ABE 545 Rural Water Supply and Sanitations 2 Units

Water requirements. Water quality standards. Water borne diseases. Biochemical oxygen
demand. Potable water impurities. Sources and treatment methods of water for rural homes.
Water lifting devices. Transportation and distribution systems. Pipe sizes. Waste disposal in
rural communities. Collection, conveyance, treatment, and disposal of sewage from rural
homes. Septic tanks, digestion ponds, and family privies.

RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION (ABE 545)

Definition of terms
(i) Rural is a geographical area that is located outside towns and cities.
(ii) Water supply refers to the facility that provides a source of water.
(iii) Sanitation refers to the state of being clean and conducive to good health.
(iv) Rural Water supply and sanitation refers to the provision of hygienic water for
domestic purposes in rural settlements.
1.0 Introduction
Water is a necessity of life. It must be pure, palatable, wholesome, and safe for human
consumption. The water should meet the drinking water standards recommended by the
World Health Organization or the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality regarding its
physical, chemical, and bacteriological quality. It is the responsibility of the water supply
engineer to ensure that various requirements for a safe drinking water supply are met, thereby
ensuring the health and well-being of the people. The quality and abundant supply of water
are crucial for a well-designed water supply system. The economic conditions and water use
habits of the community primarily determine the per capita demand for water.
1.1 Water requirements and water consumption
Domestic water is needed for drinking, cooking, personal and home hygiene, and very small-
scale productive uses. Carter (2021) and Howard and Bartram (2003) reviewed domestic
water requirements and suggested several quantities and service levels, which are
summarized in Table 1.1. Carter (2021) proposes four service levels related to water quantity,
and the associated travel times and distances mentioned have mainly been incorporated into
the present-day Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets. Two important points to bear
in mind are, first, that people need water for multiple purposes (the main ones of which are
listed in Table 1.1); and second, that people use different water sources, either for different
purposes (e.g., for drinking and other domestic uses) or at different times (e.g., in wet and dry
seasons).

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Table 1.1: Rural Domestic water requirements

Source: Carter (2021)

1.2 Water as A Resource

Water is a mystery, as it exhibits unique characteristics that make it a necessity, a resource,
and a crucial factor in water pollution problems. Such unique characteristics of water are as
follows:
(a) Water is a universal solvent: Most natural waters are slightly acidic, dissolving a great
variety of compounds, from simple salts and minerals (such as sodium chloride and
calcium carbonate in limestone) to complex organics like amino acids.
(b) Compared with most other common liquids, water has a high capacity to absorb or
store heat.
(c) Compared with other common liquids, water has a high surface tension. This property
is essential in many physical and biological processes that involve moving water through
or storing it in small openings or small pore spaces.
(d) On freezing, the water becomes solid (ice) that is lighter than its liquid form as it
expands by 8%. Water is the only liquid with such a characteristic. The importance of this
property is that the ice remains at the top of the water bodies and does not sink to the
bottom. Had it been heavier than water, the sinking ice would have killed all the aquatic
life.
(e) Water is transparent to sunlight, allowing photosynthetic organisms to live below the
surface.

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 (f) Water can exist in all the physical states, namely liquid, solid, and gas.
(g) Water is a colourless liquid.

1.3 The water uses

The uses of water can be distinguished as follows:
(i) Off-stream uses
(a) Non-Consumptive use: Refers to the withdrawal of water from surface and underground
flows and reservoirs, wherein part of the water may be returned after use to the same source
and can be used again. e.g., water used to cool industrial processes and water from sewage
treatment plants that is returned to the river (such uses are also termed as withdrawals)
(b) Consumptive use: It is an off-stream use in which water does not return to the stream or
groundwater source immediately after use. This water is consumed by plants and animals, or
used in industrial processes, and enters human tissues or evaporates during use, but is not
returned to its source. e.g., water used for irrigation (Figure 1.1).
(ii) In-stream use:
Refers to the use of rivers for navigation, hydroelectric power generation, fish and wildlife
habitats, and recreation.

Figure 1.1: Water uses

Historically, water has been used directly as a resource by civilizations for many varied
purposes, such as:
(i) Irrigation: For watering the crops
(ii) Domestic: For drinking, cooking, washing, and bathing.
(iii) Industry: As a raw material and coolant.
(iv) Power: As cooling water in thermal power plants, for producing hydroelectric power
(v) Navigation: Inland navigation – use of large perennial rivers for transportation of
goods and people. Transboundary movement of ships for cargo transportation.
(vi) Aquaculture: Development of aqua forms for growing fish, prawns, etc.
(vii) Recreation: Development of sea-beaches, estuaries, and river banks as recreation and
worship places.
1.4 Sources of Water
The sources of water are classified as:

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(i) Groundwater – Reservoirs
(ii) Surface Water – Rivers, Lakes, Reservoirs, etc.
(iii) Sea water – Desalination
(iv) Treated Wastewater: Recycling and Reuse. The quality and quantity of water available
from each source differ.

1.5 Some standard water terms

(1) Water quantity: The amount of water available to meet desired demands.
(2) Water quality: The degree to which the water is pure enough to fulfill the requirements of
various uses.
(3) Fresh water: Water having a salt concentration less than 0.1% i.e., 1000 mg/L. As a result
of purification by evaporation, all forms of precipitation are fresh water, as are lakes, rivers,
groundwater, and other bodies of water that have a throughflow of water from precipitation.
(4) Pure water: Water that has two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen, i.e., H2O
(5) Salt water: Water, typical of oceans and seas, that contains at least 3% (30,000 mg/L) salt.
(6) Brackish water: A mixture of fresh and salt water, typically found where rivers enter the
oceans.
(7) Hard water: Water that contains minerals, especially calcium and /or magnesium, causes
soap to precipitate, produce scum, curd, or scale in boilers.
(8) Soft water: Water that is relatively free of minerals.
(9) Polluted water: Water that contains one or more impurities, making it unsuitable for a
desired use. It has the potential to cause harm to the health of consumers/users.
(10) Contaminated water: Water that contains substances injurious to the health of humans.
e.g., presence of mercury or pathogens in water.
(11) Purified water: Water that has had pollutants removed or is rendered harmless.
(12) Good quality water: A phrase that refers to the quality of water based on the bias of the
consumer. e.g., the quality of water acceptable for car washing is not acceptable for drinking
(13) Wholesome water: Water that can be consumed in any desired quantity at any time
without any health and/or aesthetic concerns.
(14) Green water: Water in the soil or in organisms that eventually ends up as water vapour
—the primary source of water for natural ecosystems and rainfed agriculture.
(15) Blue water: Renewable surface water run-off and ground water recharge—the focus of
management and the primary source of water for human withdrawals.
(16) Gray water: Water discharged from sinks, showers, bathrooms, laundry tubs, etc., which
is less dirty/polluted.
(17) Black Water: Waste water containing faeces, urine, and flush water from flush toilets,
along with anal cleansing water (if water is used for cleansing) or toilet paper.
(18) Stormwater: Water from precipitation that runs off land surfaces in surges.

2.0 Water quality standard

It refers to a standard set for the maximum allowable contamination in surface water and
groundwater. Water quality standards utilise a set of parameters to evaluate the quality of

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water after the treatment process (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). A water quality standard defines the
water quality goals of a water body, or portion thereof, by designating the use or uses to be
made of the water and by setting criteria that protect the designated uses. An evaluation of
health risks associated with drinking water is necessary and timely. There are three basic
objectives of water treatment: producing water that is safe for human consumption, producing
water that is appealing to customers, and constructing and operating water treatment facilities
at a reasonable cost. Standards typically provide two values: a guide level (GL) and a
maximum admissible concentration (MAC). The GL is the value considered satisfactory and
serves as a target value. The MAC is the value that the corresponding concentration in the
distributed water must not exceed. Treatment must be provided where the concentration in
the raw water exceeds the MAC.

Table 2.1: Chemicals of Health Significance as described by World Health Organization

Guidelines (WHO) for Drinking-water Quality in the third edition (2008) and fourth
edition (2011)

Parameters Unit WHO (2008) WHO (2011)

Asenic mg/l 0.01 0.01
Chromium 0.05 0.05
Boron 0.5 0.5
Copper 2 2
Lead 0.01 0.01
Nickel 0.07 0.07
Mercury 0.006 0.006
Manganese 0.4 -
N03 50 50

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Table 2.2: Other Water Quality Parameters

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Homework 1
(1) Define the following terms:
(i) Purified water
(ii) Good quality water
(iii) Wholesome water
(iv) Green water
(v) Blue water

(2) Discuss the importance of adhering to international and national standards for drinking
water quality in the design and operation of a water supply system
Answer: Adhering to international and national drinking water standards, like those from
WHO and NSDQW, is essential to ensure water safety, quality, and acceptability. These
standards define acceptable limits for physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters,
including factors such as color, turbidity, heavy metals, nitrates, and the absence of
harmful pathogens.
Assignment 1
(b) Surface water samples were collected at different points in October from the Shiroro
landfill site. These water samples were subjected to heavy metal analysis using standard
procedures (2010 World Health Organization; 2007 Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water
Quality), as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Heavy Metal Properties of surface water

Sampling
points Iron(mg/l) Lead(mg/l) Nickel (mg/l) Manganese(mg/l)
SL1 0.63 0.02 0.02 3.1
SL2 0.09 <0.001 0.03 0.04
SL3 0.13 <0.001 <0.001 0.01
SL4 (control) 1.4 <0.001 0.01 <0.001
NSDWQ 0.3 0.01 0.02 0.2
WHO 0.3 0.05 - 0.1

(i) Estimate the mean of heavy metals at SL1, SL2 and SL3. 1 mark each = 4
marks
(ii) Compare the mean to WHO and NSDWQ standards and state whether the surface water
around the landfill is suitable for drinking or not. 2
marks
(iii) State the impact of these impurities on water. 2 marks
(a) (iv) List any two health-related diseases that these impurities can cause for villagers
drinking the water.

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3.0 Water Requirements
Estimating water requirements for a community is one of the most crucial factors in
designing an effective water supply system. Hence, it is necessary to make a proper
estimation of the water required to serve the population.
3.1 Water demand
Estimation of water demand is necessary to:
i) Calculate the design flow
ii) Determine the pumping power
iii) Determine reservoir capacity
iv) Determine pipe sizes (or capacity)

Estimating the per capita demand primarily depends on the various types of demands that a
rural area may have. In general, the types of water demands are classified as:
(a) Domestic water demand (b) Industrial/Commercial water demand (c) Public uses, such as
street washing, watering of public parks etc. water demand: This water demand includes
water required for irrigating crops, flushing of sewers, etc. (d) Losses and waste: The water
which is not intended for some specific purpose or use is called Unaccounted for water
(UAW).

3.1.1 Water Quantity estimation for rural

Estimating the water quantity required for a rural or urban area to satisfy various water
demands is probably the first step in designing a water supply scheme. Having done so, the
next step is to identify a suitable source of water supply, which should be assessed for its
adequacy in supplying the required Quantity. The estimation of the Quantity of water
required to satisfy various demands of a rural or
The city needs the following information.
(i) Per capita demand: Litres of water per day per head.
(ii) Design Period
(iii) Future Population to be served,
Then, Quantity = Per capita demand × Predicted population
3.2 Per Capita demand (q)
It is the annual average amount of water required daily by one person for various uses. It is
estimated considering the water required for domestic, industrial/commercial, and public uses
along with waste and thefts (of water). The per capita demand can be represented as:

Q
q=
P× 365

Where,

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q = per capita demand, lpcd (litres per capita per day)
Q = Total Quantity of water required during one year for a rural/city,
P = Population of rural/city Number of people
365 = Number of days per year.

Other related terms

(a) Average daily per capita demand ([Link]):
Q
Q=¿
P ×365
(b) Maximum daily demand = 1.8 × average daily demand
i.e., MDD = 1.8 × [Link].

It is the maximum amount of water used during one day in the year. It is usually a working
day (Monday) in the summer season. It is 180% of the average daily demand.

(c) Maximum weekly demand

It is the amount of water used by a population during a whole single week in a study period
of one year.
Maximum weekly demand = 1.48 × AV. DD

Similarly,

Maximum monthly demand = 1.28 × AV. DD

Maximum hourly demand = 1.5 × Average Hourly Demand
Maximum hourly demand, i.e. Peak demand = 1.5 × average hourly demand
= 1.5 × (maximum daily demand/24)
= 1.5 × (1.8 × Average daily demand/24)
= 2.7 × AV. DD/24
= 2.7 × annual average hourly demand

3.3 Factor affecting Per Capita demand

The per capita demand varies from place to place as it is affected by various diverse factors
such as:
(i) Size of the rural area: The Larger the rural, the greater the per capita demand.

(ii) Industries and commerce: The type and number of industries affect the water
consumption. Commercial consumption refers to the use of goods and services by retail and
wholesale mercantile houses, as well as office buildings.

(iii) Climatic conditions: In hot weather, the consumption of water is more than during
the winter.

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(iv) Metering: The consumption of water, when the supply is metered, is less compared to
that when the charges are on flat rate basis.

(v) Standards of living: In the high-value residential area of the city or a suburban
community, per capita consumption is high. Slum areas of large cities have low per capita
consumption.

(vi) Habits of people and their economic status.

(vii) Quality of water: Water consumption increases when the supplied water is potable and
palatable. i.e., safe to drink and aesthetically attractive.
(viii) Pressure in the distribution system: Water consumed or used for a given purpose
increases with increased pressure in the distribution system.

(ix) Effectiveness of water supply authorities in curbing the losses and wastages of water.
x) Cost of water: The higher the cost, the less the consumption.

3.4 Variations in demand

If the water is supplied at the average daily per capita demand rate, it will not be sufficient
to satisfy the fluctuating demands. The water demand may vary from season to season, on
a daily basis and even on an hourly basis. Accordingly, the variations are:
i) Seasonal variations: Water consumed is more during summer than during winter.
ii) Daily variations: It refers to the total water requirements during 24 hours. It primarily
depends on the habits and characteristics of individuals. It is activity-based. People consume
more water on Saturdays, Sundays, and festival days, thus increasing the demand on these
days.
iii) Hourly variations:
It is defined as total water requirements to meet a one-hour period of maximum demand
during a maximum daily demand. Water demand is at the peak during active household
working hours i.e., during six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening. In order
to take care of all such fluctuations, an adequate quantity of water must be available to satisfy
the peak demand which influences the design service mains, reservoirs, pumps, and the
distribution mains. The design of different components of water supply scheme is influenced
by type of fluctuations e.g., the design of storage reservoirs depends on the monthly variation
while that of pumps and service reservoirs is influenced by the hourly variations. The
fluctuation rate increases as population decreases.

3.5 Design period

The future time period, e.g., number of years in future, for which various components of
water supply scheme is designed, is termed as design period

3.5.1 Design demand

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The requirement of water, considering the per capita demand, at the design period is called
the design demands. Water supply projects are designed to serve over a specified period of
time. i.e. design period. The components of the entire water supply scheme include huge and
costly constructions which can neither be replaced nor expanded easily to satisfy the future
water needs of the rural/city. Factors which should be considered while fixing the design
period are:
i) Useful life of the components considering obsolescence, wear, and tear etc.
Design period in no case should be more than the life of components and material
used in scheme.
ii) Predicted future population considering the population growth rate, future
industrial and commercial developments as well as migration—immigration of
people from and towards the rural/city.
iii) Available financial resources.
iv) Expected performance of the system during initial period.
v) Rate of interest, if project is to be completed by taking loans from financial
institutes. For low rate of interest, the design period can be more.

3.6 Population forecast for water estimation

Having decided upon the per capita demand and the design period, the next step in the
determination of Quantity of water required is to forecast the population (for the design
period). The population of rural/city is not static as it keeps on changing due to factors such
as, rate of births, rate of deaths immigration and emigration.

3.6.1 Population forecasting methods

Population is one of the most important factors in the design of the water systems. The
population expected at the end of the chosen design period is influenced by:
(i) births;
(ii) deaths; and
(iii) migration.

The estimation of the ‘design population’ is governed by the factors influencing the future
growth and development of the project area with respect to industrial, commercial,
educational,
social and administrative spheres. To the extent possible special factors such as sudden
emigration (exodus) or immigration (influx) of population should also be foreseen. There are
various methods to estimate the future population as listed here under:
(i) Arithmetic increase method
(ii) Geometric increase method
(iii) Curvilinear method
(iv) Incremental increase method
(v) Decreasing rate of growth method or declining growth method
(vi) Graphical method
(vii) Ratio method
(viii) Logistic curve method

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(i) Arithmetic Increase Method:
Basis: The population increases in an arithmetic progression i.e.; it increases by a fixed
number over a fixed period. The rate of increase or change is constant.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as
Nt = No + K.t.
Where,
Nt = Population after ‘t’ years
No = Initial or starting population
K = Rate of increase or change (based on past census records)

(ii) Geometric Increase Method:

Basis:
(a) The population increases in a geometric progression i.e., it increases by fixed or constant
percentage over a fixed period of time. The percent change or increase is constant.
(b) The rate of change in population is function of population size itself. Mathematically, it
can be expressed as:

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Where,

Example 1:
The ten years census records for two cities are given below. Estimate the 2020 population for
each city by appropriate method.

Year Rural A Rural B

1980 20,000 20,000
1990 60,000 26,000
2000 100,000 33,800
2010 140,000 43,940
2020 ? ?

Solution:
Rural A: It is evident from the census records of city A that the population has increased
by a fixed number i.e., by 40,000. Therefore, the future population in the year 2020 can be
estimated by using Arithmetic increase method.
Here, K = 60,000–20,000/1990–1980
= 40,000/10 years
= 4000/ year
Here, No = 140,000, t = 10
Now using the formular below,
Nt = No + K. t
= 140,000 + 4000 × 10
i.e. N2020 = 180,000
Rural B: It is evident from the data that the population has increased by constant percentage
of 2.624 per year. Therefore, the future population in the year 2020 can be estimated by
geometric Increase method.
Now using the equation below and substituting the values

1
r = ln
t (
43 940
33 800 )
=0.2624

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 0.2624
P2020 =43940 × e ×1=57,124

(v) Incremental increase method

In this method, the increment in arithmetic increase is determined from the past decades and
the average of that increment is added to the average increase. This method increases the
numerical figures obtained by the arithmetic increase method. The method can be
mathematically represented as follow:

n(n+ 1)
Pn ¿ P 0 +n ( X ) + (Y )
2
Where
Pn= population after n decades¿ present

X =average increase of population of knowndecades

Y =average of incremental increases of knowndecades
n=decade number

Example 2
In a rural area, the household water requirement is 200 l per head per day. The year 1981,
1991, 2001 and 2011 have a population of 130,000, 140,000, 155,000 and 167,000. Estimate
the domestic water requirements of this place at the end of the year 2021 by projecting the
population using the incremental increase method.

Year Population Increase in population Incremental increase in

population
1981 130,000 -
1991 140,000 140,000 -130,000 =
10,000
2001 155,000 155,000-140,000 = 15,000-10,000 = +5,000
15,000
2011 167,000 167,000-155,000= 12,000-15,000= -3,000
12,000
Total = 37,000 Total = 2,000
37,000 2,000
Average (X )= Average(Y ) =
3 2
= 12,333.33 = 1,000

Expected population at the end of the year 2021 i.e. after 1 decade from 2011.

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 n( n+1)
¿ P0 +n ( X )+ (Y )
2
Where
Pn= population after n decades¿ present

X =average increase of population of knowndecades

Y =average of incremental increases of knowndecades
n=decade number
1(1+1)
¿ P0 +1 ( X ) + (Y )
2
1(2)
¿ P0 +1 ( X ) + (Y )
2
2
¿ P0 +1 ( X ) + (Y )
2
=167,000+1 ( 12,333 ) +1(1000)
¿ 167,000+12,333+1000
¿ 180,333
200 l
head
Water requirement ∈2021 @ =200 ×180,333=36 , 066 , 600 l/day .
day
3.7 Design of Storage tank and main pipe
From the water requirement, the storage tank and main pipe are calculated as follows:
(i) Storage tank design
Storage requirement=total water requirement × storage factor
Where:
Storage factor = 0.5
Storage requirement=36,066,660 ×0.5=18,033,330
(ii) Determination of the storage tank
Assume a typical ratio length to breadth of 2:1:
Length ( L )=2 x ; Breadth ( L )=x ; Depth(D)=d
Depth (D) = 3 m (a typical depth for water tanks)
(iii) Volume of the tank
Volume of the tank=L× B × D
18,033,330=L× B × D

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 2
18,033,330=2 x × x × 3=6 x
2
3005,555=x
x=1733.65
Therefore,
Length ( L )=2×1733.65=3,467.31 ; Breadth ( L )=1733.65 ; Depth(D)=3

Length ( L )=3,470; Breadth ( L )=1730 ; Depth(D)=3

(iv) Determination of the diameter
Determine the flow rate per day
total water rquirement 36,066,660 36,066,660
Flow rate= = = =417.44 l/s
24 hours 24 ×3600 86,400 s
(v) Diameter of the main pipe
0.5 −0.63
Diameter of the main pipe ( D )=0.278Q C
Where:
C=Hazen−William coefficent ( PVC=130 )
Q=flow rate for 24 hours=417 l/s
0.5 −0.63
Diameter of the main pipe ( D )=0.278× 417.44 130
iameter of the main pipe ( D )=0.278 ×20.431 ×0.046 6

Diameter of the main pipe ( D )=0.265 m/265 mm

(vi) Service duration hour
Assume a service duration of 12 hours per day, the flow rate is calculated as follows:
total water rquirement 36,066,660 36,066,660
Flow rate= = = =834.87 l/s
12 hours 12× 3600 43200 s

Homework 2
(1) Define the following terms:
(i) Design period
(ii) Per capital demand
(iii) Design demand
(iv) Itemise any five factors affecting per capital demand
(2) Why is incremental increase method preferred over geometric increase method?

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Answer: It is better for towns with gradually increasing growth rates rather than
constant percentage growth, reflecting a more nuanced, possibly slowing or variable
growth pattern.
It avoids the sometimes overestimated future population that geometric methods can
produce, which may not be realistic for some areas, especially more developed or
slower-growing towns.
Incremental increase considers changes in increments themselves across periods, thus
capturing trends that simple geometric growth misses.
Assignment 2
In a rural area, the household water requirement is 400 l per head per day. The year 1981,
1991, 2001, 2011 and 2021 have a population of 130,000, 140,000, 155,000, 167,000 and
170000. (i) use the appropriate method to project the population at the end of the year 2021,
and estimate the domestic water requirements of this place. (ii) design the storage tanks with
a storage factor set at 0.5. (iii) determine the length, breadth, and depth of the tank (iv)
determine the diameter of the main pipe, assume the Hazen-William coefficient (depending
on the pipe material) (v) determine the service duration hours.
4.0 Water-borne diseases
These are the ones caused by pathogenic microbes spread via contaminated water.
Transmission of these pathogens occurs when infected water is used for drinking. The
majority of water-borne diseases worldwide mainly affect children due to poor hygiene and
weak immunity. Most of these diseases are life-threatening. The knowledge of the different
types of water-borne diseases has come to the forefront with the advent of globalization over
the past few decades.

4.1 Water-Borne Diseases and Their Impact

The pathogenic microorganisms, their toxic exudates, and other contaminants together cause
severe conditions such as cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, amebiasis, hepatitis, gastroenteritis,
giardiasis, campylobacteriosis, scabies, and worm infections (Patel, 2022).
(i) Diarrhea
The most common of all waterborne diseases, diarrhea primarily affects children under the
age of five. The symptoms include dizziness, dehydration, pale skin, and loss of
consciousness in severe cases. It usually lasts for a couple of weeks and can turn out to be
fatal if it goes untreated (Patel, 2022).
(ii) Cholera
It is primarily caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae through the consumption of
contaminated food or drinking water. The symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and
abdominal cramps. Cholera occurs predominantly in children, but can also affect adults. It
has an alarmingly high mortality rate among water-borne diseases.
(iii) Typhoid
Typhoid fever is caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi, which is transmitted through
contaminated water. The patients typically suffer from prolonged episodes of fever, loss of
appetite, nausea, headache, constipation, and loss of body weight. Prompt attention is needed
to cure typhoid in the patient, as well as to prevent the spread of this contagious disease.
(iv) Amoebiasis
It is caused by a parasite named Entamoeba histolytica. The protozoan organism is
transmitted by unknowingly consuming cysts (an inactive form of the parasite) in food, and it

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affects the intestine. The parasite thrives on contaminated soil and fecal matter. The common
symptoms of amoebiasis include abdominal cramps and watery stools.
(v) Hepatitis A
This condition mainly affects the liver and is caused by the Hepatitis A virus. The route of
contamination is usually oral, although it can also spread through physical contact with an
infected person. Hepatitis A patients manifest common symptoms such as fever, nausea, and
vomiting, but can suffer severe complications if they are not treated in time (Patel, 2022).
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the major water-borne diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms,
highlighting their symptoms, modes of transmission, and the populations most at risk. How
do these diseases impact public health, particularly in children?

5.0 The importance of treating water

As well as accounting for the lack of physical water accessibility due to drought, ‘distance
from a water supply’ and polluted water can all affect drinking water accessibility. Water
quality issues due to anthropogenic and natural pollution can affect the amount of water
available for use. Both surface and groundwater can be contaminated by anthropogenic and
natural contaminations. Microbiology and chemical contaminants in drinking water can cause
acute and chronic health effects. Contamination can also affect the aesthetic properties of
water systems (Josephine, 2019). The contaminants include:
(i) Pathogens—disease-causing organisms that include bacteria, amoebas, viruses and
eggs and larvae of parasitic worms.

(ii) Harmful chemicals from human activities and industrial wastes such as pesticides
and fertilisers.

(iii) Chemicals and minerals from the natural environment, such as arsenic, common
salts and fluorides. In Bangladesh, for example, 1.4 million tube wells have high levels of
naturally occurring arsenic.

Some non-harmful contaminants may influence the taste, smell, colour, and turbidity
of water and make it unacceptable to the consumer; its examples include zinc, iron,
particulate matter, and humic material. The physiochemical properties of contaminants of
water that can impact its toxicology in water include size, density compared to water, charge,
solubility, volatility, polarity, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, boiling point, chemical reactivity,
and biodegradability.

5.1 Treatment methods of water for rural homes

Any drinking water treatment technology focuses on source supply, treatment type, storage,
and transportation to customers. Conventional treatment methods in developed countries can
be applied to developing countries. The basic drinking water treatment steps can be seen in
Figure 8. The first stage of treatment to produce drinking water involves screening the
abstraction point water and passing through coarse filters. The water can then be kept in a
storage tank where natural sedimentation occurs and natural ultraviolet light can break down

18
pathogens. The next stage is the pre-chemical stage which can involve aeration, use of
activated carbon and use of aluminium salts or iron salts. Aluminium salts are the more
commonly used. The simplest coagulant is aluminium (Josephine, 2019).

The two types of water treatment systems are:

(i) Central source systems treat water at one main location and then distribute it to users. This
is medium- or large-scale treatment, similar to what is used in developed countries. It is
suitable for cities in developing countries. However, there are concerns about water
contamination in the pipes and the need to keep the system well maintained. For places
without piped water, treated water can be delivered by trucks to rural areas.

(ii) Point-of-use (POU) treatment treats water at the location where the user drinks it, often
from informal sources like rainwater, shallow wells, or small streams. This small-scale
treatment is done in homes. Managing pollution risks from these informal sources is

19
important. When choosing a POU method, users should consider how easy it is to use, cost,
treatment time, and how much water it can [Link] two treatment systems include:

5.1.1 Chlorination
Chlorination was initially used to disinfect public water supplies since the early 1900s, in
cities in Europe and the United States of America. In developing countries, a standard method
for treating water at the source involves using a sodium hypochlorite solution, which is
placed in a bottle with clear directions for use. The user adds one full bottle cap volume of
the solution to clear water (or two cup volumes for turbid water) to a standard-sized storage
container. The user shakes the container and then waits 30 minutes before consuming the
contents. One of the significant challenges of Chlorination is the presence of high organic
composition, which can lead to the formation of disinfectant by-products considered
carcinogenic (Josephine, 2019).

5.1.2 Chlorination and flocculation

Hybrid water treatment technologies are commonly used, such as a combination of
Chlorination and flocculation. An example of the combined technologies involves a small
sachet containing both a powdered ferrous sulphate (a flocculant) and calcium hypochlorite (a
disinfectant). A commercial design of this approach is known as Pu-R. To use Pu-R, users
open the sachet and then add the contents to an open bucket containing a maximum of 10
litres of water. The bucket contents are stirred for 5 minutes, and the solids in the water will
then settle to the bottom of the bucket. The water is then strained through a cotton cloth into a
second container; the user then waits 20 minutes for the hypochlorite to inactivate the
microorganisms. This technique has been shown to remove bacteria, viruses, and protozoa,
even in highly turbid waters. Chlorination and flocculation can eliminate the formation of
disinfectant by-products, as the flocculation process can remove organics from the water
(Josephine, 2019).

5.1.3 Filtration

Filtration and innovations in filtration are a growing interest in the water industry. Basic
filtration involved the use of porous stones, and a variety of other natural materials have been
used to filter visible contaminants from the water for hundreds of years. Filters are an
attractive option for household treatment [59]. Several interrelated removal mechanisms
within the filter media are relied upon to achieve high removal efficiencies. These removal
mechanisms include the following processes: (i) sedimentation on media (sieve effect), (ii)
adsorption, (iii) absorption, (iv) biological action, and (v) straining. Many porous materials
are locally available and inexpensive options for filtering water. They are simple and easy to
use, and the filtering material has a long lifetime. However, filtration has its drawbacks,
including maintenance issues such as backflushing of filters and a lack of residual effects
regarding disinfection (Josephine, 2019).

20
5.1.4 Filtration and biosolids

More advanced filtration methods using biosolids have been developed. The biosand filter
(BSF) is a type of slow sand filter that can be adapted for use at home. When the water pours
over the filter, a shallow water layer is formed, which allows a bioactive layer to grow on top
of the sand, which breaks down pathogens in the water. A plate protector prevents the water
layer from being disturbed when more water is passed through the filter. In the literature, it
can be demonstrated that the BSF has high efficiency in removing bacteria and protozoa from
water. An interesting study on removing arsenic from water in the presence of iron can be
found in the literature from Nigeria, which utilizes a sand filter. The filter immobilizes
arsenic (As) via co-oxidation with Fe (11) and sorption to, or co-precipitation with, the
formed Fe (111) on the filter surface. One of the problems associated with prolonged filter
use is the potential buildup of biofouling on the filter surface.

5.1.5 Filtration and Chlorination

A combination of filtration and chlorination systems is also regularly used (Josephine, 2019).
Ceramic and slow sand filtration lack residual disinfectant protection for water. To
compensate for this, Chlorination can follow filtration.

5.1.6 Innovative solid materials

To remove arsenic (As) metal and its metalloids from drinking water, metal absorption
phases have been utilised, including iron oxide-coated sand, ferrihydrite red mud, activated
alumina, TiO2, FePO4 (amorphous), Manganese Dioxide (MnO2), MnO2-loaded resin, natural
zeolites (such as clinoptilolite), iron oxide, and iron-loaded chelating resin (Josephine, 2019).
The use of biosand iron oxide-coated sand filters to remove viruses from water is documented
in the literature. The method involves the electrostatic adsorption of negatively charged
virions onto sand particles coated with positively charged iron oxides.

5.1.7 Solar disinfectant

The role of natural sunlight in disinfecting water has significant potential in developing
countries. A standard method in use is known as the solar disinfection (SODIS) method. The
solar disinfection (SODIS) method was initially developed to disinfect water used for oral
rehydration solutions at an affordable cost (Josephine, 2019). The SODIS method involves
filling 0.3–2.0 litres of plastic soda bottles with low-turbidity water, followed by shaking to
oxygenate the water. The bottles are left in sunny conditions for 6 hours and 2 days if the
weather is cloudy. Studies have shown that the SODIS method inactivates bacteria and
viruses; the protozoa cryptosporidium and giardia are also sensitive to solar irradiation
(Josephine, 2019). Other innovations using ultraviolet light can be seen in the literature
(Josephine, 2019). One of the significant advantages of ultraviolet light technology is its
cheapness. One of the challenges is designing the technology to maximize the trapping of
ultraviolet light. Seasonal factors can affect the intensity of the ultraviolet light. Small
volumes and the lengthy treatment time required can be a concern. If water has high turbidity,

21
it is recommended to pretreat with flocculation or filtration before ultraviolet light treatment.
Presently, the container type is plastic.

5.1.8 Innovative technologies and nanotechnologies

Photocatalysts based on nanocatalysts, such as the Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) catalyst, harness
ultraviolet radiation from sunlight and use the energy to break down substances like
microbes, pesticides, dyes, crude oils, and organic acids (Josephine, 2019). Pilot projects for
drinking water purification in developing countries have only begun to involve TiO2
immobilized on plastic, which is activated by ultraviolet light to disinfect the water. Other
nanotechnologies are still in the development stage (Josephine, 2019).

5.2 Challenges of Treatment methods of water for rural homes

Challenges to the drinking water supply in developing countries include the natural scarcity
of water source in certain areas. Floods can create more siltation problems in river systems as
well as the contamination of rivers and large dams giving rise to source-receptor issues.
Climate change and water scarcity are also some of the concerns. Stratification problems in
lake abstraction points and aeration of abstraction point to break down the thermocline layer
are needed which requires much energy.
Poor access to water and poor water resource management must be addressed. Poor water
productivity in the agricultural sector can impact on water quality. Water affordability issues
and the challenges of investing in water infrastructure need to be addressed. Storage and
confidence in storage facility container to prevent contamination entail education and
awareness of cross-contamination.

22
6.0 Transportation and distribution systems
Water distribution systems are essential for providing clean drinking water to rural
communities. These systems transport drinking water from centralised treatment plants or
well supplies to service connections or consumers' taps (Patankar, 2020). The systems aim to
preserve the quality and Quantity of water, as well as maintain sufficient pressure in the
distribution of water. They consist of a network of pipes, pumps, valves, storage tanks,
reservoirs, and other components (Patankar, 2020; Vigneswaran et al., 2009).
For rural communities, water distribution can be done through standposts and yard tap
connections via a branched network of pipes. Rural water supply systems can be based on
various sources of water, including rainwater, groundwater, and surface water. The systems
can use various extraction devices, such as bucket pumps, chain pumps, and hand pumps, to
obtain water from these sources.

6.1 Methods of Distribution

Water distribution systems employ various methods of water transportation, including gravity
flow, pumping, and pressure systems. The types of distribution networks can vary depending
on the size of the community and the terrain. The types of consumer outlets can include
public standposts and yard tap connections (Vigneswaran et al., 2009).
(i) Gravitational system
In this system, water from a high-level source is distributed to a lower level by the simple
action of gravity, without the need for pumping. This system works well where lakes are
available at the top of a hill.
(ii) Direct pumping
In this system, the treated water, instead of being pumped to the reservoirs, is directly
pumped to the distribution mains. Since water demand varies, pumps must be run at variable
speeds to meet water requirements at different times. Due to variable speed, the pumps do not
work at their maximum efficiency; hence, the system is not economical.
(iii) Combine system
In this water supply system, pumping and gravity are combined to provide a seamless flow of
water. The treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir, from
23
which it is supplied to the distribution tank. It is fed to the distribution system by the action of
gravity. The pump operates at a constant and convenient schedule, and the pressure can be
maintained uniformly during supply.

6.2 System of Supply

There are two systems of supply, and they include:
(i) Continuous supply: water is supplied continuously to the consumers
(ii) Intermittent supply: water is supplied mainly at peak hours or if the shortage of
water is there, then the whole distribution area is divided into different zones and water is
supplied to the different zones at different fixed timings.

6.2.1 Layouts of the distribution system

The distribution pipe system consists of mains, submains, branches, laterals, and finally
service connections. Pipes, except for the service connections, are usually made of cast iron
with some types of coating to prevent rusting, whereas for service connections, galvanised
cast iron pipes are used.
Distribution pipes are mainly laid along the road below the footpath. Depending upon the
local conditions and orientation of roads, any of the following patterns of layout is adopted
one by one or in combination:
(i) Dead-end or tree systems: the system is also known as a tree system. It has one
main pipe from which several submains branch out, and from each submain,
several branched pipes separate, known as laterals. This system is easy to design,
inexpensive, and straightforward to implement. There are some drawbacks:
numerous dead ends prevent the free circulation of water. Stagnant water must be
removed periodically by providing scour valves at these dead ends, resulting in
the wastage of treated water.

This figure 1 illustrates a piping system with main pipes, sub mains, branch pipes, and cut-off
valves. The notation and the layout are:

(i) M (Main pipe): The thick horizontal line running across the figure, representing
the main pipeline through which flow occurs.
(ii) SM (Sub main): These are secondary pipes branching off from the main pipe,
shown as vertical or diagonal lines labeled SM.
(iii) B (Branch pipe): Smaller pipes branching off from the sub mains or main pipe,
shown labeled as B.
(iv) CV (Cut off valve): Valves placed at strategic points to stop or control the flow,
indicated as CV near the pipe junctions.
The arrows indicate the direction of flow along the pipes.

The main pipe (M) is the primary conduit. From the main pipe, sub mains (SM) branch out,
each of which may have their own branch pipes (B). Cut-off valves (CV) are installed
between pipes to isolate sections for maintenance or control. The figure effectively
demonstrates a hierarchical piping network with valves for controlling fluid flow at various
levels from main to branch pipes.

The working principle of this piping system is based on a hierarchical distribution and control
of fluid flow. The main pipe (M) serves as the primary conduit, carrying the main flow and

24
acting as the backbone of the system by supplying fluid to various downstream sections.
From the main pipe, the flow is subdivided via sub mains (SM), which branch out to
distribute fluid to different areas, enabling localized flow paths through this hierarchical
branching. Branch pipes (B) extend from the sub mains or directly from the main pipe,
delivering fluid to specific end points or smaller zones within the system. Flow control and
isolation are managed using cut-off valves (CV) that are strategically placed at junctions
between the main pipe, sub mains, and branch pipes. These valves allow shutting off flow to
particular branches or sub mains without affecting the rest of the network, which is essential
during maintenance, emergency situations, or balancing of flow distribution. Directional flow
management is facilitated by arrows indicating flow direction, which ensures predictable
fluid movement through the network, while proper valve placement permits the flow to be
stopped or diverted as needed, maintaining service continuity elsewhere.

Figure 1: a piping system with main pipes, sub mains, branch pipes, and cut-off valves
The system operates on the principle of controlled sectional isolation and hierarchical
distribution of fluid with the use of cut-off valves to enable selective flow control and
maintenance without disrupting the entire network. This principle ensures efficiency,
flexibility, and safety in fluid distribution systems such as water supply networks, irrigation,
or industrial piping systems.

(ii) Grid or reticular system: In this system, one main pipe runs through the centre, and
branches and laterals run, which are interrelated (Figure). Since the mains, branches, and
laterals are interconnected, dead ends are eliminated, and water reaches different locations
through more than one route. During a fire, water can be diverted to the affected area by
closing the cutoff valves of other areas. Since the pipelines receive water from different
directions, the design is somewhat challenging, the pipes are larger in size, and a greater
number of sluice valves are required. The disadvantages are: (i) the system requires a longer
length of pipelines and a large number of sluice valves (cutoff valves), and (ii) the design is
complex and costlier

25
Figure 2: a piping network with a vertical main pipe supplying fluid and flow distributed through
sub mains and branches or laterals
Working principle
Figure 2 depicts a piping network with a vertical main pipe supplying fluid and flow
distributed through sub mains and branches or laterals, including scour valves for cleaning or
maintenance. The main pipe (M) acts as the principal conduit, receiving fluid supply from the
source and directing it downward. From this main pipe, fluid is distributed into horizontal sub
mains (SM), which carry flow laterally to different zones or sections, effectively dividing the
supply into manageable segments. Smaller branches or laterals (B) extend from the sub
mains, providing fluid to more specific areas or end points, with the flow direction carefully
controlled to ensure even distribution throughout the system. Scour valves (SV) are installed
at strategic points, generally at the ends of branches or key low points, to allow flushing out
of sediment, debris, or unwanted materials that accumulate in the pipes, thereby maintaining
system efficiency and cleanliness. The arrows in the figure indicate the flow direction from
the supply through the main pipe, into sub mains, and finally through the branches, ensuring
controlled paths so the fluid effectively reaches all parts of the network. In summary, the
principle of this system is to supply fluid centrally via the vertical main pipe, distribute it
laterally through sub mains, and further through branches or laterals, while scour valves
facilitate cleaning and maintenance. This design ensures efficient fluid distribution, easy
maintenance, and effective flow regulation across the network.

26
(iii) Ring or circular system: it consists of a main pipe all round the area.

Figure 3: layout of main pipe

(iii) Radial system

A vast area is divided into several zones, and at the centre of each zone, a distribution
reservoir is kept. This method gives a higher service head and efficient water
distribution. .

6.3 Analysis of Network of Pipes

It includes determination of quantities of flow and head loss in various pipe line and resulting
residual water head. The Hazen William is mostly used for computation of flow through
pipes and following methods ae used for analysis:
(i) Equivalent pipe method and (ii) Hardy cross method

7.0 Why is it necessary to treat wastewater?

The primary aim of treating the wastewater is to prevent the environmental degradation in
general and pollution of water resources in particular. The need to treat the wastewaters is felt
more, at present, due to shortage or scarcity of freshwaters. The scarcity of freshwater
resources is felt due to inadequate quantity and quality of water.

7.1 Definition of Wastewater

27
Wastewater can be defined as the water which has undergone changes in the (quality)
characteristics on use to an extent that it is neither useful for the same use/purpose nor it is
safe to return to the environment.

7.1.2 Aerobic Methods of Treating Water

(i.) Activated sludge treatment methods: The activated sludge process utilizes
microorganisms to break down organic contaminants in wastewater, producing a high-quality
effluent. The basic principle behind all activated sludge processes is that as microorganisms
grow, they form particles that clump together. These particles, referred to as floc, are allowed
to settle to the bottom of the tank, resulting in a relatively clear liquid free of organic material
and suspended solids. The screened wastewater is mixed with varying amounts of recycled
liquid that contains a high proportion of organisms taken from a secondary tank, resulting in a
product called mixed liquor. The next step for the mixture is to stir and inject it with large
quantities of air to provide oxygen and keep the solids in suspension. After a period of time,
the mixed liquor is directed to a clarifier, where it is allowed to settle. During this process, a
portion of the bacteria is removed, and the partially cleaned water flows on for further
treatment. The settled solids that result, known as activated sludge, are then returned to the
first tank to initiate the process again. The basic activated sludge process consists of several
interrelated components such as the aeration tank where the biological reactions occur, an
aeration source that provides oxygen and mixing, a tank, known as the clarifier, where solids
settle and are separated from treated wastewater and a collecting means for the solids either
to return them to the aeration tank, returned activated sludge, or to remove them from the
process (waste-activated sludge).
(ii.) Trickling filtration: This is the most common secondary treatment in use today; it is
a circular tank filled with 3–5″ stones. The wastewater is sprayed or sprinkled over the top of
the stones, trickling down through them; the water is then removed at the bottom of the tank.
The stones serve as a surface upon which aerobic bacteria grow, consume, and remove
organic matter. The flow from the trickling filter is typically followed by a settling tank,
which helps remove sludge that may have been dislodged from the trickling filter. The
effluent is finally disinfected by chlorination and discharged safely into a water stream.
Trickling filters may be enclosed or not, depending on weather conditions. Trickling filters
are used to remove organic matter from wastewater. The trickling filter is an aerobic
treatment system that utilizes microorganisms attached to a medium to remove organic matter
from wastewater. This type of system is common to several technologies, such as rotating
biological contractors and packed bed reactors (bio-towers). These systems are known as
attached growth processes. By this, the systems in which microor¬ganisms are sustained in a
liquid are known as suspended growth processes. Trickling filters enable organic material in
the wastewater to be absorbed by a population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and
facultative bac¬teria; fungi, protozoa, and algae) attached to the medium as a biological film
or slime layer (ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 mm thick). As the wastewater flows over the medium,
microorganisms already in the water gradually attach themselves to the rock, slag, or plastic
surface and form a film. The organic material is then degraded by aerobic microorganisms in
the outer part of the slime layer.

28
(iii.) Oxidation ponds: Stabilization or oxidation ponds are large open flow-through
earthen basins specifically designed and constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable
industrial wastes. Sewage is pumped to the ponds, which can be as large as 1000 ft by 1000
ft, and there may be multiple ponds. The sewage enters the first pond, and then it
progressively moves to the other ponds in the series. They are scientifically designed to
utilize the effects of sunlight, algae, and oxygen, enhancing the quality of the wastewater.
Algae utilize carbon dioxide resulting from the decomposition of organic matter and release
oxygen. Aerobic bacteria multiply extensively through this oxygen release, digesting the
organic waste. The sunlight penetration provides for the life and growth of algae. The light
penetration to the lagoons may reach a depth of 3 ft, which helps in this process of
stabilization. Cleaning the settled substance at the bottom of a lagoon is accomplished at
specific intervals. The wastewater depth may vary from 3 to 5 feet. The detention period is
typically around 10 days. In this type of treatment, the effluent is sometimes discharged
without further treatment, and it often exhibits a green color due to the presence of algae. It
should be mentioned here that the BOD is reduced from 125–5 mg/L for the filtered effluent.
Ammonia is also reduced from 25 mg/L at the inlet to a range of 10–15 mg/L at the outlet.
Also, the most probable number of estimated bacteria is reduced from 1 million or more to
100 bacteria per milliliter.
(iv.) Lagoons: Aerated lagoons are generally provided in the form of simple earthen
basins with an inlet at one end and an outlet at the other to enable the wastewater to flow
through. In contrast, aeration is usually provided by mechanical means to stabilize the
organic matter. The major difference between activated sludge systems and aerated lagoons is
that the latter lacks settling tanks and sludge recirculation. Aerated lagoons are of two
principal types, depending on how the microbial mass of solids is carried with the effluent
stream, and some settle down in the lagoon, as the aeration power input is just enough for
oxygenation and not for keeping all solids in suspension. As the lower part of such lagoons
may be anoxic or anaerobic, while the upper layers are aerobic, the term facultative is used.

7.1.3 Anaerobic Method of Treating Water

(i.) anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic treatment of wastewaters has several advantages
over aerobic treatment process, namely, the energy input of the system is low, as no energy is
required for oxygenation, lower production of excess sludge (biological synthesis) per unit
mass of organic matter stabilized, lower nutrient requirement due to lower biological
synthesis, and the degradation of waste organic material leads to the production of biogas,
which is a valuable source of energy. Anaerobic digestion, a unit process in municipal
wastewater treatment, has been in use for many years. It is employed for stabilization of
sludge solids from primary and secondary sedimentation tanks either in closed digesters or
open lagoons.
(ii.) septic tanks: The septic tank was one of the earliest treatment devices developed.
Septic tanks provide wastewater treatment for small populations, such as individual
residences, small institutions, and schools. Currently, this practice has been dispensed with.
They are designed to hold wastewater at low velocity under anaerobic conditions for a
minimum detention time of 36 hours. During this period, a high removal of settleable solids
is achieved. These solids decompose at the bottom of the tank with the formation of gas,

29
which is entrained in the solids and causes them to rise through the waste¬water to the
surface and lie as a scum layer until the gas has escaped, after which the solids settle again.
This continual flotation and resettling of sol¬ids carries some of them in a current toward the
outlet to be discharged with the effluent. The final effluent disposal occurs by subsurface
meth¬ods. The effectiveness of this method is dependent on the leaching ability of the soil.
These primary type units require minimal attention, which involves an annual inspection and
the periodic removal (every 3–5 years) of sludge and scum accumulations. Recommended
sizes of septic tanks for individual households (up to 20 users)
(iii.) Lagoons: Anaerobic lagoons are also used for the treatment of industrial wastes.
Conventionally, the anaerobic process is considered a slow process that requires digesters
with a large hydraulic retention time.

7.2 The challenges of water supply in rural areas

The challenges to the drinking water supply in the rural area include the following:
(i.) the natural scarcity of water source in certain areas.
(ii.) floods can create more siltation problems in river systems as well as the
contamination of rivers and large dams giving rise to source-receptor issues.
(iii.) climate change and water scarcity are also some of the concerns.
(iv.) poor access to water.
(v.) poor water productivity in the agricultural sector can impact on water quality.

References

N. S. Varandani (2017)- Environmental Engineering Principles and Practices (Water Supply

Engineering)-Pearson Education (2017)

Josephine Treacy (2019). Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing

Countries. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80780

Carter, Richard C. (2021). Rural Community Water Supply: Sustainable services for all,
Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing Retrieved from
[Link] on 12th March 20222.

Miklas, S. (2006). Water quality standards. Retrieved from

[Link] on
25th March 2022.

Patel, HH. (2022, October 11). Water-Borne Diseases. News-Medical. Retrieved on

November 25, 2022 from [Link]

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Patankar, S. N. (2020). Water Distribution Overview. Retrieved from
[Link]
systems-water-and-sanitation-1/water-distribution-overview on 14th August 2020.

Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H., Visvanathan, C., & Sundarvadivel, M. (2009). Wastewater
recycle, reuse, and reclamation. Conv. Water Treat. Technol, 1(2).

31