Kammavari Sangham ® 1952
K. S. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
An Autonomous Institution under VTU, Approved by AICTE
Accredited by NBA (CSE & ECE), NAAC with A+ & QS I-GAUGE (GOLD)
#14, Raghuvanahalli, Kanakapura Road, Bengaluru – 560109
Tel: 080-28435722/24. Fax: 080 – 28435723, e-mail ID: [Link]@[Link] website: [Link]
ELECTRIC AND HYBRID VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
Semester 3 CIE Marks 50
Course Code BME306A SEE Marks 50
Credits 03 Total Marks 100
MODULE-1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV) & HYBRID VEHICLE (HV)
Syllabus: A brief history of Electric and Hybrid vehicles, basic architecture of hybrid drive train,
vehicle motion and the dynamic equations for the vehicle, types of HV and EV, advantages over
conventional vehicles, limitations of EV and HV, impact on environment of EV and HV technology,
disposal of battery, cell and hazardous material and their impact on environment.
Introduction to Electric Vehicles (EVs):
• Definition: An electric vehicle (EV) is powered by a portable electrochemical or
electromechanical energy source, with traction provided solely by an electric motor.
• Energy Source: EVs use portable energy storage devices, typically battery packs, to deliver
energy on demand.
• Powertrain: The powertrain, linking the energy source to the wheels, consists of electrical and
mechanical components.
• Fuel Types: Electricity for EVs can be generated from various sources, including fossil fuels,
solar energy, or other renewables.
• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): BEVs rely on electricity delivered through an electric power
transmission system to charge batteries.
• Solar EVs: These use solar panels and a power converter to charge onboard batteries, reducing
reliance on external grids.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
• Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs): Solar EVs and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) produce
no pollution within the vehicle.
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV): FCEVs can be ZEVs if powered by pure hydrogen as the
onboard fuel.
• Environmental Benefit: ZEVs like solar EVs and FCEVs contribute to reduced vehicle-related
pollution.
Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles (HVs):
Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) use both a regular gas engine and electric motors to move the vehicle.
They combine energy from two or more sources, like a gas engine and batteries. Some HVs use fuel
cells, which turn hydrogen into electricity without burning fuel, acting like an engine. There are even
triple hybrids that mix a fuel cell, electric motor, and gas engine for more power options.
In HVs, the electric motors can work alone or with the gas engine, depending on the vehicle’s
design. HVs are more complex because they need systems to control both the gas engine and electric
motors, plus parts to mix the power. The electric power helps the gas engine run less, which cuts down
on pollution and saves fuel.
Fig. 1.2 A HV system.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
A brief history of Electric and Hybrid vehicles:
• 1820: Faraday demonstrates electric motor principle.
• 1831: Faraday’s electromagnetic induction discovery enables electric motors/generators.
• 1834: First electric car with non-rechargeable batteries tested.
• 1859: Lead-acid battery developed for energy storage.
• 1900: EVs make up 38% of 4,200 cars sold (vs. 40% steam, 22% gasoline).
• 1911: Starter motor invention makes gas cars easier to start, reducing EV popularity.
• 1925: Ford’s Model T price drops to $260, making gas cars cheaper than EVs.
• 1960s: EV interest grows due to ICEV pollution; GM and Ford start EV research.
• 1968: Great Electric Car Race (3,300 miles) boosts public interest in EVs.
• 1973: Oil crisis increases demand for EVs as alternative to gas.
• 1976: Congress passes law to promote EV and hybrid vehicle development.
• 1990: California mandates 2% ZEV sales by 1998, pushing EV development.
• 1993: Partnership for Next-Generation Vehicles formed to advance EVs/HEVs.
• Late 1990s: Toyota Prius and Honda Insight introduce hybrid vehicles.
• 2008: Tesla Roadster, first EV with lithium-ion batteries, achieves 200+ mile range.
• 2010: Chevy Volt, a PHEV with 40-mile electric range, enters market.
• 2021: Global EV sales double to 6.75 million; Tesla Model 3/Y reach 1 million units each;
Norway exceeds 450,000 electric cars; nearly 1.2 million public charging stations worldwide.
• 2022: PHEV stock hits 2.8 million globally; US EV sales reach 918,500 units.
• 2023: China EV sales share tops 35%, exceeding 20% NEV target early; global EV sales
surpass 14 million.
• 2024: Global EV sales exceed 17 million (20% market share); emerging markets hit 1 million
sales; 785 EV models available.
• 2025: Global EV sales projected to surpass 20 million (25%+ share); China EV sales outstrip
ICE; EU CO2 standards enforce 15% reduction (2025-2027); BMW iX3 production starts; UK
VED hikes boost EV adoption; megawatt charging stations expand for trucks.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Basic Architecture of Hybrid Drive Train:
(i) Series Hybrid Architecture:
Definition: Series hybrid uses only the electric motor for propulsion; the internal combustion engine
(ICE) powers a generator to charge batteries or supply the motor.
Components: Includes ICE, generator, battery, and electric motor, arranged as shown in a typical
series HEV diagram.
Operation: ICE drives the generator to produce electricity, which powers the motor or charges
batteries when their charge is low.
Propulsion: Electric motor alone drives the wheels, similar to an EV’s propulsion system.
Motor Size: Electric motor must handle the vehicle’s maximum power needs, like climbing steep hills.
Fig. 1.3 Series hybrid architecture.
Advantages:
• Flexible placement of engine-generator set.
• Simple drivetrain design.
• Ideal for short trips with frequent stops, like city driving.
Disadvantages:
• Requires three components: ICE, generator, and motor.
• Motor must be large enough for maximum power, even if rarely used.
• All components need sizing for high power during long, high-speed trips when batteries deplete.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
(ii) Parallel Hybrid Architecture:
Definition: Parallel hybrid allows both the ICE and electric motor to deliver power to the wheels,
blended via mechanical coupling.
Components: ICE and electric motor connect to the driveshaft through transmission and clutch.
Operation: Power can come from ICE, electric motor, or both, depending on driving needs.
Motor Size: Electric motor needs less power than in series hybrids since ICE shares the load.
Fig. 1.4 Parallel hybrid architecture.
Advantages:
• Requires only two components: ICE and motor/generator (motor can also act as a generator).
• Smaller ICE and motor can achieve the same performance, especially for short trips.
Disadvantages:
• Complex control system to manage power from two sources.
• Needs a complicated mechanical device to blend power from ICE and motor.
(iii) Series–Parallel Hybrid
Definition: Combines series and parallel hybrid architectures, allowing both the internal combustion
engine (ICE) and electric motors to drive the vehicle while sustaining battery charge.
Components: Includes ICE, two electric motors (one acts as a generator), battery, and a power-split
device (e.g., planetary gearset).
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Operation: ICE powers the generator to charge batteries or drive the motor; both ICE and motor can
power wheels via the power-split device.
Power-Split Device: Divides ICE power into mechanical (to wheels) and electrical (to
generator/battery) paths, as seen in Toyota Prius.
Fig. 1.5 Series-parallel hybrid architecture.
Advantages:
• Offers high output power for acceleration using both ICE and motor.
• Flexible control adapts to driving conditions for better fuel economy and lower emissions.
• Operates in series, parallel, or power-split modes for versatility.
Disadvantages:
• More complex than series or parallel hybrids due to additional mechanical links and controls.
• Requires an extra generator compared to parallel hybrids.
(iv) Series–Parallel 2 × 2 Hybrid
Definition: A series–parallel hybrid with two electric machines, an internal combustion engine (ICE),
and a battery, designed for four-wheel drive capability.
Components: Includes ICE, front-mounted electric machine (generator/starter), rear-mounted electric
motor, battery, and transmission, as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Operation: ICE powers front wheels; rear motor drives rear wheels; front machine generates power or
adds torque during peak demand.
Traction: ICE and front motor power front wheels; rear motor handles rear wheels and regenerative
braking.
Power Flow: ICE charges battery via front generator; both ICE and motors provide traction during
acceleration.
Fig. 1.6 Series-parallel 2x2 hybrid architecture.
Advantages:
• Inherent four-wheel drive enhances traction and performance.
• Flexible power delivery without a mechanical power-split device.
• Supports efficient regenerative braking via rear motor.
Disadvantages:
• Complex control algorithms to manage torque blending between axles.
• Requires mounting powertrain components on both front and rear axles.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Vehicle Motion:
Equation Form: Newton’s second law, expressed as ΣFᵢ = ma, relates the net force (ΣFᵢ) acting on a
vehicle to its mass (m) and acceleration (a).
Points of Contact: Forces act at multiple contact points, such as the front and rear wheels on the road
and the frontal area against air resistance.
Simplified Model: For analysis, all forces are assumed to act at the vehicle’s center of gravity (cg),
treating the vehicle as a particle mass to simplify calculations.
Justification: The simplification is valid because the vehicle’s physical extent is negligible for force
calculations centered at the cg.
Fig. 1.7 Centre of gravity (cg) of a vehicle.
Motion Characteristics: The motion of a particle (vehicle modeled at its center of gravity) is defined
by its position vector r, with velocity v = dr/dt and acceleration a = dv/dt.
Force and Motion Relationship: Multiple forces acting on the particle mass influence its velocity and
acceleration, as depicted in Fig.
Power Input Calculation: The power input for the i-th force is given by Pᵢ = Fᵢ · v = Fᵢ v cosθ, where θ
is the angle between the force vector Fᵢ and the velocity vector v.
Fig. 1.8 Forces on a particle
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Dynamic Equations for The Vehicle:
The dynamic equation of motion in the tangential direction is given by,
where km is the rotational inertia coefficient to compensate for the apparent increase in the vehicle’s
mass due to the on-board rotating mass. Typical value of km is between 1.08 and 1.1, and it is
dimensionless.
Ifβ is slope of the roadway then the second state variable equation is
If β is given in terms of xF, then the second state variable equation is
Types of HV:
a) Series Hybrid: The internal combustion (IC) engine powers a generator, which charges the
battery or directly drives an electric motor to propel the vehicle; no direct mechanical
connection between the engine and wheels.
b) Parallel Hybrid: Both the IC engine and electric motor can directly drive the wheels, either
together or independently, with a mechanical connection allowing flexible power delivery.
c) Series–Parallel Hybrid: Combines series and parallel architectures, using a power-split device
(e.g., planetary gearset in Toyota Prius) to flexibly distribute power from the IC engine and
electric motors for optimal efficiency and performance.
d) Series–Parallel 2×2 Hybrid: A series–parallel setup with four-wheel drive, where the IC engine
powers one axle (typically front) and an electric motor drives the other (typically rear), using
electronic torque blending without a mechanical power-split device.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Types of EV:
a) Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): Fully electric, powered solely by a rechargeable battery pack,
with no internal combustion engine (e.g., Tesla Model 3).
b) Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): Combines an internal combustion engine with an electric
motor and battery; the battery is charged via regenerative braking and the engine, not externally
(e.g., Toyota Prius).
c) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Similar to HEVs but with a larger battery that can
be externally charged, allowing electric-only driving for a limited range before switching to
hybrid mode (e.g., Chevrolet Volt).
d) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV): Uses a fuel cell to generate electricity from hydrogen,
powering an electric motor, with water as the only emission (e.g., Toyota Mirai).
Advantages of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) Over
Conventional Vehicles:
• Improved Fuel Efficiency: HVs combine an internal combustion engine with an electric motor
to optimize fuel use, while EVs run entirely on electricity, eliminating fuel consumption,
resulting in lower operating costs compared to conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles.
• Lower Emissions: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, and HVs significantly reduce
emissions by relying on electric power for part of their operation, contributing to better air
quality and reduced greenhouse gas output compared to conventional vehicles.
• Reduced Maintenance: EVs have fewer moving parts (no engine, transmission, or exhaust
system), leading to lower maintenance costs; HVs also require less engine maintenance than
conventional vehicles due to shared propulsion duties.
• Enhanced Performance: EVs offer instant torque for quick acceleration, and HVs provide
smooth power delivery through combined engine and motor operation, often outperforming
conventional vehicles in responsiveness and driving dynamics.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
Limitations of EV and HV:
• Limited Driving Range: EVs typically have a shorter range (100–300 miles) compared to
conventional vehicles, requiring frequent recharging; PHEVs have a limited electric-only range
before switching to fuel.
• Charging Infrastructure and Time: EVs require access to charging stations, which may be
sparse in some areas, and charging takes longer (30 minutes to hours) than refueling
conventional vehicles; HVs avoid this but still need fuel.
• Higher Initial Cost: EVs and HVs often have higher upfront costs due to expensive batteries
and complex powertrains, despite lower long-term operating costs compared to conventional
vehicles.
• Battery Degradation and Replacement: EV and HV batteries degrade over time, reducing
range and performance, with replacement costs being high; conventional vehicles lack this issue
but face other maintenance costs.
Impact on Environment of EV and HV Technology:
• Significant CO2 Reduction: Full electrification, replacing all internal combustion engine
vehicles (ICEVs) with EVs, could reduce carbon dioxide emissions by approximately 50%,
mitigating global warming, based on 2025 global transportation emission models.
• Modest Nitrogen Oxide Decrease: Nitrogen oxide emissions, contributing to global warming
and smog, may decrease slightly, contingent on stricter government-regulated utility emission
standards, with 2025 data suggesting a 5–10% reduction in urban areas.
• Slight Sulfur Dioxide Increase: Sulfur dioxide, linked to acid rain, may rise marginally due to
increased power plant activity; however, 2025 projections indicate stricter SO2 regulations could
limit this to a 2–3% increase if coal reliance persists.
• Reduced Waste Oil and Noise Pollution: EVs eliminate crankcase oil, reducing waste oil
dumping by nearly 100% compared to ICEVs, and produce lower noise levels, decreasing urban
noise pollution by up to 30%.
• Increased Thermal Pollution: Higher EV adoption increases demand on power plants,
potentially raising thermal pollution by 5–8% unless offset by advanced cooling technologies in
2025 power generation systems.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
• Renewable Energy Dependency: EVs significantly cut smog, ozone depletion, and greenhouse
gases when charged with renewable energy; in 2024, electricity sources included 8%
hydropower, 9% wind, 5% other renewables, 35% natural gas, 20% coal, and 18% nuclear,
highlighting the need for cleaner energy to maximize EV benefits.
Disposal of Battery:
• Environmental Concerns: EV batteries, primarily lithium-ion, contain hazardous materials like
lithium, cobalt, and nickel, which can harm the environment if improperly disposed of,
potentially contaminating soil and water.
• Recycling Processes: Advanced recycling methods, such as hydrometallurgical and
pyrometallurgical processes, recover up to 95% of valuable materials (e.g., lithium, cobalt) from
spent batteries, reducing waste and raw material demand.
• Limited Recycling Infrastructure: As of 2025, global battery recycling capacity is limited,
with only about 5% of lithium-ion batteries recycled annually due to high costs and insufficient
facilities, leading to landfill accumulation.
• Second-Life Applications: Used EV batteries with 70–80% remaining capacity are repurposed
for energy storage in renewable energy systems or grid applications, extending their lifecycle
before disposal.
Cell and Hazardous Material and Their Impact on Environment:
• Hazardous Materials in Cells: Lithium-ion battery cells in EVs contain materials like lithium,
cobalt, nickel, and manganese, which are toxic and can leach into soil and water if not properly
managed, potentially harming ecosystems and human health.
• Soil and Water Contamination: Improper disposal of batteries in landfills can release heavy
metals and electrolytes, contaminating groundwater and soil; for example, cobalt leakage can
reduce soil fertility and affect aquatic life, with studies estimating 10–20% of unmanaged
batteries contribute to local pollution.
• Air Pollution from Degradation: Battery production and disposal processes can release
volatile organic compounds and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution; in 2025, battery
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru
manufacturing is estimated to account for 2–3% of industrial emissions in major EV-producing
regions.
• Mitigation through Recycling: Recycling recovers up to 95% of hazardous materials, reducing
environmental impact; however, only 5–10% of EV batteries globally are recycled in 2025 due
to limited infrastructure, emphasizing the need for improved waste management systems.
Prof. Saviraj A S, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., KSIT, Bengaluru