[Link].

com

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Introduction to Information Technology

Fundamentals of Computer
Computer: A computer is a truly amazing machine that performs a specified sequence of
operations as per the set of instructions (known as programs) given on a set of data (input) to
generate desired information (output).

A complete computer system consists of four parts:

• Hardware: Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the computer.
• Software: Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (Programs)
that make the computer perform tasks.
• User: The computer operators are known as users.
• Data: Consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers
Generation of Computers: Since its invention the computer technology has gone through
regressive upgradation process. Sometimes it even seems like the that this technological
advancement in the field of has not got any limits. The history of computer development is
been divided into five generations. Each one of the five generations of computers is
characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate.
S. No. Generation and Description
1. First Generation (1946-1959) Vacuum tube based
2. Second Generation (1959-1965) Transistor based
3. Third Generation (1965-1971) Integrated Circuit based
4. Fourth Generation (1971-1980) VLSI microprocessor based
5. Fifth Generation (1980-1980) ULSI microprocessor based

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

• They used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
• These computers were very expensive to operate and use huge amount of electricity,
• First generation computers relied on machine language,

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• they could only solve one problem at a time.

• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
• The UNIVAC (First commercial computer 1951) and ENIAC computers are examples of first-
generation computing devices.
Subject 1st 2nd generation 3rd 4th generation 5th
generation generatio generation
n
Period 1940- 1956-1963 1964- 1971-present present &
1956 1971 beyond
Circuitry Vacuum Transistor Integrated Microprocessor ULSI (Ultra
tube chips (IC) (VLSI) Large Scale
Integration
)
technology
Memory 20 KB 128KB 1MB Magnetic core ULSI
Capacity memory, LSI and
VLSI. High
Capacity
Processing 300 IPS 300 IPS 1MIPS (1 Faster than 3rd Very fast
Speed instruction million generation
s Per sec. inst. Per
sec.)
Programmin Machine, Assembly language C,C++ Higher level
g Language Language & early high-level languages,
languages(FORTRA C,C++,Javal
N, COBOL, ALGOL) languages,
Neural networks,
Example of UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM IBM 360 Pentium Artificial
computers EDVAC 7094, CDC 3600,D series, series,Multimedi Intelligence
UNIVAC 1108 1900 a, , Robotics
series

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

• Transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
• Second-generation computers relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
• moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which
allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.

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• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)
• Use Integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
• Users interaction started through keyboards and monitors instead of punched cards
• Use of operating system allowed the device to run many different applications at one time.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-1980s)
• Invention of microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers,
• Now, thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first
generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.
• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced
the Macintosh.
• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.
Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
• there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Types of Computer: Computers can be classified on the basis of their functioning, their input
process, their output process, their size, their capabilities and their storage capacity. The
different types of computers are as follows:
Analog computers
• Analog computers always take input in form of signals.
• The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temp., pressure, speed, velocity.

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• Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V).

• Accuracy 1% Approximately.
• Example: Speedometer.
Digital Computers These computers take the input in the form of digits & alphabets &
converted it into binary format.
• Digital computers are high speed, programmable electronic devices.
• Signals are two level of (0 for low/off 1 for high/on).
• Accuracy unlimited.
• Examples: Computer used for the purpose of business and education is also an example of
digital computers.
Hybrid Computer
• The combination of features of an analog and digital computer is called a Hybrid computer.
• The main examples are central national defence and passenger flight radar system.
• They are also used to control robots.
Super Computer
• The biggest in size.
• Most Expensive
• It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.
• This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.
• Used by Govt. for different calculations and heavy jobs.
• Supercomputers are used for the heavy stuff like weather maps, construction of atom bombs,
earthquake prediction etc.
Mainframes
• It can also process millions of instruction per second.
• It can handle processing of many users at a time.
• Less expensive than Supercomputer
• It is commonly used in Hospitals, Air Reservation Companies as it can retrieve data on a huge
basis.
• This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person.
• It can cost up to thousands of Dollars.
Mini Computer

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• These computers are preferred mostly by small type of business personals, colleges etc.
• These computers are cheaper than above two.
• Its an intermediary between microcomputer and mainframe.
Micro Computer/ Personal Computer
• It is mostly preferred by Home Users.
• Cost is less compared to above.
• Small in size.
• A microcomputer contains a central processing unit on a microchip in the form of readonly
memory and random access memory, and a housed in a unit that is usually called a
motherboard.
Notebook Computers
Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a
briefcase.
• The principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the
display screen.
• Many notebook display screens are limited to VGA resolution.
Processing cycle in computer
• Input -Input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will depend
on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data
could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes
and so on.
• Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For
example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the
month may be calculated from the sales orders.
• Output - The result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be paychecks for
employees.

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Fig: The relationship between different hardware components

Software
Software represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system and
make the hardware run.
Software
Utility Software Application Software System Software (OS)
Utility Text Single user Multi-User
Tools
Customized Graphics DOS Unix
Multimedia Mac-OS Windows Server
Language Window xp, 7,8,1
Accounting

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INTERNET

The word ‘Internet’ is derived from the word ‘internetworking’ which is a collection of individual
networks connected by intermediate networking devices. But they function together as one large unit.

Network is a collection of terminals, various computer servers and other components. It ensures easy
flow of data between the various nodes or participants.

The Internet is such a global interconnected computer networks using a common language called a
standard Internet protocol suite. The protocol is TCP/IP.

The Sputnik satellite launch by the Soviet Union prompted the U.S. Defense Department to think
about how information may continue to be shared even after a nuclear assault. As a result, the
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), the network that ultimately developed
into the Internet as we know it today, was created.

ARPANET became the only official protocol after 1983.

Any machine on the internet can communicate with other if it has following:

● An IP address that enable it to send IP Packets

● A medium to send and receive data in the form of signals
● Rules to decide the transmission of data.
An IP address is a 32 bits long address, consisting of four sets of numbers separated by dots. It is
called as dotted decimal representation.

Example: [Link] (loopback address)

Each host on the network has an IP consisting of a ‘Net id’ and a ‘Host-id’. T

The physical address or the MAC address is assigned by the Network Information Centre (NIC).

WHO GOVERNS THE INTERNET?

There is no single authority or a President governing it.

The ultimate authority of the internet rest with Internet Society (ISOC), a voluntary organisation).
Another authority is a group of invited volunteers called as Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) discuss the technical and operational problem.

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HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE INTERNET

Computer Network is a collection of computers those are able to communicate with each other through
some medium, using hardware and software.
Two computers are said to be connected, if they are able to exchange information or able to
communicate.
Network is connected by the set of nodes via communication links where a node can be any device
capable of sending and/or receiving data to and/or from other nodes in the network.
● Data Source - provides the data to transmit.
● Sender (Transmitter) - converts data to signals for transmission.
● Data Transmission System - Transmits the data i.e., converted in signals.
● Receiver - Converts received signals to data.
● Destination - Receives and uses incoming data.
● Node - A device with independent communication ability and unique network address.
● Protocol - A formal description, comprising rules and conventions defines the method of
communication between networking devices.

Components of a Network:

There are five basic components of a network:

1. Clients
2. Servers
3. Channels
4. Interface devices and
5. Operating Systems

Methods of Message Delivery:

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A message can be delivered in the following ways

● Unicast: One device sends message to the other to its address.

● Broadcast: One device sends message to all other devices on the network. The message is sent
to an address reserved for this goal.
● Multicast: One device sends message to a certain group of devices on the network.

Types of Networks:
Mainly three types of network based on their coverage areas: LAN, MAN, and WAN.

● LAN: It is a Local Area Network typically interconnects hosts that are up to a few or maybe a
few tens of kilo meters apart.
● MAN: It is a Metropolitan Area Network typically interconnects devices that are up to a few
hundred kilo meters apart
● WAN: It is a Wide Area Network interconnect hosts that can be located anywhere on Earth

LAN (Local Area Network)

● LAN is privately owned network within a single building or campus.

● LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers
used by thousands of people (like in some IT office, etc.)
● Examples - Ethernet, Token Ring and Fibber Distributed Data Interconnect (FDDI).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

● A MAN covers a city.

● An example of MAN is cable television network in city.
● It may be a single network such as cable TV network by means of connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network.
● Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.
● A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a public
company such as local telephone company.
● Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS) Switched Multimegabit
Data Services.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

● A wide area network or WAN spans a large geographical area often a country.
● Internet It is also known as network of networks.
● The Internet is a system of linked networks that are world wide in scope and facilitate data
communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, World Wide Web
and newsgroups etc.

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MODEM

Also called as a Modulator and Demodulator. It converts computer data into signals that can be
transmitted over a telephone line. It is also capable of converting a signal coming over a telephone line
to be understood by the computer.

HUB

A hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from various directions and is forwarded out to
different directions and destinations. It is a common point for connecting the devices on a LAN.

● It can connect various cables like coaxial and twisted pair at the same time.
● It is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or other network
devices together.
● Unlike a network switch or router, a network hub has no routing tables or intelligence on
where to send information and broadcasts all network data across each connection.

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BRIDGE:

● A Bridge is a device that connects two or more networks, such as one LAN with another.
● It creates a single aggregate network from multiple networks rather than being a connection to
help them pass information from one part to another like a router.
● A bridge is a repeater, with the add-on functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of source and destination.
● It maintains a table of the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it.
Types of Bridge:
● Transparent Bridges: these are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the existence of the bridge on the network.
● Source Routing Bridge: The routing operation is performed by source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow. Route discovery frames or packets are sent first to discover
the desired route.
Various Operations are :

Cut-
through
store and
Fragment
forward

Bridges
work by

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REPEATERS:
● It is an object or instrument that receives a signal and increases its signal strength.
● A repeater mainly regenerates the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the
same network.
● Repeaters do not amplify the signal strength; it simply copies the signal bit by bit.

SWITCHES:
● A switch is a device that connects multiple devices together. Switches are smart devices as
they manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network packet only
to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended.
● It operates at the Layer 2 i.e. Data Link Layer of the TCP/IP model.
● Many ports are there in a switch that routes the traffic based on the various routing protocols.

ROUTERS

● Routers are physical or virtual devices that determines the next network point to which the data
packet should be forwarded. They forward the data packets as per their IP address.
● In OSI MODEL routers are found at the layer 3 i.e. Network layer.
● A router forwards the packets seeing its destination IP address and matching it with the IP
address mentioned in the routing table with the router.
● It uses various protocols to forward the packets which gives the best possible path also reduces
the cost of the transmission.
● The various routing protocols are OSPF, BGP, RIP etc.

Sample Routing Protocol:

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Audio and Video Conferencing

Audio Conferencing

● Simple conversation on telephone by more than two persons may be treated as 'Audio
Conferencing'.
● While conversation between two people is a point-to-point communication, by using
conferencing facility a telephone network can be used for multipoint communication.
● Such conference facilities can be used in distance teaching easily as they are simple to set up.
● But as we connect to multiple people at once, the voice quality gets affected. Audio Bridge is
used to solve this problem, it is designed to connect number of telephones so that people from
different places can converse simultaneously. This bridge electronically mixes the audio
signals from the connected telephone line from various locations.
● Components required:
✔ Standard telephone set can be used for participating audio conference,
✔ better designed speaker phone can be used for hand free conversation.
✔ Audio Amplifier can also be used for sound clarity.
✔ Acoustically treated space for better audio quality.
Audio Graphic Conferencing:

● The picture data information can be sent in advance for use at the time of audio conferencing
or it can be sent over a telephone line itself. This mode of conferencing is called audio graphic
conferencing.
● Graphic scanner, electronic white board/ electronic tablets with appropriate software can be
used to transmit graphics, sketches, etc.
● Audio Graphic conferencing is also sometimes referred to as enhance audio or audio plus.
● Audio Graphic conferencing is advantageous than mere audio conference as it also transmits
visual information.
Phone in Radio:

● In phone in radio, the communication is point to multipoint by radio broadcast to the audience
and the interaction is through a simple telephone line.
Merits and Demerits of Audio-conferencing Technologies

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Merits

✔ Equipment required to setup audio conference is simple and less expensive.

✔ Options for selecting telephone or speaker phones and a telephone network are many.
✔ Audio conference can be easily recorded by the participants themselves for reference.
✔ People can participate in the conference from anywhere.
Demerits

✔ Difficult to explain abstract concepts on audio conference due to lack of visual information.
✔ It is difficult to learn through audio information only.
✔ Scheduling is necessary and needs coordination between the participants.
✔ Since eye contact is not possible it is difficult to retain attention of people.
Video Conferencing

Video conferencing, also called video teleconferencing is setup using both audio and video equipment
for transmission as well as reception from separate locations.

● Unlike audio graphic conferencing, in video conferencing video cameras are used for
transmitting moving pictures.
● Video conferencing is set up either between point to point through a telephone network and
equipment’s for compressing and decompressing the audio video signals.
● It can be point to multi point by using broadcasting equipment’s.
Major components required for video conferencing are:

✔ Video Input - Video Camera or Webcam

✔ Video Output - Display device (computer monitor, television or projector)
✔ Audio Input - Microphone
✔ Audio Output - Speakers
✔ Data Transfer - Analog/digital telephone network or Internet
✔ Data Processing Unit - Computer
One-way Video- Conferencing:

● In this type of conference, as the name indicates video is seen only one-way.
● For example: Students (participants) at multiple sites can see the teacher, but the teacher cannot
see them except those physically present in the location (studio).
Two-way Video-Conferencing:

● In this type of conference audio and video signals are exchanged between teaching studio and
receiving centre.
● The two-way conference can be point to point between multiple locations. The receiving centre
can receive pictures and audio from other centres.

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● All centres are equipped to send and receive video and audio viz. cameras, microphones and
monitors.
Advantage /Disadvantages of Video Technologies

Advantages and disadvantages of the video conferencing are summarized as follows:

Advantages

● Allow both audio and video communications. Hence it is suitable for interaction that involves
demonstrations.
● Video medium supports visuals related to lab experiments and animations and thus explain
abstract topics.
● Encourage interactive learning.
Disadvantages

● It is expensive and the infrastructure at each site may be unaffordable for many institutions.
● Requires training to use this technology and requires a crew with camera men and other
technical experts.
● Effective programmes require rehearsals with user and technical team.
● The programmes are scheduled, and learners need to be present at the time of transmission.

Audio-Video Conferencing Apps and Websites

1. Zoom App: One of the most well-liked business video conferencing options is the Zoom App.
With many plans based on business size and demands, it is feature rich.

2. Google Meet: An improved version of Google Hangouts, Google Meet was developed for
enterprise customers. With features comparable to Zoom including calendar syncing,
conference room reservations, and a more polished user experience, Google Meet is meant to
facilitate scheduled video meetings between team members.

3. GoToMeeting: It provides a lot of helpful features, such as the ability to schedule meetings
instantly, offer meeting transcription services, and allow participants to communicate
throughout meetings directly from the app.

4. Skype: Microsoft has added a business-ready video conferencing feature to its well-known
Skype service. It provides a number of business features, including the ability to have meetings
with up to 250 participants, connect with other Skype users, and use virtual whiteboards.

5. Cisco WebEx: Cisco's WebEx video conferencing service functions like a mash-up of web
conferencing and phone calling services, and is a typical service, especially for individuals
with a sizable team or an incredibly large organisation.

6. BlueJeans: This app for web conferencing has a full feature set and interfaces with other
collaborative tools. Using a system of meetings, rooms, and events to enable video meetings

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anywhere, BlueJeans promotes a straightforward and contemporary approach in contrast to

some of the more complicated services provided by rivals.

7. Slack: A very well-liked communication application used in businesses all around the world,
Slack provides built-in video conferencing capabilities. The capability of Slack may be
expanded with video conferencing, which is an excellent tool for connecting hybrid teams.

8. [Link]: Small businesses that need an easy way to connect team members should use the
video chat service [Link]. Because of its streamlined design, it offers quick service.

9. BigBlueButton: It was designed primarily for education and online learning and has
whiteboard functionality for productive meetings.

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Input & Output Devices

Input Devices

Input Devices are the units for making link between user and computer. The input devices translate the
information into the form understandable by the computer. Due to ICT revolution we are day by day
encountering different variety of input devices around us. These new generation of input devices are
being created with the sole objective of making interaction between human an machine flawless.

● Keyboard: The most frequent and well-liked input method for entering data into computers is
the keyboard.
● Mouse: The most common pointing and cursor-control device is the mouse, which has a small
palm-sized box with a round ball at its base that detects mouse movement and delivers the
appropriate signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
● Trackpad: A touchpad, also referred to as a trackpad, is a typical alternative to a computer
mouse. It simply consists of a customised surface that can track a user's finger movement and
use that data to guide a pointer and manage a computer.
● Joy Stick: On a monitor screen, the joy stick is used to move the pointer position. It is
primarily utilised when playing video games and performing Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
● Light Pen: Used to choose an item from a menu that is being presented or to make drawings
on the computer screen.
● Track Ball: Often used in place of a mouse in notebook or laptop computers. This ball is
partially implanted, and the pointer can be moved by dragging fingers across the ball.
● Scanner: Using a scanner, printed material can be scanned and converted into a file format for
usage on a personal computer.
● Graphic Tablet: A graphic tablet, also referred to as a digitizer, is an input tool used to turn
hand-drawn artwork into computer pictures. It transforms analogue data into digital data. On a
unique flat surface, the user creates drawings with a stylus as if they were doing so on paper.
On the computer screen, the drawing appears and can be printed, altered, or saved.
● Microphone: A microphone is a sound-input device that records audio for later digital
archiving.
● Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): The usage of MICR input devices is common
in banks due to the volume of cheques that must be processed daily.

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● Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Using OCR, text may be extracted from scanned
images.
● Digital Camera: As they can separately record both still images and moving pictures, digital
cameras also function as input devices. These image and video files can be moved to a
computer later.
● Webcams: Input devices like webcams are required for tasks like videoconferencing. Digital
cameras and webcams are dissimilar in two respects. First of all, they are dependent on a
computer to function, and secondly, they lack internal memory. Webcams can take pictures
and films, but they are typically used to stream live video or for video chats.
● Barcode reader: A barcode reader is a device that scans or reads barcodes that are printed on
packaged goods. For usage at checkout, barcode scanners are typically purchased by
enterprises.
● Gamepad: Another type of input device is the wired or wireless gaming remote used for
Xbox, Playstation, and other platforms.
● MIDI keyboard: A MIDI keyboard, also known as a controller keyboard, is typically an
electronic piano-style keyboard with additional buttons, wheels, and sliders. It is used to send
MIDI signals or commands to other musical instruments or computers that are connected and
following the same MIDI protocol using USB or a MIDI 5-pin cable.
● Pen Input: Pen input describes how Windows enables you to use a pen to communicate with a
computer directly. A pen can be used to point, make gestures, enter rudimentary text, and
record free-form ideas in digital ink.
● Electronic Whiteboard: An electronic whiteboard is a piece of hardware that resembles the
whiteboards used in offices and classrooms. All information that is written on it is transmitted
to a computer or computers. They also enable real-time communication with digital objects
displayed on screens.
● Optical Mark recognition (OMR): OMR is a technique that electronically extracts desired
data from marked fields on printed forms, like checkboxes and fill-in fields. OMR technology
reads predetermined points on a printed form by scanning it, and it records where marks are put
on the form.
● Punch Card Reader: Punch card readers are computer input devices used to read data from
punched cards as well as computer programmes in source or executable form.
● Biometric Scanner: biometric input device that analyses a person's distinctive bodily
characteristics. Using a person's fingerprint to enter data into a computer is the most popular
biometric application. More advanced gadgets enter a description of a person's iris using a
camera (the coloured part of the eye).

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Output Devices
Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by users.

● Monitors: A computer's primary output device is a monitor, often known as a Visual Display
Unit (VDU). Pixels, which are very small dots arranged in a rectangular pattern, are used to
create images. The amount of pixels affects how crisp the image is. For monitors, there are two
different types of viewing screens.
● Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): The pixels that make up a CRT display are tiny
pieces of the image. The resolution or image clarity of an image improves with
decreasing pixel size.
● Flat- Panel Display: In comparison to CRTs, flat-panel displays are a class of
visual devices that require less space, weight, and power.
● Printers: A printer is an output machine that prints data on paper.
● Impact Printers: The characters are printed using impact printers by striking
them against a ribbon before the ribbon is placed against the paper.
● Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers don't use ribbon to print the
characters. These printers are also known as page printers since they print an
entire page at once. Example - Inkjet and laser printers.

● Plotters: For creating a tangible copy of a digitally developed design, plotters are typically
utilised with engineering applications. Moreover, graphic designers, architects, construction
engineers, etc. frequently employ plotters.
● Projector: Projectors are output devices that allow businesses, educational institutions, and
religious institutions to simultaneously display information to huge groups of people. They are
also employed for presentations at lectures or meetings.

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● Computer Output Microfilm (COM): COM machines were used to make film images of
each page from print-image output from the computer, whether it was online, on tape, or on a
disc.
● Speakers: Each and every type of speaker is regarded as an output device since it produces
sound.
● Head Phone/Earphone: lthough we regularly use headphones and earphones, they differ from
speakers in that they are designed for individual usage.
● Microfiche: A microfiche is a miniature card composed of clear film that is used to store
printed information. A microfiche reader machine's lens magnifies the card, making it easier to
read.
● Video Card: Video cards are hardware components that enable the display of visual output to
the user on a monitor. This hardware aids in information return from the user to the computer,
fostering interaction.
● CD and DVD media: The standard output devices for computers are CD and DVD media.
These output devices' advantage is their capacity for long-term data storage. As CD and DVD
hardware devices are readable, users can share information by writing data there.
● Actuator: An actuator is an output device that generates actual movements in a system that is
controlled by a computer. Moreover, a motor known as an actuator is frequently employed in
robotics businesses and construction firms that handle metal and gear movements.
● Braille Reader: Blind persons can read text with the aid of a braille reader. The computer sent
Braille-formatted text to the device. As a result, the text is readable

Both Input–Output Devices

● Touch Screen: A touch screen is a gadget that may be used for both input and output. You use
your finger to touch the option you have selected (input) after viewing the options accessible to you
on the screen (output).
● Modems: Modulation and demodulation are two words that are used to form the word "modem."
As a result of sending and receiving data across telephone lines, it functions as an input and output
device.
● Network cards: Network cards are a type of device used for computer-to-computer
communication. It receives the input from one and sends the output to the other.
● Audio Cards / Sound Card: A computer's internal expansion card known as an audio card or
sound card allows for the input and output of audio signals under the direction of computer
programmes.
● Headsets: Because they have a microphone and speakers, they can conduct input and output tasks
concurrently. Both the speaker and the microphone are input devices.
● Facsimile (FAX): It has a scanner for document scanning and a printer for document printing.

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Important ICT and higher education

terminologies
• Ministry of skill development signed an agreement with to carry out a nationwide Train-the-
trainer in basic artificial intelligence skills programme.
Answer: IBM

• Which ministry launched the ‘digital payment Abhiyan’ in collaboration with Data security
council of India & Google India to increase awareness about the digital transactions in India?
Answer: MeitY (7 languages)

• Which company issued a statement of intent with MeitY, for rolling out ‘build for digital India
programme’?
Answer: Google

• The Global Internet body ICANN (Internet corporation for Assigned names and Numbers) has
partnered with which of the following to develop identifier technology?
Answer: NASSCOM

• IIT Madras has designed India’s 1st indigenous microprocessor. It is aimed at developing
industrial-grade microprocessors & other components of microprocessor ecosystem. What is its
name?
Answer: Shakti

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• What is the name of APIs that allows govt., start-ups & developers to utilise unique digital
Infrastructure to solve hard problems towards paperless & cashless service delivery?
Answer: India Stack

• An initiative to make 6 crore persons in rural areas, States/UTs, digitally literate, by covering at
least one member from every eligible household?
Answer: Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan’ (PMGDISHA)

• World’s Smallest computer

Answer: M3 (Michigan Micro moto, 1 m^3)

• What is digiVARRTA?

Answer: Vehicle to accelerate, access and reach to transformational action (digital payment)

TERMINOLOGIES IN COMPUTERS

1. Domain Name: It is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain Names always
have two or more parts, separated by dots. The part on the left is the most specific, the part
on the right is the most general.

.org- Organisation
.net -Network
.com- Commercial
.edu- Education
.gov -Government
.mil- Military

2. Computer Memory:

Blue ray disk : Blu-ray (not Blue-ray) also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a new
optical disc format which is jointly developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), The
format offers more than 5 times the storage capacity of older DVDs and can hold up to 25GB

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on a single-layer disc & 50GB on a dual layer disc.

3. Software terms:
HTTP - Hyper Text Transmission Protocol
IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol
SSL - Secure Socket Layer
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SGML - Standard Generalized Mark-up Language
HTML - Hyper Text mark-up language
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ACPI - Advanced Configuration Power Interface
ANSI - American National Standard Institute
CGA - Computer Graphic Application
CSS - Cascading Style Sheets
DOS - Disc Operating System
IDE - Integrated Development Environment
MIPS - Million instructions per second
UPS - Uninterrupted Power supply.
ASR - Assisted speech recognition

BIOS - Basic Input output System

NLP - Natural Language processing
PDF - Portable Document Format
OCR - Optical Character recognition
CERN - Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Nuclear research centre)
WAP - Wireless application protocol
VR - Virtual reality
IoT - Internet of Things
VLE - Virtual learning environment

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4. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Operating System: Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediary between a

computer user & computer hardware. The operating system is an important component of the
system software in a computer system. Application programs generally requires an operating
system to perform.
• Stand- Alone Operating System: A standalone operating system is a complete operating
system that works on a desktop computer, or notebook computer. Client operating systems
can work with/without a network.
• An embedded system: It is a computer that is part of a dedicated kind of machine.
Embedded systems examples include computers in cars, traffic lights, digital televisions,
ATMs, airplane controls etc.

• Mobile Operating System: A mobile operating system, also known as mobile OS, is an
operating system that is dedicatedly designed to run on mobile phones, smartphones,
PDAs, tablet computers etc.

• Buffering
It is the pre-loading of data into a reserved area of memory, which is also called as buffer. With
respect to streaming audio or video from the Internet, buffering refers to downloading some
amount of data before starting to play the music, movie etc.

• Spooling
Spooling is the overlapping of low speed operations with normal processing. Spooling originated
with mainframes in order to optimise slow operations.

5. NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES
• TCP: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to establish and
maintain a network conversation via which application programs can exchange data. TCP
works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets of data to
each other.
• IP Address: Sometimes called a “dotted quad”. A unique number consists of four parts separated
by the dots, e.g. [Link] is an IP number of one of the servers. Every machine that is on the
Internet has a unique IP number - if a machine does not have an IP number, it is not really on the
Internet.

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• MAC Address: This is the address of the device on physical layer, called as media access control.
It is usually stored on the network adapter card and is unique.
• VoIP: A Voice over IP call, or VoIP call, utilizes packet-switched Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP)/Internet telephony as different to the circuit-switched telephony used by the earlier
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

• Cloud computing: It is used to describe different services over a network by a collection of

servers. These computers enable the visiting users to have access to much faster computers or
servers, which are able to access programs/services from anywhere with Internet access often
without having to install other software.
• NIC: Network Interface card, also known as an Ethernet card and network adapter and is an
expansion card that enables a computer to connect to a network such as a home network or the
Internet using an Ethernet cable with a RJ-45 connector.
• Proxy server-: A proxy is a computer server/software program that is part of the gateway server
which separates a local network from outside networks.
• Web page-: A web page or webpage is a document mostly written in Hyper Text Mark-up
Language (HTML) is accessible through the Internet/other network using a web browser.
• Firewall-: A firewall is a software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to
a computer/local network by blocking the different network ports. Firewalls are a great step for
helping prevent un-authorized access to a company or home network.

• Gateway: A gateway is an interconnecting device which joins two different network together
they are also known as protocol converters.

• Network Router: It is a network device with interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy
packets from one network to another.
• Network Switch: Network Switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers
together within one local area network (LAN).
• Network Hub: A hub is a small Network Device. A hub joins multiple computers (or other
network devices) together to form a single network segment. On this network segment, all
computers can communicate directly with each other.
• Network Repeater: Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals.
With physical media like Ethernet, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the
quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the
distance over which data/information can travel safely.

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• Channel Capacity: It is the speed of transmission of information. Often refer as data rate in
digital terminology.
• Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
• Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information due of noise.
• Encoding: The number of levels used for signalling.
• Meta Search Engines: They automatically enters search queries into a number of other search
engines and return the results

CYBERSPACE:

A global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of
information technology infrastructures, including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer
systems, and embedded processors and controllers.“

Evolution of Cyber attacks in India

Union Bank of India Heist
(July 2016)
Through a phishing email sent to an employee, hackers accessed the credentials to execute a fund
transfer, swindling Union Bank of India of $171 million, Prompt action helped the bank recover almost
the entire money

WANNACRY RANSOMWARE(May 2017)

The global ransomware attack took its toll in India with several thousands computers getting locked
down by ransom-seeking hackers. The attack also impacted systems belonging to the Andhra Pradesh
police and state utilities of West Bengal

DATA THEFT AT ZOMATO(May 2017)

The food tech company discovered that data, including names, email IDs and hashed passwords, of 17
million users was stolen by an ‘ethical’ hacker-who demanded the company must acknowledge its
security vulnerabilities-and put up for sale on the Dark Web
PETYA RANSOMWARE(June 2017)
The ransomware attack made its impact felt across the world, including India, where container handling
functions at a terminal operated by the Danish firm AP Moller-Maersk at Mumbai’s Jawaharlal Nehru
Port Trust got affected

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Cyber Attacks Terminologies

Cyber attack
A cyberattack is deliberate exploitation of computer systems, technology-dependent enterprises and
networks. Cyberattacks use malicious code to alter computer code, logic or data, resulting in disruptive
consequences that can compromise data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and identity
theft.
Cyberattack is also known as a computer network attack (CNA).

Common types of cyber attacks

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1. Malware
Malware is a term used to describe malicious software, including spyware, ransomware, viruses, and
worms. Malware breaches a network through a vulnerability, typically when a user clicks a dangerous
link or email attachment that then installs risky software. Once inside the system, malware can do the
following:

Blocks access to key components of the network (ransomware)

Installs malware or additional harmful software
Covertly obtains information by transmitting data from the hard drive (spyware)
Disrupts certain components and renders the system inoperable

2. Phishing
Phishing is the practice of sending fraudulent communications that appear to come from a reputable
source, usually through email. The goal is to steal sensitive data like credit card and login information or
to install malware on the victim’s machine. Phishing is an increasingly common cyberthreat.

3. Man-in-the-middle attack

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Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, also known as eavesdropping attacks, occur when attackers insert
themselves into a two-party transaction. Once the attackers interrupt the traffic, they can filter and steal
data.

Two common points of entry for MitM attacks:

1. On unsecure public Wi-Fi, attackers can insert themselves between a visitor’s device and the network.
Without knowing, the visitor passes all information through the attacker.

2. Once malware has breached a device, an attacker can install software to process all of the victim’s
information.

4. Denial-of-service attack
A denial-of-service attack floods systems, servers, or networks with traffic to exhaust resources and
bandwidth. As a result, the system is unable to fulfill legitimate requests. Attackers can also use multiple
compromised devices to launch this attack. This is known as a distributed-denial-of-service (DDoS)
attack.

5. SQL injection
A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection occurs when an attacker inserts malicious code into a
server that uses SQL and forces the server to reveal information it normally would not. An attacker could
carry out a SQL injection simply by submitting malicious code into a vulnerable website search box.

6. Zero-day exploit

A zero-day exploit hits after a network vulnerability is announced but before a patch or solution is
implemented. Attackers target the disclosed vulnerability during this window of time. Zero-day
vulnerability threat detection requires constant awareness.

7. DNS Tunneling
DNS tunneling utilizes the DNS protocol to communicate non-DNS traffic over port 53. It sends HTTP and
other protocol traffic over DNS. There are various, legitimate reasons to utilize DNS tunneling. However,
there are also malicious reasons to use DNS Tunneling VPN services. They can be used to disguise

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outbound traffic as DNS, concealing data that is typically shared through an internet connection. For
malicious use, DNS requests are manipulated to exfiltrate data from a compromised system to the
attacker’s infrastructure. It can also be used for command and control callbacks from the attacker’s
infrastructure to a compromised system.

INITIATIVES BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA:

• USB Pratirodh”, was also launched by the government which, Union IT and Electronics Minister
Ravi Shankar Prasad states is aimed at controlling the unauthorised usage of removable USB
storage media devices like pen drives, external hard drives and USB supported mass storage
devices.

• An app called “Samvid” was also introduced. It is a desktop based Application Whitelisting
solution for Windows operating system. It allows only preapproved set of executable files for
execution and protects desktops from suspicious applications from running.

• M-Kavach, a device for security of Android mobile devices has also been developed.[7] It
provides protection against issues related to malware that steal personal data & credentials,
misuse Wi-Fi and Bluetooth resources, lost or stolen mobile device, spam SMSs, premium-rate
SMS and unwanted / unsolicited incoming calls.

• Browser JSGuard, is a tool which serves as a browser extension which detects and defends
malicious HTML & JavaScript attacks made through the web browser based on Heuristics. It
alerts the user when he visits malicious web pages and provides a detailed analysis threat
report of the web page.

6. ICT in Higher Education

• NPTEL -National Programme on Technology Exchange Learning

• GRID GARUD – First National grid bringing together academic, scientific and research
communities.
• NKN – National Knowledge network

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• NDL – National Digital Library

• NAD – National Academic Depository
• e-Shodh Sindhu – Collection of international Journals and e-books
• e- Vidwan – An expert database and National Researcher’s Network
• e- Kalpa – Digital learning environment for design in India.
• e- Yantra – Initiative to include Robotics into engineering
• BHIM - Bharat Interface for Money
• NPCI - National Payment cooperation of India
• SWAYAM – Study webs of active learning for young aspiring minds
• NMEICT - National mission on Education through information and communication

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Number Systems
Computers are arbitrary they cannot understand human language. Numbers are used to
communicate with computers. Representing the numbers in different ways is called Number
System. In this writing system, we use different symbols and notations to represent numbers.
For example, in a computer 0 is OFF and 1 is ON. Four types of Number Systems are present,
and they are:
1. Binary
2. Decimal
3. Octal
4. Hexadecimal
1. Binary Number System:
In Binary Number System we represent the numbers by using only two symbols i.e. 0 or 1. As
mentioned before, 0 can be OFF and 1 can be ON.
Base value indicates the number of ways we can represent the numbers in that number system.
Each number system has different base value. The base value of binary numbers is 2 because
there are only two symbols. Outcomes with two possibilities use the binary number
system. Like as example we can use the electric bulb that can be switched on or off.
All latest computers and computer-based devices have binary system applied internally. It is
because of its direct implementation in electronic circuits using logic gates. Bit refers to every
digit that is produced.
Arithmetic Operations using Binary Systems:
I. Addition:
Adding two numbers will give a binary number only.

0+0 =0

0+1 =1

1+0 =1

1 + 1 = 0 (with a carry-over of 1)

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For example:
(a) Addition of 10101 and 11011

1111 (Carry overs)

10101

11011

110000
(b) Addition of 111.0111 and 10011.001
111 11 (Carry overs)
1 1 1.0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1.0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0.1 0 0 1
II. Subtraction:
The rules for subtraction will be
0-0 =0
1-0 =1
1-1 =0
0-1 = 1 (with a borrow of 1)

Examples:
(a) Subtract 101 from 1001

1 (Borrow)

1001

101

100

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(b) Subtract 1010101.10 from 1111011.11

1 (Borrow)

1 1 1 1 0 1 1.1 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1.1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0.0 1

III. Multiplication:

The multiplication of binary numbers is carried out by multiplying the multiplicand by one bit
of the multiplier at a time. Also, the result of the partial product for each bit is placed under the
corresponding multiplier bit. Finally the partial products are added to get the complete
product.

For example:

(a) Multiply 10111 by 1101

10111

1101

10111 ← First partial product

10111

1110011 ← First intermediate sum

10111

100101011 ← Final sum.

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IV. Division:
In Binary numbers, the operation is simple. The quotient can have either 1 or 0 depending
upon the divisor.
For example:
(a) Divide 11001 with 101
101) 11001 (101
101
101
101

Hence the quotient is 101

2. Decimal Number System:

Decimal number system has 10 digits (0 to 9). These represent the numbers with a base value
of 10. Decimal number system is used when there are 10 possible outputs of a system. It is
widely used in computer applications.
In the decimal system each digit has a position and every digit is ten times more significant
than the previous digit.
For example: 25 is a decimal number, and then 2 are ten times more than 5.
Examples:
(92) = 9×10 +2×10
10
1 0

(200) = 2×10 +0x10 +0x10

10
2 1 0

The decimal numbers which have digits present on the right side of the decimal (.) shows each
digit with decreasing power of 10.
Examples:
(30.2) = 30×10 +0x10 +2×10
10
1 0 -1

(212.367) = 2×10 +1×10 +2×10 +3×10 +6×10 +7×10

10
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

The Arithmetic Operations are conducted just like in Binary Number System.

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3. Octal Number Systems:

Octal Number System’s symbol represents numbers with a base of eight. It uses the number
from 0 to 7. The octal Number system is used in computer application. Apart from this it is
also used in the aviation sector to use the number in the form of code. Transponder in the
aircraft transmits a code which is expressed as four octal digit numbers. These codes are
interrogated by ground radar.
Various programming languages use octal numbers to do coding or to write the encrypted
language, which is only understood by the computing machine.
When we solve an octal number, each place is a power of eight.

• 124 = 1 × 8 + 2 × 8 + 4 × 8
8
2 1 0

I. Addition:
It takes place like in Binary and Decimal Number Systems.
(i) (162) + (537)
8 8

11 <---- carry

162

537
721
Therefore, sum = 721 8

II. Subtraction:
This method follows the rules of decimal numbers.
III. Multiplication:
If the sum of two numbers exceeds 7 you need to evaluate the octal value equivalent to it.
Divide the number by 8 and find its equivalent octal value. The quotient will be taken as carry
and the remainder will be the sum.
For example
5) *6) = 30)10
8 8

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Octal multiplication table:

X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16
3 0 3 6 11 14 17 22 25

4 0 4 10 14 20 24 30 34

5 0 5 12 17 24 31 36 43

6 0 6 14 22 30 36 44 52
7 0 7 16 25 34 43 52 61

IV. Division:
The usual principles of division remain the same. And we use the table of octal numbers. For
example:
53.27

7 ⟌457.43
43
27
25
24
16
63
61
2

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4. Hexadecimal Number System:

The hexadecimal numeral system is made up of 16 symbols. The standard numeral system is
called decimal (base 10) and uses ten symbols. This uses 6 extra symbols with the decimal
numbers. The 6 symbols are obtained from the English Alphabet, that is A, B, C, D, E and F.
Letters represents numbers from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
I. Addition:
This contains a table.

For example:
Evaluate: (B A 3) + (5 D E)
16 16

From the table,

3 + E = 11 1 1 carry
A + D = 17 BA3
17 + 1 (carry) = 18
5DE
B + 5 = 10
1181
10 + 1 (carry) = 11

Hence the required sum is 1181 in hexadecimal.

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II. Subtraction:
This subtraction uses complement method. It is also similar to decimal. The only variation is
in borrowed number from a group of 16 Computers do it much efficiently for us. For
10.

example:

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III. Multiplication:
Multiplication also uses a table.

Multiply (B84F) and (A53)

16 16

Solution:
7 5 3 9
3 2 1 4
2 1 2
B 8 4 F
× A 5 3

2 2 8 E D
3 9 9 8 B 0
7 3 3 1 6 0 0

7 6 E D 7 9 D

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IV. Division:
Division is same as the division performed in other number systems.

Example:

AE887) ÷3A)
16 16

First make multiplication table for 3A and its multiples

3A*1 3A

3A*2 74

3A*3 AE
3A*4 E8

3A*5 122

3A*6 15C

3A*7 196

3A*8 1D0

3A*9 20A

3A*A 244

3A*B 27E

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Number systems conversion table

I. Binary to Decimal

For binary number with n digits:

d ... d d d d
n-1 3 2 1 0

The decimal number is equal to the sum of binary digits (d ) times their power of 2 (2 ):
n
n

Decimal = d ×2 + d ×2 + d ×2 + ...
0
0
1
1
2
2

II. Binary to Octal

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III. Binary to Hexadecimal

IV. Decimal to Binary

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V. Decimal to Octal

VI. Decimal to Hexadecimal:

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VII. Octal to Binary:

VIII. Octal to Decimal:

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IX. Octal to Hexadecimal

X. Hexadecimal to Binary:

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XI. Hexadecimal to decimal:

Sum of powers method:
Convert from least significant to most significant digit
3107 16 = (7x16 ) + (0x16 ) + (1x16 ) + (3x16 )
0 1 2 3

= 7 + 0 + 256 + 12288
= 12551 10

Multiply and add method:

Convert from most significant to least significant digit
3107 16

(3X16) + 1 = 48 + 1 = 49

(49X16) + 0 = 784 + 0 = 784

(784X16) + 7 = 12544 + 7 = 12551 10

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Memory management and Cyberspace

What is Memory?

We will understand the concept of memory first before going for further details. Computer
memory is a physical device, where we can store the information temporarily or permanently,
namely- RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read-Only Memory), CD, DVD, HDD, and Flash
Memory. Operating systems, software use it, and hardware also utilizes to integrate the
circuits.

There are two types of memory- Primary Memory and Secondary Memory. In the following
table, you can see the difference in both the memory devices:

Primary Memory

RAM Static RAM

Dynamic RAM

ROM PROM

EPROM

EEPROM

Secondary Memory

Magnetic Storage Floppy Disk

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Hard Disk

Optical Storage CD (Compact Disk)

DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disk)

BD (Blue-Ray Disk)

Solid-State Memory Pendrive

Primary Memory
It is the memory that is accessed by the CPU (Central Processing Unit) straightforwardly. It
permits a processor to get to running execution applications and administrations that are
incidentally put away in a particular memory area. Primary memory is also known as primary
storage or main memory. It is Volatile, and the storage capacity is limited in Primary Memory.

ROM:
• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it.
• It is a non-volatile memory. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture.
• A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap.
• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

There are mainly four types of ROM available:

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• MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked
ROMs which are inexpensive.
• PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be
modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired
contents using a PROM program
• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM can be erased
by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).

RAM:
• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

• Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

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• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there
is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used
with computers.
• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the terms of storage capacity.

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) :

• In the SRAM,data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of
the continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to remember the data being
stored. SRAM is called static as no change or action i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the
data intact.
• It is used in cache memories.
Advantage: Low power consumption and faster access speeds.
Disadvantage: Less memory capacities and high costs of manufacturing.

• 2. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) :

Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually discharge
energy, no energy means the data has been lost.
• The power has to be periodically refreshed in order to function. DRAM is called dynamic
as constant change or action i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact. It is used
to implement main memory.

Advantage: Low costs of manufacturing and greater memory capacities.

Disadvantage: Slow access speed and high power consumption.

SRAM DRAM
Transistors are used to
store information in Capacitors are used to
SRAM. store data in DRAM.

Capacitors are not used To store information for a longer time,

hence no refreshing is contents of the capacitor needs to be
2. required. refreshed periodically.

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SRAM is faster as
3. compared to DRAM. DRAM provides slow access speeds.

4. These are expensive. These are cheaper.

SRAMs are low density

5. devices. DRAMs are high density devices.

These are used in cache

6. memories. These are used in main memories.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is termed as external memory and refers to the multiple storage media on
which a PC can store information and projects. It can be fixed or removable. Hard Disk comes
under the Fixed Storage Media, which is an Internal Storage Medium and set inside the PC. It is
versatile and can take outside the computer.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) will not obtain the instant result to the Secondary Memory.
Alternatively, before sending it to the Processing Unit, the accessed data will be loaded first
into the RAM (Random Access Memory).

Secondary Storage Media

Here, we are providing complete detail information, which comes under the Secondary Storage
Media.
Magnetic Storage Media
The devices that come under the magnetic storage media are- Hard Disks, Floppy Disks, and
Magnetic Tapes. There are the devices that are coated with the magnetic layer, magnetized in
anti-clockwise, and clockwise directions. The head reads the information stored at a particular
area in binary 1s and 0s at reading while disks move or rotate.
• Floppy Disk- It is flexibly coated by the magnet, which is packaged inside the protective
plastic envelope. It is the oldest device with a memory of 1.44 MB now, and there is no
use of the Floppy Disk because of the less memory.
• Hard Disk- It is consists of more than one circular device coated with magnetic material,
which is known as Platters. The inner surfaced of the Disk can store the data except for
the bottom and the top. The data will record by rotating magnetic reads/ write heads of
the disks.
Components of the Hard Disk
1. There are several disk Platters mostly in the basic types of Hard Disk, which placed
around the spindle in a sealed chamber. The chamber has the motors, and reads/writes
head.
2. Data will store in each Disk of concentric circles called Tracks
3. The tracks divided into further circles.

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4. The internal hard drives are not very much portable comparatively from the external
one.
5. Data in the harddisk can store up to numerous terabytes.

Optical Storage Media

CD and DVDs come under the Optical Storage Media, which stored as a spiral pattern of pits
and ridges signifying binary 0 and 1. These are not magnet coated devices like a floppy disk and
hard disk. In these devices, the information is stored and read using a laser beam.
• Compact Disk (CD)- The Compact Device (CD) which uses optical rays, lasers, to read
and write data. It is a circular disk. It is a portable device as we can eject the drive and
remove it from the PC and carry it with us. The difference in the type of CDs mentioned
below-
CD-ROM CD-R CD-RW

Expanded Form of CD-ROM is CD-R stands for Compact Full-Form of CD-RW is

Compact Disk- Read-Only Memory. Disk- Recordable. Compact Disk-
Rewritable.

In this Disk, once the data are written In this Disk, the data can be It can be write and
in the disk, it cannot be changed. recorded only once. read multiple times.

These are usually used for text, audio, Once the data can be written To edit the CD-R, it
and video for games, encyclopedia, or recorded, it cannot be must be installed on
and application software. erased or modified. the computer.

1. Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD)- The formation of the DVD is circular like the
Compact Device and has similar technology. It is a significant progression in portable
storage technology. In DVD, we can hold 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data, which is 15 times
more from the storage of CD. Usually, it is used to store rich multimedia portfolios that
need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three categories- read-only, recordable
and rewritable.
2. Blue Ray Disk (BD)- It is used to store the High Definition (HD) videos or other
multimedia files. The laser wavelength is shorter than the CD/DVD as a comparison. Blue
Ray Disk can store up to 128 GB data max, 27 GB data on a single layer disk, and 54 GB
and more data on a dual-layer disc.

Solid-State Memory
It will be work based on the electronic circuits, not like the other devices like- a reel of tape,
magnet coating, or spinning disks, etc. The Solid-State Storages devices use a special kind of
memory to store data called Flash Memory. Examples of Flash Memory Devices are- Digital
Cameras, Pen Drives, or USB Flash Drives.
Pen Drives-
Pendrives are also known as Thumb Drives or Flash Drives, which are added as an emerged
portable storage media recently. The memory in the Pendrive accompanied by the USB

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connector, which enables it to connect with any device which has the USB portal. It has a
capacity greater than the CD but smaller than the Hard Disk.

Advantages of Family
1. Transfer File- When the Pendrive will connect to any of the USB port either in the
computer or any other device, we can use it to transfer the files, pictures, documents,
videos. Also, the selected data can be transferred between any workstation and a
Pendrive.
2. Portability- Pendrive is lightweight and portable to carry, which makes data
transportation easier and convenient.
3. Backup Storage- Nowadays, there is the feature of having password encryption,
important information related to family, medical reports, pictures, videos, etc. can be
stored as a backup.
4. Data Transportation- The advantage of transferring the data is more useful for the
Professionals/Students by easily transport large files, documents, video/audio lectures,
etc. on a Pendrive and gain access to them from anywhere. The technicians who have
the independent PC’s can store their work-related useful tools, various programs, and
files on a high speed 64 GB pen drive. The data can quickly move from one site to
another with all their valuable accommodations in a small device.

CACHE
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and synchronizing
with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but
economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a
buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory. The
cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used
main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which store
instructions and data.

Levels of memory:

Level 1 or Register –

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It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are immediately stored in CPU.
Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter, address register etc.

Level 2 or Cache memory –

It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is temporarily stored for faster
access.

Level 3 or Main Memory –

It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and once power is off data
no longer stays in this memory.

Level 4 or Secondary Memory –

It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data stays permanently in this
memory.

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ICT and E-Governance

ICT helps simplify tasks, make Government processes more efficient, and deliver government services
more effectively. It also can improve citizen participation in governance.

E-Governance in India has steadily evolved from computerizing Government Departments to initiatives
promoting citizen centricity, service orientation, and transparency.

The concepts in e-governance include,

● Management Information System (MIS) – refers to processing information through computers

and other intelligent devices to manage and support managerial decisions within an
organization.
● Decision Support System (DSS) – for development, planning, and responsive administration in
governments, which led to the genesis of the present-day "e-Government" concept
● Bridging the Digital Divide
● Social and Financial Inclusion through ICT
● Reaching- the-Unreached

Government Schemes

Digital India: To transform the entire ecosystem of public services through information technology, the
Government of India has launched the Digital India program to transforming the nation into a digitally
empowered society and knowledge economy. ICTs can positively contribute to economic growth,
employment, and productivity.

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The Digital India program is centered on three key vision areas:

● Digital Infrastructure
● Governance & Services
● Digital Empowerment of Citizens

Pro-Active Governance and Timely Implementation (PRAGATI) platform:

● It is a multi-purpose and multi-modal platform.

● The platform addresses the common person's grievances and monitors and reviews essential
programs and projects of the Government of India and those flagged by State Governments.
● The PRAGATI platform uniquely bundles the three latest technologies:
○ Digital data management
○ Video-conferencing
○ Geospatial technology.
● It is a three-tier system (PMO, Union Government Secretaries, and Chief Secretaries of the
States).

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● Prime Minister will hold a monthly program to interact with the Government of India
Secretaries and Chief Secretaries through Video-conferencing enabled by data and geo-
informatics visuals.
● The PMO team designed the system in-house with the help of the National Informatics Center
(NIC).

National Informatics Centre (NIC):

It has emerged as a “prime builder” of e-Government / e-Governance applications up to the grassroots

level. The activities are

● Setting up of ICT Infrastructure

● Implementation of National and State Level e-Governance Projects
● Products and Services
● Consultancy with the government departments
● Research and Development
● Capacity Building

Note- NIC has taken up various initiatives like Government eProcurement System(GePNIC), Office
Management Software (eOffice), Hospital Management System (eHospital), Government Financial
Accounting Information System (eLekha), etc. NIC is supporting a majority of the mission mode e-
Governance projects.

The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP)

NeGP was approved in 2006 to take a holistic view of e-governance initiatives nationwide, integrating
them into a collective vision. As a result,

● Massive countrywide infrastructure reaching down to the remotest of villages is being

developed, and
● Large-scale digitization of records is taking place.

NeGP comprises 31 mission mode projects (MMPs), categorized into state, central, or integrated
projects. Each state government can also define five MMPs specific to its individual needs.

● Most of these projects have been made operational and have started providing services.
However, e-governance as a whole has not been able to make the desired impact.
● The availability of electronic government services to citizens was still low.
● Some limitations were the lack of needs analysis, business process re-engineering,
interoperability across MMPs, and coping with new technology trends (such as mobile
interfaces and cloud computing).
● This has led to adoption of a new plan e-Kranti or NeGP 2.0.

e-Kranti / NeGP 2.0

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e-Kranti was approved in 2015 with the vision of "Transforming e-Governance for Transforming
Governance E-Kranti," a key vertical for the Digital India program. The perspective and techniques of
e-Kranti are fully aligned with the Digital India program.

● There are 44 Mission Mode Projects under the e-Kranti program.

● A mission mode project (MMP) is an individual project within the National e-Governance Plan
(NeGP) whose key focus is on an aspect of electronic governance, such as banking, land
records, commercial taxes, etc.
● The projects have clearly defined objectives, scopes, implementation timelines, milestones,
measurable outcomes, and service levels.

MCA21 –

● An e-Governance initiative of the Ministry of Company Affairs (MCA), Government of India,

enabling easy and secure access to the MCA services for the corporations, enterprises,
professionals, and citizens of India.

e-Government Procurement (e-GP) Mission Mode Projects –

It is designed to create a national initiative to implement procurement reforms through the use of
electronic Government procurement to make public procurement in all sectors more transparent and
efficient

Computerization of the PDS -

It covers critical functional areas such as supply chain management, including allocation and
utilization reporting, storage and movement of food grains, grievance redressal, transparency portal,
digitization of beneficiary database, Fair Price Shop automation, etc.

E-Districts-

● These are the de facto front-end of Government where most Government-to-Consumer or G2C
interaction occurs.
● To improve this experience and enhance the efficiencies of the various Departments at the
district level, the e-District project was envisaged to provide integrated and seamless delivery
of citizen services by district administration through workflow automation, backend
computerization, and data digitization across participating departments.

eCourts Mission Mode Project:

● The eCourts Mission Mode Project is a nationwide project monitored and funded by the
Department of Justice, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India for the District
Courts across the country.

GI Cloud initiative 'MeghRaj':

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● To utilize and harness the benefits of Cloud Computing, the Government of India has
embarked upon an ambitious "GI Cloud" named 'MeghRaj .'
● This initiative is to implement various components, including governance mechanisms, to
ensure the proliferation of the Cloud in the Government.

Sevottam:

● Sevottam is an assessment-improvement model developed to improve the country's public

service delivery quality.
● The word "Sevottam" is a combination of two Hindi words: Seva (Service) and Uttam
(Excellent).
● It means "Service Excellence," emphasizing "Service ."It symbolizes the change in mindset
within the Government, from administration and control to service and enablement.

Digital Payments

National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI):

● It is an umbrella organization for all retail payment systems in India.

● It was set up with the guidance and support of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Indian
Banks' Association (IBA). NPCI was incorporated in December 2008.

Services Offered
Switching of inter-bank ATM transactions

● Cheque Clearing
● Immediate Payments Service (24x7x365)
● Automated Clearing House
● Electronic Benefit Transfer
● Domestic card payment network named RuPay

High-value Payments
● Systemically important payment systems (SIPS) are payment systems with the characteristic
that a failure of these systems could endanger the operation of the whole economy.
● In the large-value payment systems, RBI has implemented the Real Time Gross Settlement
(RTGS) System, the Securities Settlement System (SSS), Electronic Clearing Services, etc.
Real Time Gross Settlement System (RTGS)

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● Real Time Gross Settlement is a funds transfer mechanism where money transfers from one
Bank to another on a 'real time' and 'gross' basis.
● This is the fastest possible money transfer system through the banking channel.
● Settlement in ‘real time’ means payment transaction is not subjected to any waiting period.
● Gross settlement' means the transaction is settled one-to-one without bunching with any other
transaction.

Securities Settlement System (SSS)

● SSS provides final settlement for government securities transactions that are settled in the
books of the RBI.
● With the implementation of the Core Banking Solution (CBS) in the RBI, the securities
settlement system has been migrated to the CBS platform.
● SSS has facilitated the seamless transfer of funds and securities for liquidity management.

Electronic Clearing Service (ECS)

● ECS is an electronic mode of payment/receipt for transactions that are repetitive and periodic.
● Institutions use ECS for making bulk payments of amounts towards the distribution of
dividends, interest, salary, pension, etc., or for bulk collection of amounts towards
telephone/electricity/ water dues, cess/tax collections, loan installment repayments, periodic
investments in mutual funds, insurance premium, etc.
● ECS facilitates a bulk transfer of monies from one bank account to many bank accounts or vice
versa.
● ECS includes transactions processed under the National Automated Clearing House
(NACH) operated by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).

Retail Payments
The payment and settlement system comprises various arrangements to systematically, efficiently, and
securely transfer money/currency, cheques, demand drafts, and money through electronic channels.
The commonly used systems for small-scale payments are:
● Paper-Based Payment Systems – Cheques, Drafts, etc.
● Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs)
● Electronic Payment Systems – Gross Settlement System and Net Settlement Systems.
● Immediate Payment Service (IMPS)
● Credit cards and Debit cards
● Mobile Banking System
● Point of Sale (POS) Terminals

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) have become an important delivery channel for banking
transactions in India, particularly for cash withdrawal and account balance inquiries.

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There are three different types of ATMs according to their label, which is as follows:
● Bank's ATMs:
○ These are owned and operated by the owner bank and carry the Bank's logo.
● Brown Label ATMs (BLAs):
○ These ATMs are not owned by the sponsor banks. They are held and operated by third
parties (non-banking companies). They carry the logo of the Bank outsourcing the
service.
● White Label ATMs (WLAs):
○ These ATMs are owned and operated by a non-banking company and serve the
customers of all banks.
○ These ATMs carry the logo of the company owning them.
○ The role of the concerned banks is limited to providing only the account information
and assisting in backend money transfers.
Electronic Payment Systems
The two methods available are – Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) and National Electronic Funds
Transfer (NEFT)
NEFT

● It is one of the most prominent electronic funds transfer systems in India.

● NEFT system has no minimum or maximum fund transfer limit.
● Persons with no bank accounts can also use this facility.
● The transactions are processed and settled in batches, hence are not real-time.
● Also, the transactions can be done only during working hours.
● Most interbank mobile fund transfer transactions are channelized through the NEFT
mechanism.

Immediate Payment Service (IMPS)

NPCI conducted a pilot study on the mobile payment system with the banks like SBI, BOI, UBI, and
ICICI in August 2010. The Immediate Payment Service (IMPS) public launch happened on 22nd
November 2010.

● IMPS offers an instant, 24X7, interbank electronic fund transfer service through mobile
phones.
● It can be done through mobile, internet, and ATM.
● It is safe and economical, both from financial and nonfinancial perspectives.
● For IMPS transactions, either the IFSC code of the Bank or the bank-generated MMID code is
required.
● NPCI provides this facility through its existing NFS switch.

The Unified Payments Interface (UPI)

● The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is a new system developed by the NPCI and the RBI
to aid the instant transfer of money using a cashless system.

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● Through this platform, the person can transfer money directly from his account to another
person's account, provided both are connected to the UPI.
● One requires a smartphone and a banking app to send and receive money instantly or to pay a
merchant for a retail purchase.
● In the long run, UPI will likely replace the current NEFT, RTGS, and IMPS systems as they
exist today.

UPI, launched in August 2016, currently has over 35 member banks. To use this service, customers
must have a UPI-enabled app, a bank account, and a registered mobile number.
Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM)

● The fee currently charged by private card companies such as "MasterCard" and "Visa” will be
eliminated when the government launches the android mobile application.

Other UPI payments apps

● There are over 30 such apps available in the country; Google's Tez is the latest addition.
● Tez relies on just the phone number to transfer money. So even if you don't know the
recipient's UPI account details, you can send money by just entering a Tez user’s phone
number.
● Unlike Paytm, it isn’t a digital wallet, so you won’t be able to store money in Tez.

Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS)

The intent behind the setup of BBPS is to pay bills of any type from anywhere with the usage of an
interoperable bill payment network across the nation. National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI)
launched the Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS) as an experimental trial. The pilot brought the
billers on one side and the bank customers on the other through their service providers to the central
platform.

● The Bharat Bill Payment Operating Units (BBPOUs) are the service providers from both the
biller and customer sides.
● Bharat Bill Payment Central Unit (BBP
● CU) is a central platform provided by NCPI.
● The NPCI organizes the clearing and settlement of transactions processed through the central
unit.
● The RBI finally authorized NPCI to administer the central unit as a strategic business unit
(SBU).
● NPCI will be able to set up business standards, rules, and procedures for all participants'
technical and business requirements.
● NPCI, as the BBPCU, will also undertake clearing and settlement activities related to
transactions routed through BBPS
● For now, only five categories of utility bills are permitted through NPCI — power, telephone,
DTH, water, and gas.

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Aadhar Pay

● The Aadhaar Pay app lets consumers pay without any physical payment instrument.
● It runs on the Android platform and has to be installed by merchants.
● The merchant's mobile phone must be linked to an Aadhaar biometric reader.
● To make a payment, the consumer has to enter her Aadhaar number. The fingerprint is the
password for the transaction.
● To use this service, the customer must link her bank account to her Aadhaar.

Bharat QR Code

● A QR code is a machine-readable matrix you can scan with your smartphone to pay. At
present, various payment companies and banks provide different QR codes.
● The Government launched the Bharat QR code to provide a standard QR code solution, which
will be interoperable across payment networks.
● It is developed jointly by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), Visa,
MasterCard, and American Express under the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) instructions.
● It works as a standard interface for the MasterCard/Visa/ RuPay platforms and facilitates
acceptance of Aadhaar- enabled payments and Unified Payments Interface (UPI).
● It eliminates the need for using card-swiping machines for digital payments.

Digital Wallets

● A digital wallet is an electronic device allowing an individual to make electronic transactions.

● It can be purchasing items online with a computer or with a smartphone to purchase something
at a store.
● An individual’s bank account can also be linked to the digital wallet.
● Most banks have their e-wallets.
● Private companies' e-wallets are. e.g., Paytm, Freecharge, Mobikwik, Oxygen, mRuppee,
Airtel Money, Jio Money, Itz Cash, Citrus Pay, Vodafone M-Pesa, SpeedPay, etc.
● The launch of UPI, BHIM, and Bharat QR boosted banks, making their apps more convenient,
faster, and cheaper for customers than wallets.

*99# service

● One of the innovative payment services launched by NPCI includes the *99# service that
works on Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) channel.
● When a user dials a number that starts with * and ends with #, he uses USSD. *99# service was
dedicated to the nation in 2014 as part of the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY).
● USSD is currently the best communications technology to deliver mobile financial services to
low-income customers.

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● With the notable exception of M-Pesa in Kenya, most large-scale mobile financial services
(MFS) deployments in the developing world use USSD as their primary mechanism for
communication between customers and their mobile payments platform.
● These include bKash in Bangladesh; Wing in Cambodia; EasyPaisa in Pakistan; Tigo and M-
Pesa in Tanzania, and EcoCash in Zimbabwe.

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ICT Techniques used in Governance

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT) is an

initiative of the Government of India to promote digital learning. Numerous actions have been taken for
this purpose.

The Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development is administering

'National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT)
program to provide the best quality content accessible to all learners in the country without any cost.

The various initiatives under this program are as under:

SWAYAM Prabha:

● SWAYAM Prabha is an initiative to provide 34 High-Quality Educational Channels through

DTH (Direct to Home) to every part of the country on a 24X7 basis.
● It serves curriculum-based course content covering diverse disciplines. This primarily aims to
make accessibility of high-quality learning resources in remote areas where internet availability
is still an issue.

National Digital Library (NDL):

● A project dedicated to developing a virtual repository of learning resources framework with a

single-window search facility.
● There are more than three crore digital resources available through the NDL.
● The content encompasses almost all major domains of education and all significant levels of
learners, including life-long learners.
● Over 50 lakh students have registered in the NDL, with about 20 lakh active users.
● The NDL mobile app is also available. It may be accessed at [Link].

Spoken Tutorial:

● They are a 10-minute audio-video tutorial on open-source software to improve students'

employment potential.
● It is designed for self-learning and has audio dubbed into all 22 languages, with the availability
of an online version.
● The languages include C, C++, Java, PHP, Python, PERL, Scilab, OpenFOAM, OpenModelica,
DWSIM, LibreO, and many more.

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● The Spoken Tutorial courses are designed to train a beginner user without the support of a
physical teacher.

Free and Open Source Software for Education (FOSSEE):

● FOSSEE promotes the use of open-source software in educational institutions ([Link]

● It does this through instructional material, such as
● spoken tutorials; documentation, textbook companions; awareness programs, like conferences,
training workshops, and Internships.
● Textbook Companion (TBC) contains a set of codes containing solutions of recognized textbook
examples.
● Around 2,000 college students and teachers have participated in this activity & approx 1,000
TBCs have been created in Scilab and made available for free download.

Virtual Lab:

● The Virtual Labs Project is to develop an utterly interactive simulation surrounding for
performing experiments, collecting data, and responding to questions to evaluate the acquired
knowledge.
● Developing virtual laboratories with state-of-the-art computer simulation technology is
necessary for the creation of real-world environments and problem-handling potential.
● About 225 virtual labs are operational, with more than 1800 experiments, benefitting more than
15 lakh students.

E-Yantra:

● The e-Yantra project enables worthwhile education across engineering colleges in India based
on embedded systems and Robotics.
● The teachers and students are trained through workshops that upskill participants in embedded
systems and programming basics.
● This initiative has benefitted more than 275 colleges in India.
● All the projects and code are available as open-source content on the e-Yantra website, www.e-
[Link].

Impact of ICT on teaching and learning

Teachers believe that ICT enhances teaching and learning if the technology is used effectively. The
benefits of ICT, as articulated by the teachers, are as follows:

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➔ Using ICT implies obtaining instant information. The world wide web, for example, contains a vast
range of easily accessible information. Such data can give learners different viewpoints and a more
comprehensive understanding of issues.

➔ Teachers can customize teaching materials according to their student's needs and ability levels.

➔ It acts as an incentive for students to learn. Technology can be effective in engaging them in their
schoolwork.

➔ It increases interest levels and makes learning more enjoyable through the use of color, animation,
and sound. It also facilitates multi-sensory learning through multimedia presentations, energy, and
video.

➔ It allows students to work at their own pace and level. ICT contributes to the development of a
personalized or step-by-step learning scheme. It provides opportunities for students to learn in different
ways.

➔ The teachers and students find it helpful to improve their presentation skills through the creative
presentation of materials and encourage students to take pride in their work.

➔The visual impact facilitated by ICT grabs the student’s attention and helps them to retain information.

➔ Effective use of ICT puts the teacher in a facilitative role rather than teaching.

➔ The use of ICT increases students’ understanding of concepts and helps consolidate learning. In
general, it makes learning more memorable.

➔ Effective use of ICT, especially in individual, pair, and group work with computers, can lead to
improved classroom discipline and better learning management.

Disadvantages:

Teachers also noted some of the adverse effects of ICT if it is not deployed effectively. Some of these
are outlined below:

● It might frustrate the students with its hardware and software functionality in schools, which
develops recurring technical problems. Thus, discouraging them from using computers in their
schools.
● Students can become irritated when one-to-one computer access is not given in their lessons
(when they don't "get their turn" in a group).

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● Teachers must allow all students to use the computer in a class that involves interaction with the
computer.