations of the various line segments
composing the influence line can be determined and plotted.
Although the procedure for constructing an
influence line is rather basic,one should clearly
be aware of the difference between constructing
an influence line and constructing a shear or
moment diagram . Influence lines represent the
effect of a moving load only at a specified point
on a member, whereas shear and moment
diagrams represent the effect of fixed loads at all
points along the axis of the member.
154
155
Example 1:
Construct the influence line for the reaction at supports A and B for the beam of span 10 m. The
beam structure is shown in Figure below.
Solution
1- Tabulate values:
As shown in the figure, a unit load is
places at distance x from support A
and the reaction value RB is calculated
by taking moment with reference to support A.
Let us say, if the load is placed at 2.5 m. from
support A then the reaction RA be calculated as follows

Similarly, the load can be placed at 5.0, 7.5 and 10 m. away from support A and reaction RA can
be computed and tabulated as given below.

156
 X RA X RB
0 1 0 0
2.5 0.75 2.5 0.25
5.0 0.5 5.0 0.5
7.5 0.25 7.5 0.75
10 0 10 1

2- Influence- Line Equations

Σ MB = 0 :
-RA ( 10) +1 (10-x) = 0 ⇒ RA = 1- (1/10)x
Σ MA = 0 :
157
RB ( 10) -1 (x) = 0 ⇒ RB = (1/10)x
Example 2:
Construct the influence line for support reaction at B for the given beam as shown in Fig below .

Solution:
Tabulate Values: As shown in
the figure, a unit load is places
at distance x from support A
and the reaction value RB is
calculated by taking moment with
reference to support A. Let us say, if the load is placed at 2.5 m. from support A then the
reaction RB can be calculated as follows.
Σ MA = 0 : RB x 7.5 - 1 x 2.5 = 0 ⇒ RB = 0.33
Similarly one can place a unit load at distances 5.0 m and 7.5 m from support A and compute
reaction at B. When the load is placed at 10.0 m from support A, then reaction at B can be
computed using following equation.
Σ MA = 0 : RB x 7.5 - 1 x 10.0 = 0 ⇒ RB = 1.33
Similarly a unit load can be placed at 12.5 and the reaction at B can be computed. The values of
reaction at B are tabulated as follows. 158
 X RB
0 1
2.5 0.33
5.0 0.67 Graphical representation of influence line for RB
7.5 1.0 is shown in Figure below
10 1.33
12.5 1.67

Influence line Equation: Applying the moment equation at A (Figure below),

Σ MA = 0 : RB x 7.5 - 1 ( x) = 0 ⇒ RB = x/7.5
The influence line using this equation is shown in Figure below.

159
Influence lines for shears
To develop the influence line for the shear at point B of the beam shown below ,we determine
the expressions for VB . It can be seen from figure that when the unit load is located to the left of
point B—that is, on segment AB of the beam (0<x < a)— the shear at B can be conveniently
obtained by using the free body of the portion BC of the beam that is to the right of B.
Considering the downward external forces and reactions acting on the portion BC as positive in
accordance with the beam sign convention ,we determine the shear at B as

VB = - RC 0 ≤x<a

When the unit load is located to the right of point B—that is, on segment BC of the beam
(a <x < L)—it is simpler to determine VB by using the free body of the portion AB, which is
to the left of B. Considering the upward External forces and reactions acting on the portion AB
as positive, we determine the shear at B as

VB = RA a<x ≤ L

160
 a<x ≤ L

0 ≤x<a

161
Example 3:
Construct the influence line for shearing point C of the beam shown below.
Solution:
1-Tabulated Values:
Place a unit load at different location at
distance x from support A and find the
reactions at A and finally compute shear
Force by taking section at C.
The shear force at C should be carefully
computed when unit load is placed before
X Vc
point C , and after point C .The resultant
0 0.0
values of shear force at C are tabulated as follows.
2.5 -0.16
5.0 -0.33
7.5(-) -0.5
7.5(+) 0.5
10 0.33
12.5 0.16
162
15.0 0.0
Graphical representation of influence line for Vc is shown in Figure below

2-Influence line equation:

In this case, we need to determine two equations
as the unit load position before point C and after
point C will show different shear force
sign due to discontinuity. The equations are
plotted in Figure above.
163
Example 4
Construct the influence line for the shear at point C of the beam in below
SOLUTION

1-Tabulate Values.
Using statics and the method of sections, verify that the
values of the shear at point C in Fig. correspond to each X Vc

position x of the unit load on the beam . A plot of the 0 0.0

values is shown below. 4- -0.5

4+ 0.5
8 0.0
12 -0.5

164
2-Influence-Line Equations.
From Fig. verify that
These equations are plotted in
Fig. above.
Vc= -(1/8)X 0≤ X≤4m
Vc=1 -(1/8)X 4m≤ X≤12m
165
Influence Line for Bending Moment at B
When the unit load is located to the left of point B ,the expression for the bending moment at B
can be conveniently obtained by using the free body of the portion BC of the beam to the right of
B. Considering the counterclockwise moments of the external forces and reactions acting on the
portion BC as positive in accordance with the beam sign convention , we determine the bending
moment at B as

MB = RC(L-a) 0≤ x ≤ a

When the unit load is located to the right of point B, we use the free body of the portion AB to
the left of B to determine MB. Considering the clockwise moments of the external forces and
reactions acting on the portion AB as positive, we determine the bending moment at B as
MB= RA (a) a≤ x ≤L

166
MB = RC(L-a)=(x/L)(L-a) 0≤ x ≤ a

MB= RA (a)=(1-x/L)(a) a≤ x ≤L

167
Example 5:
Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam shown in Figure below.

Solution:
1-Tabulated values:
Place a unit load at different location between two supports and find the support reactions.
Once the support reactions are computed, take a section at C and compute the moment. For
example, we place the unit load at x=2.5 m from support A , then the support reaction at A will
be 0.833 and support reaction B will be 0.167. Taking section at C and computation of moment
at C can be given by

Σ Mc = 0 : - Mc + RB ( 7.5) = 0 ⇒ - Mc + 0.167 (7.5 ) = 0 ⇒ Mc = 1.25

Similarly, compute the moment Mc for difference unit load position in the span. The values of
Mc are tabulated as follows. 168
Graphical representation of influence line for
Mc is shown in Figure below X Mc

0 0.0
2.5 1.25
5.0 2.5
7.5 3.75
10 2.5
12.5 1.25
15 0.0
2-Influence Line Equations:
There will be two influence line equations for
the section before point C and after point C.
When the unit load is placed before point C
then the moment equation for given Figure can
be given by
Σ Mc = 0 : Mc + 1(7.5 –x) – (1-x/15) 7.5 = 0
⇒ Mc = x/2, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 7.5
169
When the unit load is placed after point C then the moment equation for given Figure can be
given by

Σ Mc = 0 : Mc – (1-x/15) x 7.5 = 0 ⇒
Mc = 7.5 – (x/2), where 7.5 < x ≤ 15.0

170
Example 6:
Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam shown in Figure below

Place a unit load at different location between two supports and find the support reactions.
Once the support reactions are computed, take a section at C and compute the moment. For
example as shown in Figure , we place a unit load at 2.5 m from support A, then the support
reaction at A will be 0.75 and support reaction B will be 0.25.
Taking section at C and computation of moment at C can be given by

Σ Mc = 0 : - Mc + RB ( 5.0) = 0 ⇒ - Mc + 0.25 ( 5.0) = 0 ⇒ Mc = 1.25

Similarly, compute the moment Mc for difference unit load position in the span. The values of
171
Mc are tabulated as follows.
 X Mc
0 0.0
2.5 1.25
5.0 2.5
7.5 1.25
10 0.0
12.5 -1.25
15 -2.5

2-Influence Line Equations:

There will be two influence line equations for
the section before point C and after point C.
When a unit load is placed before point C then
the moment equation for given Figure 37.22
can be given by
Σ Mc = 0 : Mc +1(5.0 –x) – (1-x/10) 5.0 = 0
0≤ x ≤ 5.0 172
⇒ Mc = x/2, where 0 ≤x≤5.0
When a unit load is placed after point C then the moment equation for given Figure can be given
by
Σ Mc = 0 :
Mc – (1-x/10) 5.0 = 0 ⇒
Mc = 5 - x/2, where 5 < x ≤ 15

where 5 < x ≤ 15

173
Example
Draw the influence lines for the vertical reaction and the reaction moment at support A and the
shear and bending moment at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. below.

Solution
Influence Line for Ay
+↑ΣFY=0
RA – 1=0
RA = 1.0

The influence line for RA is shown

174
Influence Line for MA
ΣMA =0
- MA – 1 (x) =0
MA = -x
The influence line for MA, which is obtained by plotting this equation, is shown in
Fig. below. As all the ordinates of the influence line are negative, it indicates that the
sense of MA for all the positions of the unit load on the beam is actually counterclockwise,
instead of clockwise as initially assumed

175
Influence Line for VB Influence Line for MB
VB = 0 0≤ x ≤ 3 MB = 0 0≤ x ≤ 3
VB = RA = 1.0 3≤x ≤8 MB = MA + 3RA 3≤x ≤8
=-x+3

176
 Influence line for beam having point load and uniformly
distributed load acting at the same time
Concentrated Force.
Since the numerical values of a function for an influence
line are determined using a dimensionless unit load, then
for any concentrated force F acting on the beam at any
position x , the value of the function can be found by
multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at the
position x by the magnitude of F.
For example, consider the influence line for the reaction
at A for the beam AB .If the unit load is at (x=L/2) the
reaction at A is [RA= ½] as indicated from the influence
Line . Hence, if the force F KN is at this same point , the
reaction is [RA= F/2 KN] of course, this same value can also
be determined by statics. Obviously, the maximum
influence caused by F occurs when it is placed on the
beam at the same location as the peak of the influence
line— in this case at x=0 where the reaction would be 177
Uniform Load.
Consider a portion of a beam subjected to a uniform load.
As shown, each dx segment of this load creates a
concentrated force of dF=w0 d on the beam. If dF is located
at x, where the beam’s influence-line ordinate for some
function (reaction, shear , moment) is y , then the value of
the function is (dF)(y)=(w0 dx)y
The effect of all the concentrated forces dF is determined by
integrating over the entire length of the beam, that is
𝒘𝟎 𝒚𝒅𝒙 = 𝒘𝟎 𝒚𝒅𝒙 , Also, since 𝒚𝒅𝒙 is equivalent to the
area under the influence line, then, in general, the value of a
function caused by a uniform distributed load is simply the
area under the influence line for the function multiplied by
the intensity of the uniform load. For example, in the case of
a uniformly loaded beam shown ,reaction RA can be
determined from the influence line as
RA= (Area . W0) = [(1/2)(1)(L)(w0)= [(1/2)(L)(w0) .This value
can of course also be determined from statics. 178
Example6:
Determine the maximum positive shear that can be developed at point C in the beam shown in
Fig. below due to a concentrated moving load of 4000 N and a uniform moving load of 2000 N/m.

SOLUTION
The influence line for the shear at C has been
established as shown in
Concentrated Force. The maximum positive
shear at C will occur when the 4000 N force is
located at x=2.5 m , since this is the positive
peak of the influence line . The ordinate of this
peak is ( +0.75 ) so that
Vc = 0.75 (4000) = 3000 N
179
Uniform Load. The uniform moving load creates the maximum
positive influence for when the load acts on the beam between
and since within this region the influence line has a positive
[Link] magnitude of due to this loading is

180
Example7:
Determine the maximum reaction at support B, the maximum shear at point C and the
maximum positive moment that can be developed at point C on the beam shown due to
- A single moving concentrate live load of 8000 N –
- A uniform live load of 3000 N/m –
- A beam weight (dead load) of 1000 N/m

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