1.

Short Answer Concepts (2 Marks Each)

(a) What is a Solar Cell?
A solar cell is a semiconductor device that directly converts solar (light) energy into
electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect. It is usually made from silicon (Si), which
is doped to form a p–n junction.
When sunlight falls on the solar cell: - Photons with sufficient energy strike the
semiconductor material. - Electrons gain energy and move from the valence band to the
conduction band. - The built-in electric field at the p–n junction separates charge carriers. -
This separation produces a DC voltage and current at the terminals.
Related concept: A single solar cell produces a small voltage (≈0.5–0.7 V), hence multiple
cells are connected to form modules and arrays.
Tricky point: - A solar cell does not store energy; it only converts energy when light is
present. - Output is DC, not AC.

(b) What is a Solar PV Module?

A solar PV module is an assembly of multiple solar cells connected in series and/or
parallel, encapsulated and protected using glass, EVA sheets, and a back sheet.
Purpose of PV module: - Increase output voltage and current - Provide mechanical strength
and environmental protection - Enable practical power generation for real-world use
Related concept: - PV panel: One or more modules connected together - PV array:
Multiple panels connected to achieve required power
Tricky point: - Students often confuse cell, module, panel, and array. A module is an
intermediate unit.

(c) What is the Rating of a PV Module?

The rating of a PV module indicates the maximum power output (in watts) it can deliver
under Standard Test Conditions (STC).
STC conditions: - Solar irradiance = 1000 W/m² - Cell temperature = 25°C - Air mass = AM
1.5
Example: A module rated 250 Wp means it can deliver 250 W under STC.
Tricky point: - Rated power is not guaranteed in real conditions due to temperature rise,
dust, shading, and aging.

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(d) Define Short Circuit Current of a PV Module
The short circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current produced by a PV module when its
terminals are short-circuited (V = 0) under STC.
Characteristics: - Depends mainly on solar irradiance - Slightly affected by temperature -
Represents the upper limit of current generation
Tricky point: - Isc does not represent usable power because voltage is zero.

(e) What is Fill Factor (FF)?

The Fill Factor (FF) is a measure of the quality and performance of a solar cell.
[ FF = ]
Where: - Vmp, Imp = voltage and current at maximum power point - Voc = open circuit
voltage - Isc = short circuit current
Tricky point: - Higher FF means lower internal losses and better cell efficiency.

2. Descriptive Questions (5 Marks Each)

2(a) Working Principle of a Solar Photovoltaic Cell
A solar photovoltaic cell works based on the photovoltaic effect.
Construction: - Made of p-type and n-type semiconductor layers - p–n junction creates an
internal electric field - Front metal grid collects electrons - Anti-reflection coating reduces
losses
Operation: 1. Sunlight strikes the solar cell. 2. Photons transfer energy to electrons. 3.
Electron–hole pairs are generated. 4. Internal electric field drives electrons toward n-side
and holes toward p-side. 5. External circuit allows current flow.
Output: - Produces DC power - Voltage depends on material properties
Tricky points: - Only photons above bandgap energy generate electricity. - Excess photon
energy is lost as heat.

2(b) Different Solar Cell Technologies

1. Crystalline Silicon Cells - Monocrystalline: High efficiency (18–22%), expensive -
Polycrystalline: Lower efficiency (15–18%), cheaper
2. Thin-Film Solar Cells - Amorphous silicon (a-Si) - Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) - CIGS
(Copper Indium Gallium Selenide)

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Advantages: - Lightweight - Flexible - Lower cost
3. Advanced Technologies - PERC cells - Bifacial cells - Perovskite cells
Tricky point: - Higher efficiency does not always mean better real-world performance.

3. Parameters of a Solar Cell (10 Marks)

1. Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) – Maximum voltage when current is zero
2. Short Circuit Current (Isc) – Maximum current when voltage is zero
3. Maximum Power Point (MPP) – Operating point where power is maximum
4. Vmp and Imp – Voltage and current at MPP
5. Fill Factor (FF) – Ratio of actual maximum power to theoretical power
6. Efficiency (η) – Ratio of output power to input solar power
7. Series Resistance (Rs) – Causes voltage drop and power loss
8. Shunt Resistance (Rsh) – Leakage paths reducing current
9. Temperature Coefficient – Effect of temperature on output
10. I–V and P–V Characteristics – Graphical representation of performance
Tricky point: - Temperature rise reduces Voc significantly, hence power drops.

4. Numerical Problems
4(a)
Given: - Area = 100 cm² = 0.01 m² - Imp = 3.1 A, Vmp = 0.5 V - Isc = 3.5 A, Voc = 0.6 V
Maximum Power: [ P_{max} = V_{mp} I_{mp} = 0.5 = 1.55 W ]
Efficiency: Input power = 1000 × 0.01 = 10 W
[ = = 15.5% ]

4(b)
Given: - Area = 25 cm² = 0.0025 m² - Imp = 0.85 A, Vmp = 0.55 V - Isc = 0.9 A, Voc = 0.65 V
Maximum Power: [ P_{max} = 0.55 = 0.4675 W ]
Fill Factor: [ FF = = 0.799 % ]
Efficiency: Input power = 1000 × 0.0025 = 2.5 W
[ = = 18.7% ]

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5. Additional Numericals
5(a)
Given: - FF = 0.68, Vmp = 0.6 V - Isc = 3 A, Voc = 0.7 V
[ I_{mp} = ]
[ I_{mp} = = 2.38 A ]

5(b)
Given: - Pmax = 0.3 W - Vmp = 0.65 V
[ I_{mp} = = = 0.462 A ]

Exam Tip (Very Important)

 Always convert cm² to m² correctly.
 Efficiency calculation always uses 1000 W/m² unless stated otherwise.
Gives 3.1 A current at maximum power
point and 0.5 V at maximum power point at STC. The cell gives 3.5 A short circuit
current and 0.6 V open circuit voltage. What is the maximum power point of the
solar cell? Also find out the efficiency of the cell.
[L3] [CO2] [5M]
(b) A solar cell having an area of 25 cm
2
gives 0.85 A current at maximum power
point and 0.55 V at maximum power point at STC. The cell gives 0.9 A short circuit
current and 0.65 V open circuit voltage. What is the maximum power point; fill
factor and efficiency of the solar cell?
[L4] [CO2] [5M]
5.
(a) A solar cell having Fill factor (FF) 68% gives 0.6 V at maximum power point at
STC. The cell gives 3 A short circuit current and 0.7 V open circuit voltage. What is
the current at maximum power point of the solar cell?
[L4] [CO2] [5M]
(b) A solar cell has maximum power point of 0.3 W. The cell voltage at maximum
power point at STC is 0.65 V. What is the current at maximum power point of the
solar cell?

1. Short Answer Concepts with Detailed Explanation (2 Marks Each)

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 (a) What is a BYPASS Diode?
A bypass diode is connected in parallel (anti-parallel) with a group of solar cells or a
PV module. Its primary function is to protect solar cells from hot-spot damage when
partial shading occurs.
Working principle:
 Under normal sunlight, all cells generate current and the bypass diode remains
reverse-biased.
 If some cells are shaded, they become reverse-biased and start dissipating power
as heat.
 The bypass diode provides an alternate low-resistance path for current, bypassing
the shaded cells.
Related concept: Hot-spot phenomenon occurs due to reverse biasing of shaded
cells.
Tricky points:
 Bypass diodes do not increase power, they only reduce power loss and prevent
damage.
 Used mainly in modules, not at system-level connections.

(b) What is a BLOCKING Diode?

A blocking diode is connected in series with a PV module or string to prevent reverse
current flow from batteries or other parallel-connected PV strings.
Working principle:
 Allows current to flow from PV module to load/battery.
 Blocks reverse current during night or low irradiance conditions.
Related concept: Reverse current can cause battery discharge and module heating.
Tricky points:
 Blocking diodes cause voltage drop and power loss.
 Modern MPPT charge controllers often eliminate the need for blocking diodes.

(c) What is a PV Module String?

A PV module string is formed by connecting multiple PV modules in series to obtain
higher DC voltage suitable for inverter operation.
Explanation:
 Series connection increases voltage, current remains same.
 Used to match inverter DC input voltage range.
Tricky points:
 Shading on one module affects entire string.
 String voltage must not exceed inverter maximum DC rating.

(d) What is a PV Module Array?

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 A PV module array consists of multiple strings connected in series–parallel
combinations to achieve required voltage and current.
Explanation:
 Series increases voltage
 Parallel increases current
Tricky points:
 Unequal string lengths cause mismatch losses.

2. PV System Design & Components (2 Marks Each)

(a) Energy Flow Diagram of a PV System
Energy Flow:
Sunlight → PV Array → DC Combiner → MPPT/Inverter → AC Distribution → Load/Grid
Tricky point:
 MPPT ensures operation at maximum power point, not constant voltage.

(b) Parameters to Consider Before Calculating Battery Bank Size

 Daily energy demand (Wh/day)
 System voltage
 Autonomy days
 Depth of discharge (DoD)
 Battery efficiency
 Ambient temperature
Tricky point:
 Ignoring DoD leads to undersized battery bank.

(c) Components of Grid-Connected PV Systems

 PV array
 DC combiner box
 Grid-tied inverter
 AC distribution panel
 Net meter
 Utility grid
Tricky point:
 Grid-tied systems without battery shut down during grid failure.

(d) Central Inverter

A central inverter connects multiple PV strings to a single large inverter.
Explanation:
 High power rating

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  Used in solar power plants
Diagram (textual):
PV Strings → DC Combiner → Central Inverter → Transformer → Grid
Tricky point:
 Single point of failure affects entire plant.

(e) Series String Inverter

A string inverter is connected to one or more PV strings individually.
Diagram (textual):
PV String → String Inverter → AC Bus → Grid
Tricky point:
 Better performance under partial shading.

3. Types of Solar PV Systems (10 Marks)

(i) Standalone PV System
 Not connected to grid
 Uses battery storage
 Suitable for remote areas
Schematic (textual):
PV Array → Charge Controller → Battery → Inverter → Load

(ii) Grid-Connected PV System

 Connected directly to utility grid
 No battery (optional)
Schematic:
PV Array → Grid Inverter → Grid → Load

(iii) Hybrid PV System

 Combines PV, battery, and grid/diesel generator
Schematic:
PV + Battery + DG → Hybrid Inverter → Load/Grid
Tricky point:
 System complexity increases control requirements.

4. Working Principles (5 Marks Each)

(a) Standalone SPV System
 PV generates DC power
 Charge controller regulates battery charging
 Battery supplies power during no sunlight
 Inverter converts DC to AC

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 Tricky point:
 Battery sizing is critical for reliability.

(b) Grid-Connected SPV System with Battery

 PV supplies load first
 Excess power charges battery or feeds grid
 Battery supports during grid outage
Tricky point:
 Requires bidirectional inverter.

5. Hybrid & Thermal Systems

(a) SPV–Diesel Generator Hybrid System
 PV supplies base load
 DG supplies peak or backup
 Controller optimizes fuel usage

(b) Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Technologies

 Parabolic trough
 Solar tower
 Linear Fresnel
 Parabolic dish

(c) Advantages of Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

 Power generation after sunset
 Grid stability
 Reduced fuel consumption

(d) Thermosiphon Effect

Natural circulation of fluid due to density difference caused by temperature gradient.
Tricky point:
 No pump required.

(e) Applications of TES

 CSP plants
 Industrial process heat
 District heating

(f) Classification of TES

Based on method:

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  Sensible heat storage
 Latent heat storage
 Thermochemical storage

6. Solar Collectors
Types of Collectors
 Flat plate collectors
 Evacuated tube collectors
 Concentrating collectors

7. Solar Radiation Measurement

(a) Instruments
 Pyranometer
 Pyrheliometer
 Sunshine recorder
(b) Radiometer Uncertainty Sources
 Calibration errors
 Temperature effects
 Sensor aging
 Cosine response error

Exam Tricky Notes

 Bypass diode ≠ Blocking diode
 Grid-tied inverter shuts down during blackout (anti-islanding)
 Battery efficiency and DoD are compulsory in sizing calculations

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