AWSM

MAINS NOTES
2025
ENVIRONMENT

BOOKLET-17

SCO 22, Sector 15-C, Chandigarh | 97794-64470

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ANALYSIS: SYLLABUS AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
1. Ecosystem
™ Components of an Ecosystem
™ Ecology
™ Levels of organization
™ Principles
™ Biomes or Terrestrial Ecosystems
™ Aquatic Ecosystems
™ Ecotone (Edge Effect, Edge Species and Ecological Niche)
2. Wetland Ecosystem
™ Measures to Protect Wetlands
™ Estuarine Ecosystem,
™ Mangroves, Mangroves in India
™ Ramsar Convention
™ Ramsar Sites in India
™ Montreux Record

1. What are the main features of the Ramsar Convention on Wetland Conservation? (2018, 4 marks)
2. What is Ramsar site? Describe the current status of Ramsar sites in India. (2020, 4 marks)

3. Functions of Ecosystem
™ Ecological succession
™ Homeostasis
™ Energy Flow through an Ecosystem
™ Food Chain
™ Food Web)
™ Ecological Pyramids
4. Mineral Cycles
™ Carbon Cycle
™ Nitrogen Cycle
™ Phosphorus
™ Sulphur Cycle
5. Biodiversity
™ Biodiversity Conservation
™ In Situ & Ex Situ Conservation
™ Biosphere reserve
™ Himalayan ecology
™ Biodiversity Hotspots of India
™ Project Tiger, Elephant, Snow Leopard, Hangul, Rhino Vision 2020, etc
™ Wild Life Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act, CBD, etc

1. Explain the concept of Biosphere Reserve. (2016, 4 marks)

2. Discuss the salient features of Biodiversity Act, 2002. (2016, 8 marks)
3. Discuss the salient features of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act,1972.) (2018, 2021, 4 marks)
4. Explain the various threats to the Himalayan ecosystem. (2020, 4 marks)
5. Describe the Structure and role of Biosphere reserves in biodiversity conservation. (2020, 8 marks)

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6. Describe the concept of Biosphere reserve in the context of biodiversity conservation. (2022, 4 marks)
7. Discuss the Protection and management requirements outlined by UNESCO for the Great Himalayan National
Park Conservation Area in Himachal Pradesh. (2024, 8 marks)
8. What are the primary environmental concerns associated with the tourism industry in Himachal P radesh?
Also, explain the role of eco-tourism in sustainable development of Himachal Pradesh? (2024, 12 marks)

6. Pollution
™ Air Pollution
9 Air Pollutants
9 Classification of Air Pollutants
9 Smog, Acid Rain & Ocean Acidification
9 Ozone depletion
9 National Air Quality Index
™ Water Pollution
9 Control Measures
9 Bio-Toilets
9 Bioremediation
™ Soil Pollution
9 Land Degradation
9 Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
9 Solid Waste, Hazardous Waste, Electronic Waste

1. Describe six major ‘criteria air pollutants’ listed by the Environmental Protection Agency. (2018, 8 marks)
2. Explain the role of atmospheric ozone as foe or friend. (2019, 8 marks)
3. What is Acid rain? Discuss different causes and harmful effects of acid rain. (2020, 8 marks)

7. Evironment
™ Environmental Impact Assessment.
™ State of environment reports.
™ Environment Protection and Pollution Control Act and rules.

1. Describe the various parameters used in the process of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). (2018, 8
marks)
2. Describe salient features of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. (2019, 4 marks)
3. Enlist the various steps involved in the process of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). (2021, 4 marks)
4. What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? Describe the various parameters involved in the process of
Environmental Impact Assessment. (2024, 12 marks)

8. Climate Change
™ Greenhouse Effect
™ Global Warming
™ Carbon Sequestration,
™ Science and economics of climate change.
™ National Action Plans on Climate Change.

1. What are the main features of the Paris Agreement on Climate change? (2016, 4 marks)
2. Explain the science of Climate Change. What are the factors responsible for Climate Change? (2016, 8 marks)
3. Explain different missions which form the core of National Action Plan on Climate change. (2017, 8 marks)

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4. Explain different missions which form the core of National Action Plan on Climate change. (2017, 8 marks)
5. What role can National Water Mission play in the Conservation of natural resources in India? (2018, 4 marks)
6. Describe the guiding principles of National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC). (2019, 8 marks)
7. Describe in detail about different factors responsible for global warming. (2019, 8 marks)
8. Explain various anthropogenic factors responsible for climate change. (2021, 8 marks)
9. What are the main features of National Action Plan on Climate Change? (2022, 4 marks)
10. Explain in detail about global warming and the different factors responsible for it. Also, discuss the control
measures to reduce global warming. (2022, 20 marks)

9. Issues, concerns, policies, programmes, conventions, treaties and missions aimed at environmental protection,
and dealing with the problem of climate change.
™ Earth Summit 1992, UN Environment, Rio+20
™ UNFCCC, UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC Summit 1997)
™ Paris Agreement, Intended Nationally Determined Contributions,
™ UN-REDD, CITES, TRAFFIC, etc

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QUESTION BANK
1. Discuss in detail the implications of increasing climate change for India.
2. What do you understand by Watershed Development? Discuss the benefits and limitations of the Watershed
Development in India. Suggest suitable measures that can be taken for Watershed Development.
3. The field of biotechnology has the potential to impact various aspects of people’s lives, but it presents unique bioethical
issues. Discuss various Ethical issues involved in Biotechnology.
4. What is the conflict between the developed and developing world in climate change negotiations?
5. Write a short note on Environmental Refugees.
6. What do you understand by the Loss and Damage (L&D) mechanism in the Paris agreement?
7. Explain briefly about Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS).
8. Discuss the important features of Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
9. Discuss the key features of amendments to Bio-medical Waste Management Rules 2016.
10. What do you understand by Extended Producers Responsibility (EPR)? Discuss the concerns related to the EPR
framework in India.
11. What is single-use plastic (SUP) pollution? Discuss various impacts of increasing use of single-use plastics.
12. Discuss the stages and need for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of a project.
13. Discuss the issues related to E-waste management in India. Suggest measures that need to be taken for the scientific
management of E-waste in India.
14. Public participation is a crucial component of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process. Analyse the above
statement.
15. Write a short note on National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem.
16. Discuss the guiding principles of National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). Briefly explain the features of
National Solar Mission.
17. Critically examine the preparedness of Indian farmers to counter the threats posed by climate change. Also, discuss the
measures taken by the Indian government to minimise the impact of climate change on Indian agriculture.
18. Discuss about biosphere reserve? give 4 examples of biosphere reserves in India.
19. Write about the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and its function.
20. Write a Short note on National Tiger Conservation Authority. Describe some international laws on Animal trafficking.
21. What is ozone layer depletion, and the Montreal Protocol?
22. Genetically Modified crops play a significant role in enhancing productivity, fighting against hunger and malnutrition.
Critically analyse?
23. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health
Organisation (WHO).
24. Elucidate the Salience of the Biological Diversity Act in Sustaining a Resilient Bio-economy for India.
25. Highlighting the achievements of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, discuss the
reasons behind its success.
26. Enumerate the role of NGT for the conservation of forests conservation substantiate with an example.
27. Enlist the different types of Biotechnology and also write its advantages and disadvantages of the biotechnology.
28. In the context of the State of India’s Environment 2023 report, published by CSE and DTE, examine the areas of
improvement pointed out by it. Also, suggest what could be done to improve the situation?
29. Explain the various social and ethical issues associated with the use of biotechnology.

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KEY OUTCOMES OF COP 28 (2023)

COP 28, held in Dubai, UAE, has marked significant progress and highlighted areas of concern in global climate action.
Here are the key outcomes:

GLOBAL OUTCOMES OF COP28

¾ Transition Away from Fossil Fuels: For the first time, nearly 200 countries agreed to transition away from fossil fuels
in energy systems, aiming for net-zero emissions by 2050.
¾ Global Stocktake (GST): The inaugural GST assessed progress towards the Paris Agreement goals, emphasizing the
need to limit global warming to 1.5°C.
¾ Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency: A pledge to triple global renewable energy capacity and double the rate of
energy efficiency improvements by 2030.
¾ Loss and Damage Fund: Operationalisation of a fund to support countries affected by climate change impacts, with
initial oversight by the World Bank.

INDIA’S MAJOR ENGAGEMENTS AT COP28

¾ Green Credit Initiative: Launched a mechanism to incentivise pro-environment actions through the issuance of
Green Credits for activities like plantation on degraded lands and river catchment rejuvenation.
¾ Leadership Group for Industry Transition (LeadIT 2.0): Initiated Phase II focusing on inclusive and just industry
transition, co-development and transfer of low-carbon technology, and financial support for emerging economies.
¾ Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA): Launched to promote climate resilience through river-city partnerships,
knowledge exchange, and dissemination of best practices.
¾ Quad Climate Working Group (QCWG): Emphasised the role of local communities and regional governments in
supporting sustainable lifestyles and climate actions.
¾ National Achievements: India achieved a 33% reduction in emission intensity of GDP between 2005 and 2019,
meeting its 2030 target ahead of schedule.

KEY CONCERNS RAISED

¾ Lack of Specific Timelines: The agreement to transition away from fossil fuels lacks clear timelines or targets, raising
concerns about its effectiveness.
¾ Unclear Targets for Renewable Energy: While a global target to triple renewable energy capacity exists, the absence
of specific national targets makes implementation uncertain. The Guardian
¾ Mechanisms for Adaptation Goals: The adaptation goals lack clear mechanisms and funding plans, leaving developing
countries concerned about their realisation.
¾ Accountability on Financial Commitments: No established mechanism exists to hold governments accountable for
fulfilling their climate finance commitments, leading to concerns about the credibility of financial pledges.
¾ Resistance Over Coal Phase-Down: Countries like India, China, and South Africa resisted proposals to mandate
carbon capture and storage for new coal-fired power plants.
¾ Methane Emission Reduction Concerns: The push to reduce methane emissions may impact agricultural practices, a
sensitive issue in countries like India.

COP28 marked a significant step in global climate action, with historic agreements and ambitious pledges. However, the
effectiveness of these commitments will depend on clear timelines, accountability mechanisms, and the willingness of
nations to translate promises into tangible actions.

KEY GLOBAL OUTCOMES OF COP29 (2024)

The 29th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP29) convened in Baku, Azerbaijan, from November 11 to 22,
2024. Dubbed the “Finance COP,” the summit aimed to bolster climate finance and finalize carbon market mechanisms.
¾ NEW CLIMATE FINANCE GOAL (NCQG)
™ Developed countries committed to mobilizing $300 billion annually by 2035 to assist developing nations in climate

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mitigation and adaptation efforts.
™ Despite this increase from the previous $100 billion target, many developing countries criticised the amount as
insufficient, advocating for at least $1.3 trillion annually.
¾ Operationalization of the Loss and Damage Fund
™ The fund, initially established at COP27, became fully operational, with disbursements expected to begin in 2025.
™ Current pledges total approximately $759 million, falling short of the estimated $150 billion needed annually.
¾ Finalization of Article 6 Rulebook
™ COP29 concluded negotiations on Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, establishing frameworks for international
carbon markets.
™ This includes mechanisms for bilateral carbon trading (Article 6.2) and a global crediting system (Article 6.4),
aiming to facilitate emission reductions through market-based approaches.
¾ Adaptation and Just Transition Initiatives
™ The Baku Adaptation Roadmap was introduced to enhance global climate resilience, focusing on vulnerable
regions and sectors.
™ Discussions emphasized the importance of sustainable, grant-based financing for adaptation, particularly for least
developed countries (LDCs) and small island developing states (SIDS).

INDIA’S ENGAGEMENT AT COP29

¾ Advocacy for Climate Finance Equity
™ India rejected the $300 billion annual climate finance goal, deeming it inadequate compared to the $1.3 trillion
required for meaningful action.
™ Emphasized the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), asserting that developed
nations should lead in financing and supporting climate action.
¾ Support for Carbon Market Mechanisms
™ Welcomed the operationalization of carbon markets under Article 6, recognising their potential to align economic
growth with sustainability.
¾ Focus on Resilience and Renewable Energy
™ Highlighted priorities including building disaster-resilient infrastructure, accelerating the transition to renewable
energy, supporting vulnerable nations in adapting to climate impacts and advocating for equity in global climate
policies, emphasizing the needs of the Global South.

Key Concerns and Criticisms

¾ Insufficient Climate Finance: The $300 billion annual target was criticized for falling short of the actual needs of
developing countries, estimated at $1.3 trillion annually.
¾ Limited Progress on Emission Reductions: COP29 did not advance measures to curb fossil fuel dependency or
significantly boost renewable energy commitments.
¾ Operational Challenges: The implementation of the Loss and Damage Fund and carbon market mechanisms faces
challenges, including ensuring equitable distribution and avoiding potential loopholes.

COP29 marked a significant step in global climate negotiations, particularly in climate finance and carbon market
mechanisms. However, the summit also highlighted persistent challenges in achieving equitable and sufficient support
for developing nations. The outcomes underscore the need for continued dialogue and action, setting the stage for further
progress at COP30 in Belém, Brazil, in 2025.

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List of Environmental Conventions
Name Year of Establishment
Ramsar Convention 1971
Stockholm Convention 2001
CITES 1973
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
Bonn Convention 1979
Vienna Convention 1985
Montreal Protocol 1987
Kyoto Protocol 1997
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992
Rio Summit 1992
UNCCD 1994
Basel Convention 1989
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000
UN-REDD 2008
Nagoya Protocol 2010
COP24 2018
COP21 2016
Kigali Amendment 2016
Minamata Convention 2013
Rotterdam Convention 1998
COP25 2019

NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTIONS (NDCS)

¾ Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) seek to enhance India’s contributions towards the achievement of the
strengthening of the global response to the threat of climate change, as agreed under the Paris Agreement.

NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
¾ Such action will also help India usher in low-emission growth pathways.

NDCs include:
1. Increase non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW (gigawatts) by 2030.
2. Reduce the total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes (BT) by 2030.
3. Achieve net-zero carbon by 2070.
4. Net Zero target by 2030 for Indian Railways
UNFCCC COP 26 in Glasgow in 2021, the Prime Minister of India had made a series of new promises to Strengthen
climate action from India.
5. India is now committing itself to at least 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP (emissions per unit of GDP)
from 2005 levels. The existing target was a 33% - 35% reduction.
6. India is also promising to ensure that at least 50% of installed electricity generation capacity in 2030 would be based on
non-fossil fuel-based sources. This is an increase from the existing 40% target.

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GOVERNMENT’S INITIATIVE
1. India is accelerating its e-mobility transition with the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric
Vehicles Scheme.
2. India is among a handful of countries that support the global EV30@30 campaign, which aims for at least 30% new
vehicle sales to be electric by 2030.
3. India’s advocacy of the five elements for climate change, “Panchamrit”, at the UNFCCC COP26 in Glasgow is a
commitment to the same.
4. The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana has helped 88 million households to shift from coal-based cooking fuels to LPG
connections.
5. Green Hydrogen mission
™ Panchamrit goals for climate change

India has presented the following five nectar elements (Panchamrit) of India’s climate action:
¾ Reach 500 GW of Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
¾ 50% of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
¾ Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes from now to 2030.
¾ Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, over 2005 levels.
¾ Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

India has ranked 8th in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2023 and is best among the G20 countries.

GLOBAL BIOFUEL ALLIANCE (GBA)

The Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA), initiated under India’s G20 presidency, aims to promote sustainable biofuels and set
relevant standards and certifications.

Key Highlights
¾ Expanded Membership and Collaboration
™ Membership Growth: The GBA has expanded to include 24 countries and 12 international organizations,
including major biofuel producers and consumers like the US, Brazil, and India, reflecting broad global support
for sustainable biofuel initiatives.
¾ Technological Advancements
™ Non-Grain-Based Biofuels: India is focusing on non-grain-based biofuels, utilizing agricultural residues and
waste materials to produce ethanol, thereby reducing competition with food crops and enhancing sustainability
™ Flex-Fuel Vehicle Development: Automakers like Hyundai have showcased flex-fuel vehicle prototypes, such as
the Hyundai Creta Flex Fuel, aligning with India’s vision to reduce oil imports and promote the rural economy
through biofuel adoption.

Significance of the Global Biofuels Alliance for India:

¾ Infrastructure and Policy Support
™ GBA Secretariat in India: India has signed a Host Country Agreement to establish the GBA Secretariat, providing
legal status and facilitating the efficient functioning of the alliance.
™ State-Level Initiatives: States like Karnataka are implementing biofuel policies with international collaborations,
promoting biofuel-powered vehicles, biogas plants, and offering fiscal incentives to producers.
¾ Learning from Best Practices:
™ GBA will facilitate the transfer of technologies and mobilization of international climate funds. It will accelerate
progress in the compressed biogas sector and third-generation ethanol plant capacities

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¾ Achieving and Surpassing E20 Target:
™ India achieved its E20 (20% ethanol blending) target ahead of schedule in March 2025 and is now planning to
increase the blending rate to 30% by 2030.
¾ Promotion of Flex-Fuel Vehicles:
™ The adoption of flex-fuel vehicles is gaining momentum, with manufacturers like Hyundai showcasing prototypes
compatible with higher ethanol blends. It will contribute to the reduction in emissions and India’s crude oil import
bill.
¾ Climate Action:
™ Establishment of GBA reinforces the fight against climate change as it will help countries cooperate to reduce the
usage of fossil fuels.
¾ Promotion of Biofuel Exports:
™ It presents an opportunity for India to increase its share in biofuel production, leading to greater energy
independence for India. India has the potential to become a major exporting nation alongside Brazil and the US.
¾ Increase in Employment Opportunities:
™ Investments in the biofuel sector create employment opportunities. It will contribute to the improvement of the
financial status of farmers and will assist in doubling farmers’ income.
¾ Economic and Environmental Benefits
™ Increased biofuel production contributes to energy independence, reduces crude oil imports, and provides
additional income streams for farmers, aligning with India’s goal of doubling farmers’ income.

Challenges and Concerns

¾ Technology Transfer Barriers
™ Reluctance from Developed Nations: Some developed countries are hesitant to share advanced biofuel
technologies, which may hinder the alliance’s objectives.
¾ Geopolitical Tensions
™ Opposition from Major Economies: Countries like China and Russia have expressed reservations about the
alliance, viewing it as a Western-led initiative that could challenge their energy interests.
¾ Import Restrictions on Biofuels:
™ India’s policies restrict the import of biofuels, impacting global biofuels market development
¾ Environmental and Resource Concerns
™ Sustainability Issues: The expansion of biofuel production raises concerns about land and water use, potentially
impacting food security and leading to environmental degradation if not managed sustainably.

Way Forward
¾ Sustainable Practices:
™ Emphasize the use of non-food-based feedstocks and waste materials to mitigate environmental impacts.
¾ Policy Support:
™ Implement supportive policies and incentives to encourage investment in biofuel infrastructure and technology.
¾ International Cooperation:
™ Strengthen global partnerships to facilitate technology transfer and address geopolitical challenges.

The Global Biofuel Alliance represents a significant step towards a sustainable energy future, with India playing a pivotal
role in its development and implementation.

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STATE OF INDIA’S ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2023

The State of India’s Environment Report 2023, published by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and Down-
To-Earth magazine, offers a comprehensive assessment of India’s environmental status, encompassing climate change,
pollution, biodiversity, waste management, and public health.

Key Findings and Issues

¾ Encroachment of Water Bodies & Waste Management
™ Over 30,000 water bodies in India have been encroached upon.
™ India generates ~160,000 tonnes/day of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW).
™ Over 50% is either dumped in landfills or remains unattended.
™ Examples:
9 In 2023, Bengaluru’s Bellandur Lake once again caught fire due to methane buildup from waste dumping,
highlighting urban mismanagement of wetlands.
9 The Bandhwari landfill in Gurugram, Haryana, has become a significant environmental concern. In April
2025, the landfill experienced multiple fires, releasing toxic fumes and highlighting issues of groundwater
contamination and ecological degradation in the Aravalli region.
¾ Air Pollution and Public Health
™ Average life expectancy loss due to air pollution: 4 years 11 months.
™ Rural India is worse affected: 5 years 2 months lost, vs 4 years 5 months in urban India.
™ Rural healthcare infrastructure deficit: Requires 35% more Community Health Centres (CHCs).
™ Examples:
9 According to the Lancet Countdown Report 2023, Delhi remained the most polluted capital in the world, and
Kanpur and Ghaziabad were among the worst globally for PM2.5 levels.
9 In November 2024, Delhi experienced hazardous air quality levels, with the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching
1,500, leading to school closures and health advisories.
¾ Environmental Crimes
™ Indian courts would need to dispose of 245 environmental cases/day to clear the existing backlog.
™ Crimes include illegal mining, poaching, industrial pollution, and encroachments.
™ Examples:
9 In 2023, over 1,000 FIRs were registered against illegal sand mining in Uttar Pradesh alone.
9 Between April 2019 and March 2025, the Haryana State Pollution Control Board imposed environmental
compensation penalties totalling ₹499 crore on 462 industrial units, but only ₹132 crore has been recovered,
indicating enforcement challenges.
¾ Extreme Weather Events
™ From Jan–Oct 2022, India witnessed extreme weather on 271 days, killing ~2,900 people.
™ Events include heatwaves, floods, cyclones, and landslides.
™ Examples:
9 In 2023, Uttarakhand’s Joshimath saw widespread land subsidence, leading to the relocation of hundreds of
families and raising alarm on climate-induced disasters in eco-sensitive zones.
9 In 2024, India experienced extreme weather events on 255 out of 274 days, affecting 3.2 million hectares of
cropland, a 74% increase from 2022.
¾ SDG Performance
™ Lags behind neighbours: Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.
9 SDG 2: Zero Hunger
9 SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being

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9 SDG 5: Gender Equality
9 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities
™ Example:
9 According to the Global Hunger Index 2024, India ranked 105th out of 127 countries, with a score of 27.3,
placing it under the “serious” category. This means that India is facing challenges related to food insecurity
and malnutrition.
9 In the Sustainable Development Report 2024, India is ranked 109th out of 166 countries.
¾ Plastic Waste and Urban Reforms
™ Plastic waste remains a huge challenge despite bans on single-use plastics.
™ However, cities are evolving into “Waste-wise” models:
™ Segregation at source
™ Plastic reuse and recycling
™ Example:
9 Indore and Ambikapur have emerged as Zero-Waste cities, implementing door-to-door collection and
decentralized composting.
9 A recent study detected microplastics in Delhi’s groundwater, indicating the pervasive nature of plastic
pollution and its infiltration into vital water sources.
¾ Agriculture and Sustainability
™ Growing evidence supports traditional and regenerative agricultural practices.
™ These reduce dependency on chemical inputs and restore soil health.
™ Example:
9 The Natural Farming initiative in Andhra Pradesh has been scaled to 600,000+ farmers, showing reduced
input costs and better yields in drylands.
9 In 2025, the Indian Meteorological Department warned that warmer-than-normal temperatures and below-
average rainfall in February could adversely impact wheat, fruits, and vegetables in North India, threatening
food security.
¾ Forests & Biodiversity
™ Despite forest cover loss, community rights over forest land are increasing under the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
™ Biodiversity is under pressure from deforestation and infrastructure projects.
™ Example:
9 In 2022-23, 17,381.88 hectares of forestland were diverted for non-forestry purposes, a 3.5% increase from
the previous year. This has implications for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.
9 A study published in 2025 highlighted a 30% increase in India’s tiger population over the past two decades,
attributing success to effective conservation strategies despite urbanization pressures.

Way Forward
¾ A Common Minimum Environmental Programme is essential to align all nations on climate and biodiversity goals.
¾ Need for:
™ Equitable climate finance
™ Technology transfer
™ Pandemic resilience and ecological balance
¾ Enhance public awareness and community engagement to foster sustainable practices and resilience against climate
impacts.
™ Example: The WHO-led Pandemic Treaty under negotiation includes One Health principles that link human,
animal, and environmental health — a step toward integrated global response mechanisms.

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¾ Strengthening Climate Resilience
™ Develop Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Invest in infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events.
™ Enhance Early Warning Systems: Improve forecasting and dissemination of information to mitigate disaster
impacts.

The State of India’s Environment Report 2023 is a wake-up call urging decisive policy actions. From air quality and waste
systems to climate resilience and forest rights, it lays bare the environmental challenges while spotlighting successful
local models. With a focus on sustainability, inclusion, and innovation, India can turn these challenges into leadership
opportunities on the global green stage.

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AND POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AND RULES.

India has several environmental protection and pollution control legislations to address and mitigate environmental issues.
Some of the key laws and regulations include:
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: This act aims to prevent and control water pollution
by regulating the discharge of pollutants into water bodies and establishing pollution control boards at the state and
central levels.
2. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: This legislation focuses on controlling air pollution and
regulating emissions from industries, vehicles, and other sources. It also establishes pollution control boards.
3. The Environmental Protection Act, 1986: This act provides a framework for protecting and improving the quality
of the environment. It includes provisions for environmental impact assessments (EIAs), the handling of hazardous
substances, and penalties for non-compliance.
4. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: This law seeks to conserve forests by regulating the diversion of forest land for
non-forest purposes. It requires approval from the central government for such diversions.
5. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: This act aims to protect wildlife and their habitats by prohibiting hunting, poaching,
and trade in wildlife and wildlife products.
6. The Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules regulate the generation, storage, transportation,
treatment, and disposal of hazardous waste to prevent environmental and health risks.
7. The Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules address the management and disposal of plastic waste,
including the prohibition of certain types of plastic.
8. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: This establishes the National Green Tribunal (NGT) to hear cases related to
environmental protection and conservation, providing a specialized forum for environmental disputes.
9. The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2019: This regulation restricts and regulates development activities
in coastal areas to protect the fragile coastal ecosystems.
10. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: This act requires industries handling hazardous substances to take out
insurance coverage to compensate victims in case of an accident.
11. The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules provide guidelines for the collection, segregation, treatment,
and disposal of solid waste, aiming to reduce its environmental impact.

These legislations and regulations together form a legal framework for environmental protection and pollution control in
India. They empower government authorities, pollution control boards, and environmental agencies to enforce and monitor
compliance with environmental standards, and they provide legal mechanisms to address environmental violations and
disputes.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India is a regulatory process that evaluates the potential environmental effects
of a proposed project. It involves identifying, predicting, and assessing the impact on various environmental components.
The EIA process in India aims to ensure sustainable development by considering ecological and social aspects before
approving projects.

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The EIA process in India typically involves several stages:
1. Screening: Determining whether a project requires a detailed EIA based on its size and potential environmental impact.
2. Scoping: Defining the boundaries of the study, key issues, and methodologies to be used in the EIA.
3. Baseline Study: Assessing the existing environmental conditions in the project area before any development activities.
4. Impact Prediction: Estimating potential environmental impacts of the proposed project.
5. Mitigation Measures: Proposing measures to minimize or offset adverse impacts.
6. Public Consultation: Involving the public in the decision-making process, gathering their opinions and concerns.
7. Draft EIA Report: Documenting findings, assessments, and proposed measures in a comprehensive report.
8. Review: Regulatory authorities review the EIA report to ensure compliance with guidelines.
9. Decision-making: Based on the review, authorities decide whether to approve, reject, or request modifications to the
project.
10. Post-Monitoring: Monitoring and evaluating the project’s environmental performance after implementation.

These stages help ensure a thorough evaluation of potential environmental impacts and the incorporation of measures to
minimize negative effects.

Legal Status of EIA

¾ Regulatory Authority: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) oversees the EIA process,
supported by State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) at the state level.
¾ Key Notifications: The EIA Notification of 1994 and its subsequent amendments outline the procedural details for
conducting EIAs.
¾ Additionally, State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) play a crucial role in the implementation of EIA processes at the
state level. They collaborate with the MoEFCC to ensure that projects adhere to environmental norms and regulations.
¾ Recent Amendment: In March 2025, the EIA Notification was amended to remove exemptions previously granted to
linear projects, such as roads and pipelines, ensuring stricter environmental scrutiny for these developments.
¾ The EIA process plays a crucial role in assessing and mitigating the environmental impact of development projects.
However, like any system, it has its strengths and weaknesses.

Critical Analysis:

Advantages of the EIA process:

¾ Environmental Safeguard: EIA acts as a proactive tool, identifying potential environmental issues before they occur,
enabling the implementation of mitigation measures.
¾ Public Participation: The process includes public consultation, fostering transparency and giving local communities
a voice in decision-making.
™ Example: In April 2025, residents from approximately 50 villages in Punjab opposed the establishment of a large
paper mill in an ecologically sensitive zone near Chamkaur Sahib.
¾ Legal Framework: EIA is backed by robust legal frameworks and regulations, providing a structured approach to
environmental assessment.
™ Example: The Supreme Court’s May 2025 ruling invalidated a 2017 notification allowing post-facto environmental
clearances, reinforcing the necessity for projects to obtain proper EIA approvals before commencement.
¾ Sustainable Development: By considering ecological and social factors, EIA contributes to more sustainable
development, balancing economic growth with environmental conservation.

Disadvantages of the EIA process

¾ Implementation Challenges: Enforcement of EIA recommendations and compliance monitoring often face challenges,
leading to inadequate mitigation measures.
™ Example: The Indrayani River in Pune remains heavily polluted with untreated sewage and industrial effluents,
despite repeated commitments since 2022 from politicians to clean up the river. This highlights the gap between

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environmental regulations and their enforcement.
¾ Subjectivity: The process involves subjective elements, and interpretation of environmental impacts may vary for
legislators and environmentalists, potentially leading to biased assessments.
¾ Resource Constraints: Some regions lack the necessary expertise and infrastructure to conduct comprehensive EIAs,
affecting the quality of assessments.
¾ Inadequate Assessment of Cumulative Impacts: The current EIA framework often focuses on individual projects,
neglecting the cumulative environmental impacts of multiple developments in a region.

Way forward:
¾ Strengthen Enforcement Mechanisms: Ensure strict compliance with EIA recommendations through regular
monitoring and penalties for violations.
¾ Enhance Public Engagement: Facilitate meaningful public participation by making information accessible and
incorporating community feedback into decision-making.
¾ Build Institutional Capacity: Invest in training and resources for agencies responsible for conducting and reviewing
EIAs to improve assessment quality.
¾ Incorporate Cumulative Impact Assessments: Revise EIA guidelines to mandate the evaluation of cumulative
environmental impacts of multiple projects within a region.
¾ Ensure Transparency and Accountability: Maintain transparency in the EIA process by publicly disclosing reports
and decisions, and holding stakeholders accountable for non-compliance.

In conclusion, while the EIA process is a valuable tool for environmental protection, addressing its weaknesses and seizing
opportunities for improvement is essential to enhance its effectiveness and contribute to sustainable development.

NATIONAL ACTION PLAN FOR CLIMATE CHANGE (NAPCC)

The National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) in India is a comprehensive strategy developed by the Indian
government to address climate change and its associated challenges. The plan was launched in June 2008 and consists of
eight national missions, each focusing on specific sectors and aspects of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

These missions are:

1. National Solar Mission: This mission aims to promote the development and deployment of solar energy in India to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance energy security.
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: It focuses on improving energy efficiency and conservation across
various sectors, including industry, agriculture, and transportation.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture: This mission seeks to promote climate-resilient agricultural practices,
enhance soil and water management, and ensure food security in the face of climate change.
4. National Water Mission: The mission addresses the efficient use and conservation of water resources, particularly in
the context of changing precipitation patterns and increasing water scarcity.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: This mission aims to promote biodiversity Conservation
and sustainable development in the Himalayan region.
6. National Mission for a Green India: This mission focuses on afforestation, reforestation, and forest conservation to
increase forest and tree cover, which plays a vital role in climate change mitigation and adaptation.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: This mission is dedicated to promoting sustainable agriculture and
addressing the challenges of climate change in the agricultural sector.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: It focuses on enhancing research, capacity-building,
and knowledge dissemination related to climate change.

The Indian government has introduced several schemes and programs to address climate change and promote Sustainability
under these missions are:

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, UJALA (Unnat Jyoti by
Affordable LEDs for All), Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme to improve energy efficiency in energy-intensive

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industries, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India
Mission), ZBNF, etc

These missions reflect India’s commitment to addressing climate change and its associated impacts on various sectors of
the economy. The NAPCC emphasizes a balanced approach that integrates climate change considerations into development
efforts while simultaneously addressing issues of adaptation and mitigation.

HIMALAYAN ECOLOGY

The Himalayan ecology is known for its unique features, including:

1. Biodiversity: The region is incredibly rich in plant and animal species, with many endemic species found in the
Himalayas. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) hosts approximately 1,076 endemic vascular plant species, including
1,061 angiosperms, 3 gymnosperms, and 12 pteridophytes, spanning 432 genera and 100 families. Arunachal Pradesh
leads with 294 endemic species, followed by Meghalaya (213) and Sikkim (212).
2. Altitudinal Variation: The Himalayas exhibit a vast altitudinal range from tropical foothills to alpine zones, resulting
in diverse ecosystems. Vegetation zones include tropical forests, subtropical forests, temperate forests, subalpine forests,
and alpine meadows.
3. Glaciers and Snowfields: The region contains over 15,000 glaciers, forming the headwaters of major rivers like the
Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. These glaciers are crucial for water resources, but are retreating due to climate
change.
4. Rivers and Watersheds: Major rivers originating in the Himalayas, including the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus,
support approximately 1.5 billion people across South and East Asia.
5. Forests: The Himalayas encompass diverse forest types: tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine. For instance,
the Western Himalayan Broadleaf Forests feature evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forests, including oaks and
conifers
6. Traditional Farming: Traditional agricultural practices in the Himalayas, including terraced farming, are adapted to
the rugged terrain and are integral to the region’s ecology.
7. Unique Flora and Fauna: Rare and endangered species like the snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, and various medicinal
plants are found here.
8. Cultural Diversity: The Himalayas are inhabited by diverse indigenous communities, each with unique languages,
traditions, and ecological knowledge. Climate change threatens these cultures, leading to language loss and cultural
erosion
9. Vulnerability to Climate Change: The Himalayas are highly sensitive to climate change, experiencing glacial retreat,
altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events.
10. Conservation Challenges: Conservation efforts are crucial to protect the fragile Himalayan ecology from deforestation,
habitat loss, and other threats.

The Himalayan region, often termed the “Third Pole,” is experiencing escalating ecological threats due to both natural and
anthropogenic factors. These challenges not only jeopardize the region’s biodiversity and cultural heritage but also have far-
reaching implications for the livelihoods of over a billion people dependent on its resources.

Major Threats and Vulnerabilities in the Himalayan Ecology

¾ Accelerated Climate Change and Glacial Retreat
™ The Himalayas are warming at a rate faster than the global average, leading to significant glacial retreat.
9 For instance, glaciers in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region are retreating, affecting water supplies for about
1.5 billion people.
9 Nepal recently held a symbolic “funeral” for the Yala glacier to raise awareness of the alarming rate of
glacial melt due to climate change.
¾ Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
 The formation of glacial lakes due to melting glaciers increases the risk of GLOFs, which can have devastat-
ing impacts on downstream communities.

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9 A 2023 study found that 15 million people are at risk from this hazard, mostly in China, India, Nepal, and
Pakistan.
¾ Deforestation and Habitat Fragmentation
™ Unsustainable logging and land clearing for agriculture and infrastructure development contribute to habitat loss
and soil erosion.
™ The construction of roads and large dams further fragments habitats, isolating wildlife populations and disrupting
migration routes.
9 Between 2019 and 2021, hill districts in India experienced a loss of 902 square kilometres of forest cover, with
the Himalayan states accounting for 1,072 square kilometres of this decline.
¾ Biodiversity Loss
™ Poaching and unsustainable hunting for the commercial wildlife trade endanger these flagship species, threatening
the region’s rich biodiversity.
™ The Eastern Himalayas are home to 163 globally threatened species, including the Asian elephant, greater one-
horned rhinoceros, and the tiger.
¾ Land Degradation
™ Soil erosion, landslides, overgrazing, and soil nutrient depletion are issues in the region, exacerbated by agricultural
practices and deforestation.
™ These factors contribute to land degradation, affecting agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
¾ Air Pollution
™ Air pollution from the Indo-Gangetic plains deposits black carbon on Himalayan glaciers, increasing heat
absorption and accelerating melting
9 In April 2025, Kathmandu experienced prolonged haze from dust and smoke, with AQI levels exceeding 400,
making it the city with the world’s worst air quality at that time.
¾ Unsustainable Tourism
™ Rapid growth in tourism can lead to overuse of natural resources and damage to sensitive ecosystems.
9 For example, increased tourist inflow into Sikkim’s Khecheopalri Lake area has led to environmental
deterioration, including pollution and loss of biodiversity.

Addressing these threats and vulnerabilities requires coordinated efforts in conservation, sustainable development, and
climate change mitigation to protect the Himalayan ecology and the millions of people who depend on it for their livelihoods
and water resources.

Government Steps and Conservation Efforts

The Indian government has initiated several efforts to conserve the Himalayan ecology, recognizing its importance and the
various threats it faces. Some key initiatives include:
1. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE): This mission was launched to promote
conservation and sustainable development in the Himalayan region. It focuses on biodiversity conservation, livelihood
improvement, and climate change adaptation.
2. National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS): NMHS supports research and studies related to the Himalayas,
helping to better understand the region’s ecology and its response to environmental changes.
3. Project Snow Leopard: This project aims to conserve the endangered snow leopard and its high-altitude habitat in the
Himalayas by addressing poaching and habitat protection.
4. Himachal Pradesh Reforestation Project: Several Indian states, including Himachal Pradesh, have undertaken
reforestation and afforestation projects to combat deforestation and restore forest cover in the Himalayan region.
5. National River Conservation Plan: This plan includes the Ganga Action Plan and other river-specific programs to
improve water quality and protect the river ecosystems originating from the Himalayas.
6. Protected Areas: The establishment of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in the Himalayan region helps conserve
the unique flora and fauna.

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These initiatives are part of a broader strategy to balance conservation with sustainable development in the Himalayan
region. However, addressing the complex ecological challenges of the Himalayas requires ongoing efforts and international
cooperation due to the transboundary nature of the region.

BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Biosphere Reserves are designated areas that aim to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with the sustainable use of
natural resources. They are recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, which was initiated
in 1971 to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science.

As of 2025, India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, of which 12 are part of UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves
(WNBR).

This program recognizes areas which are:

¾ The world’s most typical terrestrial and coastal ecosystems.
¾ That exhibit approaches to life and works in harmony with nature.
¾ That demonstrates the achievement of a sustainable balance between conserving natural ecosystems and biodiversity.

Zones of the Biosphere Reserve

There are three biosphere reserve zones:

¾ Core Zone
™ Strictly protected zone dedicated to conserving landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.
™ Serves as a reference point for understanding natural ecosystems and assessing environmental changes.
™ Human activities are prohibited to maintain ecological integrity.
¾ Buffer Zone
™ Encircles or adjoins the core area, acting as a protective layer.
™ It acts as a protective layer, reducing the impact of human activities on the core zone.

Sustainable activities like environmental education, research, tourism, and agriculture are permitted, provided they don’t
harm the core area.
¾ Transition Zone
™ This is the outermost part of the biosphere reserve where people live and work.
™ It promotes sustainable economic and human development.
™ Activities like agriculture, settlements, and resource management occur here, with an emphasis on sustainability.

Importance of Biosphere Reserves

The importance of biosphere reserves is mentioned below:

¾ Conservation: Biosphere Reserves help in conserving genetic resources, species, and ecosystems.

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™ For instance, the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger and a unique
mangrove ecosystem.
¾ Development: They promote sustainable economic and human development.
™ The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India’s first, supports various tribal communities like the Todas and Kotas,
integrating their traditional knowledge with conservation efforts.
¾ Restoration: These reserves play a role in restoring degraded ecosystems.
¾ Education and Research: These areas provide a lot of information on how to restore, conserve, and develop the
ecosystem. Biosphere Reserves also serve as sites for research, monitoring, education, and training.
™ The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in Uttarakhand is a site for high-altitude ecological studies.
¾ Land Use Planning: They provide a framework for land use planning and sustainable resource management.
¾ Healthy Ecosystems: They help in maintaining healthy ecosystems by preventing soil erosion, protecting water springs,
and maintaining decomposers to maintain the soil quality.

SCIENCE AND ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE.

The science and economics of climate change are closely interconnected and essential to understanding the impact of
climate change and the measures needed to address it.

Science of Climate Change:

¾ Greenhouse Effect: The Earth’s climate is regulated by the natural greenhouse effect, where certain gases in the
atmosphere trap heat, keeping the planet warm enough to sustain life.
¾ Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: The burning of fossil fuels and other human activities have increased the concentration
of greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect and leading to global
warming.
™ According to the UNEP Emissions Gap Report 2024, India remains among the top four GHG emitters, with a
6.1% increase in emissions in 2023 compared to 2022.
¾ Temperature Rise: The scientific consensus is that human activities have caused global temperatures to rise, resulting
in more frequent and severe heat waves, melting ice caps, and rising sea levels.
™ The World Meteorological Organisation confirmed 2024 as the warmest year on record, with global temperatures
approximately 1.55°C above pre-industrial levels.
™ NASA reported that global sea levels rose faster than anticipated in 2024, primarily due to thermal expansion
from warming oceans.
¾ Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is linked to an increase in extreme weather events, including hurricanes,
droughts, and wildfires.
™ India faced extreme weather events on 322 out of 366 days in 2024, surpassing previous records.
¾ Ocean Acidification: The ocean absorbs up to 30% of the annual emissions of anthropogenic CO2 into the atmosphere,
helping to alleviate the impacts of climate change on the planet. Increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere lead to ocean
acidification, which can harm marine ecosystems.

Economics of Climate Change:

RBI’s Department of Economic and Policy Research (DEPR) report says that Climate change due to rising temperature
and changing patterns of monsoon rainfall in India could cost the Indian economy 2.8% of its GDP and depress the living
standards of nearly half of its population by 2050.

A 2021 study by the reinsurance company Swiss Re estimated that global climate change is likely to reduce global economic
output by 11–14%, or as much as $23 trillion annually by 2050, compared with output without climate change.
¾ Economic Impact: Climate change can have substantial economic consequences, including damage to infrastructure,
reduced agricultural yields, and increased healthcare costs due to heat-related illnesses.

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¾ Cost of Mitigation: The cost of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through measures like transitioning to renewable
energy sources, energy efficiency improvements, and carbon pricing.
™ India aims to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030. To meet this target, the Economic
Survey 2023-24 estimates that the renewable energy sector will require investments of approximately ₹30.5 trillion
between 2024 and 2030.
¾ Cost of Adaptation: Preparing for and adapting to the impacts of climate change, such as building resilient infrastructure
and protecting against sea-level rise.
¾ Social and Environmental Costs: Climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations and ecosystems,
resulting in social and environmental costs.
™ For instance, in 2024, India experienced severe heatwaves, with temperatures soaring above 45°C in several
regions, leading to increased health issues and mortality rates among the poor and elderly.
¾ Economic Opportunities: Transitioning to a low-carbon economy can create economic opportunities in renewable
energy, green technology, and sustainable agriculture.
™ India’s renewable energy sector created approximately 1.02 million jobs in 2023, with solar energy being the
largest employer. Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana aim to install rooftop solar
plants in one crore households, targeting an additional 30 GW of rooftop solar capacity by 2027.
¾ Policy Instruments: India is exploring various policy instruments to mitigate climate change. The government has
implemented the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme to support domestic manufacturing of high-efficiency
solar photovoltaic modules.
™ Additionally, the National Green Hydrogen Mission aims to achieve a capacity of 5 million metric tonnes per year
by 2030, significantly reducing carbon emissions from the industrial and transportation sectors.
¾ Discounting Future Costs and Benefits: Economic analysis must consider how future costs and benefits of climate
action or inaction are discounted. India’s commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 requires an estimated
$1.4 trillion, averaging $28 billion per year. Balancing immediate economic needs with long-term sustainability is
crucial for effective policy-making.

Understanding the economics of climate change is vital for policymakers, businesses, and individuals to make informed
decisions. India’s proactive measures in renewable energy investments, climate adaptation, and policy implementation
demonstrate its commitment to a sustainable and resilient future.

SOCIAL ISSUES IN THE USE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY.

¾ Access and Equity: Biotechnological advancements may not be equally accessible to all members of society. This can
lead to disparities in healthcare and other benefits, creating social inequalities.
¾ Ethical Concerns: Ethical dilemmas arise when using biotechnology for purposes like genetic engineering, cloning, or
human enhancement. Society must grapple with questions about what is morally acceptable.
¾ Privacy: With the increasing amount of genetic information being generated, concerns about genetic privacy become
significant. How is personal genetic data protected, and who has access to it?
¾ Discrimination: The knowledge of genetic information can potentially lead to discrimination in areas like employment
and insurance. People may be unfairly treated based on their genetic predispositions.
¾ Cultural and Religious Differences: Biotechnological practices sometimes clash with cultural and religious beliefs. For
example, certain religious groups oppose genetic modifications that they believe interfere with natural life processes.
¾ Environmental Impact: Biotechnology can have environmental consequences, particularly in the case of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs). Concerns about their impact on ecosystems and biodiversity can create social disputes.
™ In 2024, Greenpeace successfully blocked its planting in the Philippines, citing ecological concerns.
¾ Human Cloning and Reproductive Technologies: The use of biotechnology in cloning and reproductive technologies
can be socially contentious, as it challenges traditional notions of family and reproduction.
A 2024 study emphasized the societal implications of reproductive human cloning, highlighting concerns over identity
and the commodification of human life.

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¾ Biosecurity: The potential misuse of biotechnology for harmful purposes, such as bioterrorism, is a social concern that
requires vigilance and regulation.
In 2024, researchers engineered a pathogen to self-destruct, showcasing both the potential and dangers of synthetic
biology.
¾ Informed Consent: Ensuring that individuals understand the implications and potential risks of biotechnological
procedures and treatments is a key social issue, especially in research involving human subjects.
¾ Public Perception and Acceptance: The public’s acceptance of biotechnological advancements can affect their adoption
and implementation. Public opinion can shape policy and regulation.

These social issues demonstrate the need for careful consideration and public dialogue when using biotechnology to ensure
that it aligns with societal values and concerns.

Ethical issues in biotechnology are complex and multifaceted. Here are some of the key ethical concerns:
¾ Informed Consent: Ensuring that individuals involved in biotechnological research or treatments fully understand the
potential risks and benefits and provide informed and voluntary consent.
¾ Genetic Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals’ genetic information and preventing it from being misused,
such as in employment or insurance discrimination.
¾ Human Dignity: Maintaining the respect and dignity of individuals when conducting experiments or procedures that
involve biotechnology, particularly in cases of genetic modification.
¾ Genetic Discrimination: Preventing discrimination based on genetic information, which could lead to unequal
treatment in areas such as employment, insurance, or education.
¾ Environmental Responsibility: Addressing the potential environmental consequences of biotechnology, such as the
release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their impact on ecosystems.
¾ Human Enhancement: The ethical considerations of using biotechnology to enhance human abilities or traits, such as
genetic editing for intelligence or physical characteristics.
¾ Reproductive Ethics: The ethical dilemmas associated with reproductive technologies, including in-vitro fertilization,
surrogacy, and genetic selection of embryos.
¾ Cloning: Ethical concerns about human cloning which can challenge traditional notions of identity and family.
¾ Biosecurity and Dual-Use Research: Ensuring that biotechnology is not misused for harmful purposes and addressing
concerns related to dual-use research with both beneficial and harmful potential.
¾ Cultural and Religious Values: Respecting diverse cultural and religious beliefs and values when using biotechnology,
which may conflict with certain biotechnological practices.
¾ Ownership and Patents: Addressing the ethical implications of patenting genes, cells, or organisms, and the potential
for monopolization of biotechnological innovations.
¾ Safety and Regulation: Ensuring that biotechnological products and procedures are safe and effectively regulated to
protect public health and well-being.

These ethical concerns highlight the importance of considering not only the scientific advancements in biotechnology but
also the broader ethical implications and societal values associated with its use. Ethical guidelines, laws, and regulations
play a crucial role in addressing these issues.

MODEL ANSWER
1. “Climate change is a global phenomenon with profound implications for India. Analyse the specific impacts of
climate change on India’s Himalayan and coastal states, providing recent examples to illustrate these effects.

Climate change, a global phenomenon, has profound and multifaceted implications for India, particularly affecting its
Himalayan and coastal states. These regions are experiencing heightened vulnerabilities due to their unique geographical
and ecological characteristics. The impacts manifest through altered weather patterns, increased frequency of extreme
events, and significant socio-economic disruptions.

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I. Impacts on Himalayan States
¾ Glacial Retreat and Water Scarcity
™ The Himalayas, often termed the “Water Towers of Asia,” are witnessing accelerated glacial melt due to rising
temperatures.
™ For instance, the Gangotri Glacier has retreated over 1,500 meters since 1935. This retreat threatens the perennial
flow of rivers like the Ganges, impacting water security for millions downstream.
¾ Increased Frequency of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
™ The formation of glacial lakes due to melting glaciers heightens the risk of GLOFs.
™ A notable example is Lake Imja near Mount Everest, where accelerated glacial melt poses a significant threat to
downstream communities.
™ Chamoli, Uttarakhand, India (2021): A GLOF event triggered by the melting of the Nanda Devi glacier, causing
significant damage.
™ Sikkim, India (2023): A GLOF from South Lhonak Lake, triggered by a permafrost landslide, caused extensive
damage and loss of life.
¾ Extreme Weather Events and Landslides
™ Himalayan regions like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have experienced intensified rainfall events, leading
to devastating floods and landslides.
™ In late June 2025, Himachal rain triggers 10 cloudbursts, 4 flash floods, Mandi district worst hit.
¾ Altered Agricultural Patterns
™ Climate change has disrupted traditional farming practices in the Himalayan states.
™ In Uttarakhand, erratic rainfall and temperature variations have affected crop yields, compelling farmers to shift
to alternative livelihoods.
¾ Increased Frequency and Intensity of Forest Fires
™ Rising temperatures and prolonged dry spells have made forests in the Himalayas more susceptible to wildfires.
™ In April 2025, over 6,200 hectares of forest were destroyed by fires in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
™ As of mid-June 2025: 2,004 incidents, 22,466 hectares burnt, Loss: ₹7.62 crore

II. Impacts on Coastal States

¾ Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Erosion
™ India’s coastline is increasingly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
™ Approximately 33.6% of the Indian coastline is experiencing erosion.
™ In Kerala’s Chellanam region, rising sea levels have led to severe erosion, threatening homes and livelihoods.
¾ Increased Frequency of Cyclones
™ The Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea have seen a rise in the frequency and intensity of cyclones.
™ These events cause widespread damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and human settlements in coastal states like
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
¾ Salinization of Soil and Water Resources
™ Sea-level rise leads to the intrusion of saline water into freshwater aquifers and agricultural lands.
™ In the Sundarbans, increased salinity has adversely affected agriculture and biodiversity, threatening the livelihoods
of local communities.
¾ Displacement and Migration
™ Climate-induced events are causing displacement in coastal regions.
™ Munroe Island in Kerala has witnessed significant out-migration due to frequent flooding and land subsidence,
with over 800 families abandoning their homes.

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¾ Way forward

The Himalayan and coastal states of India are on the frontline of climate change impacts, facing challenges that threaten their
ecological balance and socio-economic stability. Addressing these issues necessitates a multifaceted approach, including:
¾ Strengthening Early Warning Systems: Enhancing forecasting capabilities to provide timely alerts for extreme
weather events.
¾ Promoting Sustainable Practices: Encouraging climate-resilient agricultural and construction practices.
¾ Infrastructure Development: Investing in resilient infrastructure to withstand climatic shocks.
¾ Community Engagement: Involving local communities in planning and implementing adaptation strategies.

2. What do you understand by Watershed Development? Discuss the benefits and limitations of Watershed
Development in India. Suggest suitable measures that can be taken for Watershed Development.

Watershed development involves the conservation, regeneration, and judicious use of natural resources—land, water,
vegetation, and animals—within a watershed. A watershed is the entire land area that drains into a common water point,
such as a river, stream, or lake. This approach encompasses more than just agricultural land; it covers the entire area from
the highest point of the watershed to its outlet.

Principles of Watershed Management

¾ Land Use Classification: Utilize land according to its capability based on land use classifications.
¾ In-Situ Conservation: Conserve rainwater where it falls to maximize water retention and reduce runoff.
¾ Excess Water Management: Safely drain excess water and store it in structures like farm ponds and tanks.
¾ Erosion Control: Prevent gully formation and use check-dams to control soil erosion, store rainwater, and recharge
groundwater.
¾ Cropping Patterns: Identify suitable cropping patterns for the watershed area to enhance productivity.
¾ Maximizing Productivity: Aim to maximize productivity per unit area, time, and water.

Benefits of Watershed Development

¾ Water Security: Enhances water conservation, supports streamflow, and sustains rivers, lakes, and groundwater
sources.
¾ Agricultural Benefits: Improves soil health, reduces soil erosion, and increases agricultural productivity.
¾ Human Health: Provides safe drinking water, helps adapt to climate change by cooling the air and absorbing greenhouse
gases, and offers natural areas for physical activity.
¾ Source of Additional Income: Promotes allied industries, social forestry, cottage industries, and creates employment
opportunities.
¾ Disaster Mitigation and Resilience: Mitigates disasters such as floods and landslides through afforestation and reduces
drought impacts by conserving rainwater.
¾ Biodiversity Conservation: Provides habitat for wildlife and plant species.
¾ Economic Growth: Contributes to energy production, supports agriculture, industry, and households, and enhances
tourism, fisheries, forestry, and mining sectors.

Limitations of Watershed Development in India

¾ Lack of Holistic Approach: Many watershed programs focus solely on surface water, neglecting groundwater
management.
¾ Top-Down Approach: Programs are often centralized and regulatory, lacking local input and flexibility.
¾ Lack of Community Participation: There is insufficient local ownership and involvement, leading to ineffective
interventions.
¾ Multiple Organizations: The presence of various national, international, and NGO organizations can create overlaps
and gaps in watershed management efforts.

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Measures for Effective Watershed Development
¾ Watershed Mapping: Incorporate comprehensive planning that includes all watersheds. For example, the All-India
Soil and Land Use Survey Organisation’s Micro Watershed Atlas of India (2019) provides detailed mapping.
¾ Integrated Approach: Address both hydrologic services and negative impacts on downstream and groundwater
through a more integrated approach.
¾ Creating Local Ownership: Engage communities in watershed management projects to foster ownership and
involvement. Successful examples include the Naigaon and Jalgaon projects with “Pani Panchayats.”
¾ Involving NGOs: Collaborate with NGOs to mobilize communities and provide technical and managerial expertise.
Notable projects include Sujala in Karnataka and Gramya in Uttarakhand.
¾ Social Inclusion: Ensure the involvement of all stakeholders, including women, the poor, and vulnerable groups, in
decision-making processes to enhance project sustainability.

Conclusion

Watershed Development holds significant potential for sustainable rural development in India. By addressing its limitations
and adopting a more integrated and participatory approach, it can contribute substantially to environmental conservation,
agricultural productivity, and livelihood enhancement.

3. Discuss the potential of gene editing technologies, such as CRISPR-Cas9, in biodiversity conservation. What
ethical and ecological concerns arise from their application?

Ans. Gene editing technologies, notably CRISPR-Cas9, have revolutionised the field of genetics by enabling precise, efficient,
and cost-effective modifications to DNA. In biodiversity conservation, these tools offer innovative solutions to challenges
such as species extinction, habitat degradation, and the proliferation of invasive species.
¾ However, the deployment of gene editing in natural ecosystems raises complex ethical and ecological questions that
necessitate careful deliberation.
¾ Potential Applications in Biodiversity Conservation
™ Enhancing Genetic Diversity and Resilience - CRISPR-Cas9 can be employed to increase genetic variability
in small or endangered populations, thereby enhancing their resilience to diseases, environmental changes, and
other stressors.
9 For example, editing genes to confer disease resistance in vulnerable species could bolster their survival
prospects.
™ Controlling Invasive Species - Gene drives, a CRISPR-based technology, can propagate specific genetic traits
through populations at an accelerated rate. This approach has been proposed to control or eradicate invasive
species that threaten native biodiversity.
9 For instance, by reducing fertility rates in invasive rodents.
™ Assisting Species Adaptation to Climate Change - By editing genes associated with temperature tolerance,
drought resistance, or other climate-related traits, CRISPR could help species adapt to rapidly changing
environmental conditions, potentially preventing extinctions.
¾ Ethical Considerations
™ Ecological Uncertainty - The release of gene-edited organisms into the wild carries the risk of unintended
ecological consequences. Altered species interactions, disruption of food webs, and unforeseen effects on non-
target species are potential concerns.
™ Irreversibility and Off-Target Effects - Gene drives are designed to spread rapidly and persistently, making their
effects difficult to reverse.
9 Additionally, off-target mutations—unintended changes to the genome—could have deleterious effects on
the organism and ecosystem.
™ Ethical Governance and Consent - Decisions about deploying gene editing technologies in the environment
involve ethical considerations about who has the authority to make such decisions and how to obtain consent
from affected communities, including Indigenous peoples. Ensuring inclusive and transparent decision-making

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processes is crucial.
™ Moral Considerations of Human Intervention - Altering the genomes of wild species raises questions about
the extent of human intervention in nature. Some argue that such actions constitute an overreach, potentially
compromising the intrinsic value of natural organisms and ecosystems.
¾ Ecological Concerns
™ Gene Flow to Non-Target Species - There is a possibility that edited genes could spread to non-target species
through interbreeding, leading to unintended ecological consequences and potential loss of biodiversity.
™ Development of Resistance - Target species may develop resistance to gene drives, rendering the technology
ineffective and possibly leading to more resilient invasive populations.
™ Impact on Ecosystem Dynamics - Removing or altering a species can have cascading effects on ecosystem
dynamics, potentially disrupting ecological balances and leading to unforeseen negative outcomes.

CRISPR-Cas9 and related gene editing technologies offer promising tools for biodiversity conservation, with the potential
to address pressing environmental challenges. However, their application must be guided by rigorous ethical standards,
comprehensive ecological risk assessments, and inclusive governance frameworks. Balancing technological innovation
with ethical responsibility and ecological integrity is essential to ensure that gene editing contributes positively to the
preservation of biodiversity.

4. Discuss the ecological significance of tropical rainforests. How can tropical rainforests help achieve a Sustainable
global environment?

Ans. Tropical rainforests, covering approximately 12% of Earth’s land surface, are vital ecosystems renowned for their
unparalleled biodiversity and ecological services.

Situated near the equator, these forests play a crucial role in maintaining global environmental stability and supporting
sustainable development.

Ecological Significance of Tropical Rainforests

¾ Carbon Sequestration and Climate Regulation: Tropical rainforests act as significant carbon sinks, absorbing vast
amounts of CO₂ and mitigating climate change.
™ Example: The Amazon rainforest stores between 150–200 billion tons of carbon, playing a pivotal role in stabilising
the global climate.
¾ Biodiversity Hotspots: These forests harbour over half of the world’s terrestrial species, contributing to global
biodiversity.
™ Example: The Leuser Ecosystem in Sumatra is home to critically endangered species like orangutans, tigers, and
elephants.
¾ Water Cycle Regulation: Rainforests influence local and global water cycles through transpiration and rainfall patterns.
™ Example: The Amazon releases approximately 20 billion tonnes of water into the atmosphere daily, affecting
rainfall in distant regions.
¾ Soil Conservation and Fertility: Dense vegetation prevents soil erosion and maintains soil fertility, essential for
agriculture.
™ Example: In the Congo Basin, forest cover reduces soil degradation, supporting local farming communities.
¾ Provision of Ecosystem Services: Rainforests offer resources like medicinal plants, food, and raw materials.
™ Example: Tropical Forest products are integral to industries producing cosmetics, soaps, and disinfectants.

Role of Tropical Rainforests in Achieving a Sustainable Global Environment

¾ Climate Change Mitigation: By absorbing CO₂, rainforests help limit global temperature rise.
™ Example: The Congo Basin sequesters about 8% of the world’s forest-based carbon, crucial for climate stability.

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¾ Sustainable Livelihoods: Rainforests support the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities through sustainable
practices.
™ Example: In Peru, a basic income program for indigenous communities has led to reduced deforestation and
improved food security.
¾ Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting rainforests preserves species diversity, essential for ecosystem resilience.
™ Example: AI-assisted monitoring in Costa Rica’s Osa Peninsula aids in conserving endangered species like
Geoffrey’s spider monkeys.
¾ Promotion of Sustainable Agriculture: Rainforests offer models for agroforestry and sustainable farming practices.
™ Example: In Aceh Tamiang, Indonesia, regenerative agriculture projects aim to reduce palm oil-driven
deforestation.
¾ Global Environmental Balance: Rainforests contribute to global ecological equilibrium by regulating atmospheric
gases and supporting hydrological cycles.
™ Example: Amazon’s role in moisture recycling affects weather patterns across South America.

Conclusion

Tropical rainforests are indispensable to Earth’s ecological health and human well-being. Their conservation is paramount
for climate regulation, biodiversity preservation, and sustainable development. Integrating global efforts to protect and
sustainably manage these forests is essential for achieving a balanced and resilient global environment.

5. Public participation is a crucial component of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process. Analyse the
above statement.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) serves as a vital tool in evaluating the potential environmental consequences of
proposed projects before their implementation. Public participation is a cornerstone of the EIA process, ensuring that the
voices of affected communities and stakeholders are heard, leading to more informed and democratic decision-making.

Importance of Public Participation in EIA

¾ Enhancing Transparency and Accountability: Involving the public fosters transparency, allowing stakeholders to
scrutinize project details and hold developers accountable.
™ Example: In April 2025, residents from approximately 50 villages in Punjab opposed a proposed paper mill during
a public hearing, citing concerns over pollution risks to nearby water sources. The overwhelming opposition led
to increased scrutiny of the project’s environmental clearance process.
¾ Incorporating Local Knowledge and Concerns: Local communities often possess invaluable knowledge about their
environment, which can help identify potential impacts overlooked by developers.
™ Example: The Athirappilly hydroelectric project in Kerala faced opposition from indigenous communities and
environmentalists who highlighted potential threats to biodiversity and local livelihoods, leading to the project’s
eventual rejection.
¾ Promoting Social Equity and Justice: Engaging marginalized groups ensures that development projects do not
disproportionately affect vulnerable populations.
™ Example: The Save Mollem movement in Goa saw widespread public participation against infrastructure projects
threatening protected forests, emphasizing the need for equitable environmental governance.
¾ Improving Project Design and Sustainability: Feedback from the public can lead to modifications in project design,
making them more environmentally and socially sustainable.
™ Example: In Guatemala, the Ixchel hydroelectric project incorporated inputs from indigenous communities
during the EIA process, resulting in a more acceptable and sustainable project design.

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Challenges in Public Participation
¾ Limited Accessibility and Awareness: Many communities lack access to EIA reports or are unaware of public hearings,
hindering meaningful participation.
¾ Tokenistic Engagement: Sometimes, public consultations are conducted merely to fulfil legal requirements, without
genuine consideration of feedback.
¾ Language and Technical Barriers: EIA documents are often technical and not translated into local languages, making
them inaccessible to laypersons.

Way Forward
¾ Strengthening Legal Frameworks: Ensure that laws mandate genuine public participation, with mechanisms to
incorporate feedback into decision-making.
¾ Capacity Building and Awareness Campaigns: Educate communities about their rights and the importance of
participating in EIAs.
¾ Ensuring Accessibility: Translate EIA documents into local languages and simplify technical jargon to make them
understandable.
¾ Leveraging Technology: Use digital platforms to disseminate information and gather feedback, ensuring wider reach
and inclusivity.

Conclusion

Public participation is indispensable in the EIA process, ensuring that development projects are environmentally
sustainable and socially equitable. By addressing existing challenges and fostering genuine engagement, we can strengthen
environmental governance and uphold the rights of communities.

6. Genetically Modified crops play a significant role in enhancing productivity, fight against hunger and malnutrition.
Critically analyse?

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) are organisms, including plants, animals, and micro-organisms, whose genetic
material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. GM crops, in particular, are engineered to enhance
agricultural productivity, improve nutritional value, and address various challenges in food production.

Benefits of GM Crops
¾ Climate Resilience: GM crops can be designed to withstand adverse climatic conditions, such as drought, floods, or
excessive rainfall, which are increasingly prevalent due to climate change.
™ Example: The development of Bt cotton and drought-resistant maize has helped farmers in regions prone to water
scarcity and pest infestations, improving crop survival and yield.
¾ Increased Farm Output: GM crops often produce higher yields per unit area compared to conventional crops, allowing
for increased productivity and efficiency in farming.
™ Example: GM soybeans and corn have been shown to produce more per acre than traditional varieties, boosting
overall agricultural output and profitability.
¾ Enhanced Nutritional Value: Genetic modification can improve the nutritional content of crops, potentially addressing
deficiencies in populations that lack essential vitamins and minerals.
™ Example: Golden Rice, engineered to produce higher levels of Vitamin A, aims to combat vitamin A deficiency in
developing countries, improving public health.
¾ Reduced Need for Pesticides: Some GM crops are engineered to be resistant to pests, reducing the need for chemical
pesticides and thereby decreasing environmental and health risks.
™ Example: Bt cotton, which produces a protein toxic to certain pests, has reduced the need for insecticides, leading
to a decrease in pesticide use and associated environmental pollution.
¾ Improved Shelf Life and Quality: GM technology can enhance the shelf life, taste, and texture of crops, leading to
reduced food waste and better quality produce.

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™ Example: GM tomatoes with extended shelf life and improved firmness have reduced spoilage and waste,
benefiting both consumers and producers.

Challenges and Concerns of GM Crops

¾ Allergic Reactions: Genetic modifications might introduce new proteins that were not present in the original plants
or animals, potentially causing allergic reactions in some individuals.
™ Example: Concerns have been raised about potential allergenicity in GM soybeans and corn, though regulatory
assessments aim to address these risks.
¾ Cross-Pollination: GM crops can cross-pollinate with non-GM crops, potentially leading to gene flow into organic or
conventional crops, complicating the management and labelling of GM and non-GM products.
™ Example: GM canola has been known to cross-pollinate with wild relatives, creating hybrid plants that can
complicate the segregation of GM and non-GM crops.
¾ Potential Adverse Impacts on Human Health: The long-term health impacts of consuming GM crops are not yet fully
understood, raising concerns about their safety and potential unforeseen consequences.
™ Example: The introduction of GM mustard in India has sparked debates about its potential effects on health and
the environment, with calls for more rigorous scientific research and monitoring.
¾ Environmental Impact: The effects of GM crops on soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystems are still under study.
There are concerns about potential negative impacts on non-target species and ecological balance.
™ Example: The widespread use of GM crops has raised concerns about the reduction in biodiversity and the
potential emergence of resistant pests and weeds.
¾ Ethical and Socioeconomic Concerns: GM crops often raise ethical issues related to food sovereignty, corporate
control of seeds, and access to technology, especially in developing countries.
™ Example: The dominance of major biotech companies in the seed market has led to debates about the impact on
small-scale farmers and their access to GM technologies.

Conclusion

Genetically Modified crops offer promising avenues for enhancing agricultural productivity and addressing nutritional
deficiencies. However, their role in combating hunger and malnutrition is complex and multifaceted, requiring careful
consideration of socio-economic, ethical, and environmental factors. A balanced approach that integrates GM technology
with sustainable agricultural practices, equitable policies, and community engagement is essential to realize their full
potential in achieving global food security.

7. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World
Health Organisation (WHO).

In September 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) released updated Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs),
marking the first revision since 2005. These guidelines reflect the latest scientific evidence on the health impacts of air
pollution and aim to provide governments with actionable targets to improve air quality and protect public health.

Key Pollutants and Updated Guideline Values

The revised AQGs focus on six major air pollutants known for their significant health effects:
¾ Particulate Matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀):
™ PM₂.₅ (Fine Particles):
9 Annual Mean: Reduced from 10 µg/m³ to 5 µg/m³.
9 24-hour Mean: Set at 15 µg/m³.
™ PM₁₀ (Coarse Particles):
9 Annual Mean: Reduced from 20 µg/m³ to 15 µg/m³.

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9 24-hour Mean: Set at 45 µg/m³.
™ Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂):
9 Annual Mean: Significantly reduced from 40 µg/m³ to 10 µg/m³.
9 24-hour Mean: Set at 25 µg/m³.
™ Ozone (O₃):
9 Peak Season Mean 8-hour Concentration: Set at 60 µg/m³.
9 8-hour Mean: Set at 100 µg/m³.
™ Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂):
9 24-hour Mean: Increased from 20 µg/m³ to 40 µg/m³, reflecting updated evidence on health impacts.
™ Carbon Monoxide (CO):
9 24-hour Mean: Set at 4 mg/m³.
¾ Emphasis on Health Protection
™ Health Impact Focus: The guidelines are based on recent evidence linking air pollution to various health issues,
including cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, premature mortality, and developmental effects in children.
The stricter limits are designed to better protect vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, and those
with pre-existing health conditions.
™ Equity Considerations: The revised AQGs underscore the importance of addressing air quality disparities and
ensuring that the most affected and vulnerable communities receive adequate protection.
¾ Integrated Approach to Air Quality Management
™ Comprehensive Strategy: The updated guidelines encourage an integrated approach to air quality management
that includes both regulatory measures and public health interventions. This involves improving air quality
monitoring, setting and enforcing air quality standards, and promoting policies to reduce emissions from major
sources.
™ Global and Local Actions: WHO advocates for both global and local actions to meet these revised guidelines.
Countries are encouraged to adopt policies that will help achieve these stricter air quality standards and to
collaborate on international efforts to reduce air pollution.
¾ Public Awareness and Engagement
™ Awareness Campaigns: The guidelines highlight the need for increased public awareness about the health
risks associated with air pollution and the importance of reducing exposure. Public engagement is crucial for
encouraging actions that improve air quality at both the individual and community levels.
™ Transparency and Reporting: Governments are encouraged to improve transparency and reporting of air quality
data to the public, which can help raise awareness and drive action to address air pollution.
¾ Call for Immediate Action
™ Urgency in Implementation: WHO stresses the need for immediate and robust actions to achieve these revised
AQGs. The organization calls for policymakers to prioritize air quality improvements as part of their health and
environmental agendas.
™ Support for Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Special attention is given to supporting low- and middle-
income countries in implementing these guidelines, as they often face greater challenges in managing air pollution
due to limited resources and infrastructure.

Conclusion

The 2021 revision of the WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines underscores the urgent need for action to combat air
pollution and its detrimental health effects. By adopting these guidelines, countries can take informed steps toward cleaner
air, improved public health, and a more sustainable environment.

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8. What are the effects of ozone depletion? Discuss the efforts taken by India to protect the ozone layer.

Ans. Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning of the ozone layer in the Earth’s stratosphere, primarily caused by
human-made chemicals known as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
¾ This thinning results in the formation of an ozone hole, particularly over polar regions, leading to increased ultraviolet
(UV) radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.

Effects of Ozone Depletion:

¾ Increased Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation: Ozone depletion leads to higher levels of UV radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface, posing serious risks to human health. UV radiation can cause sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, and immune
system suppression.
¾ Harm to Marine Life: UV radiation can penetrate ocean waters, harming marine organisms such as phytoplankton,
corals, and fish larvae.
™ For example, coral reefs, vital marine ecosystems, are susceptible to coral bleaching.
¾ Impact on Terrestrial Ecosystems: Ozone depletion affects terrestrial ecosystems by damaging plant life and disrupting
ecological processes.
™ For example: Increased UV exposure has been linked to reduced productivity, impacting agriculture and natural
habitats.
¾ Climate Change Amplification: Ozone depletion can exacerbate climate change by altering atmospheric circulation
patterns and contributing to global warming.
™ For instance, ozone depletion can lead to cooling in the stratosphere and warming at the Earth’s surface.
¾ Economic Consequences: The effects of ozone depletion have economic implications, including healthcare costs
associated with increased UV-related illnesses, damage to agriculture and forestry, and loss of tourism revenue due to
sun-related health risks.
¾ Disruption of Ecosystem Services: Ozone depletion disrupts ecosystem services provided by natural environments,
such as air and water purification, carbon sequestration, and climate regulation.

India’s Efforts to Reduce Ozone Depletion:

¾ The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rule, 2000: The rule was amended in 2001, 2003, 2004,
2005 and 2019 to facilitate the implementation of ODS phase-out at enterprises in various sectors.
™ Prohibition on use of halons: Prohibited after 1st January 2001 except for essential use.
™ Other ODSs, such as carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform and CFC for metered dose inhalers, can be
used up to 1st January 2010.
¾ Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2019: MoEF&CC issued a notification
to prohibit the issuance of import license for HCFC-141b from January 1, 2020, under Ozone Depleting Substances
(Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2019 issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
¾ Ozone Cell: The MoEF&CC has set up an Ozone Cell as a National Ozone Unit (NOU) to render necessary services
for effective and timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its ODS phase-out program in India.

India’s proactive efforts to protect the ozone layer highlight its commitment to global environmental sustainability, evidenced
by legislative measures and collaborative actions. Strengthening regulatory frameworks and accelerating the transition to
ozone-friendly alternatives are crucial steps for India to continue leading in ozone layer preservation, ensuring a sustainable
future for all.

9. Explaining the critical role of wetlands in achieving sustainable development, discuss various threats to the
wetland ecosystem and recommend measures for their conservation.

Ans. Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing essential services that underpin sustainable
development. They support biodiversity, regulate climate, purify water, and sustain livelihoods. However, these vital
ecosystems face numerous threats that jeopardise their functionality and existence.

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¾ Role of Wetlands in Sustainable Development
™ Biodiversity Hotspots: Wetlands are home to a vast array of flora and fauna, including many endangered species.
For instance, the 2025 bird census in Tamil Nadu recorded 5.52 lakh wetland birds across 397 species, highlighting
the rich biodiversity these habitats support.
™ Water Purification: Wetlands naturally filter pollutants, improving water quality. The East Kolkata Wetlands, for
example, effectively cleanse the city’s wastewater through a unique ecosystem of ponds, algae, and fish.
™ Flood Control and Climate Regulation: By absorbing excess rainfall, wetlands mitigate flooding and recharge
groundwater. They also act as carbon sinks, aiding in climate change mitigation.
™ Livelihood Support: Many communities depend on wetlands for fishing, agriculture, and tourism, making them
crucial for economic sustenance.
¾ Threats to Wetland Ecosystems
™ Urbanisation and Land Conversion: Rapid urban development leads to the drainage and filling of wetlands. In
Pune, for instance, urban sprawl has resulted in a 34% decline in carbon sequestration capacity due to the loss of
green cover.
™ Pollution: Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage introduce harmful substances into
wetlands, degrading their quality and harming aquatic life.
™ Invasive Species: Non-native plants and animals can outcompete indigenous species, disrupting the ecological
balance.
™ Climate Change: Altered precipitation patterns and rising temperatures can lead to the drying of wetlands,
affecting their ability to support biodiversity and regulate the climate.
™ Overexploitation: Unsustainable fishing, excessive water extraction, and unregulated tourism can strain wetland
resources.
¾ Measures for Wetland Conservation
™ Policy Implementation and Enforcement: Strengthening laws and regulations to protect wetlands from
encroachment and pollution is essential.
™ Community Engagement: Involving local communities in conservation efforts ensures sustainable use and
protection of wetland resources. For example, increased community involvement in Tamil Nadu’s bird monitoring
programs has enhanced conservation awareness.
™ Restoration Projects: Initiatives like the creation of salt marsh nature reserves in the Severn Estuary aim to
restore degraded wetlands, enhancing biodiversity and carbon storage.
9 E.g., MISHTI Scheme.
™ Integrated Urban Planning: Incorporating wetlands into urban development plans can mitigate flooding and
enhance urban resilience. Cities like Wuhan have adopted the “sponge city” model, integrating wetlands to manage
stormwater and reduce flood risks.
™ Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating the public about the importance of wetlands can foster a culture of
conservation and responsible behaviour.

Conclusion

Wetlands are indispensable for achieving sustainable development goals, offering ecological, economic, and social benefits.
Addressing the threats they face through comprehensive conservation strategies is imperative to preserve these vital
ecosystems for future generations.

10. Assess the multifaceted impacts of global warming on India’s environment, economy, and society. Discuss recent
developments and propose comprehensive mitigation and adaptation strategies to address these challenges.”

Ans. Global warming, characterised by a sustained increase in global temperatures, poses significant challenges to India,
affecting its environment, economy, and societal well-being. Recent events underscore the urgency of addressing these
multifaceted impacts through informed strategies.

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Impacts of Global Warming
¾ Environmental Impacts:
™ Extreme Weather Events: India is experiencing a surge in extreme weather events, including heat waves, floods,
and cyclones, due to global warming.
9 In 2024, the country faced extreme weather on 93% of days between January and September, leading to over
3,200 deaths and substantial agricultural and infrastructural damage.
™ Glacial Retreat: Himalayan glaciers are receding at an alarming rate, threatening water security for major rivers
like the Ganga and Indus. This glacial melt impacts agriculture, hydropower, and biodiversity in the region.
¾ Economic Impacts:
™ Agricultural Productivity: Climate change adversely affects crop yields due to erratic rainfall patterns and
increased pest infestations.
9 A survey revealed that 60% of Indians faced agricultural pests and diseases in the past year, impacting food
security and farmer incomes.
™ GDP Loss: Studies suggest that climate change could cost India up to 10% of its GDP by 2100, potentially pushing
50 million people into poverty.
¾ Societal Impacts:
™ Public Health: Rising temperatures have led to increased cases of heat-related illnesses and vector-borne diseases.
9 The 2024 heatwave resulted in over 40,000 heatstroke cases across the country.
™ Displacement and Migration: Coastal erosion, floods, and droughts force communities to migrate, leading to
internal displacement and social disruption.
™ Poverty and Inequality: The poor and marginalized are disproportionately affected by climate impacts,
exacerbating existing inequalities and pushing more people into poverty.
™ Public Perception: A survey conducted between December 2024 and February 2025 revealed that over half of
Indian adults are deeply concerned about the impacts of climate change, with 71% experiencing severe heatwaves
and 60% facing agricultural issues in the past year.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies:

¾ Renewable Energy Expansion: India aims to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030, reducing
reliance on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
¾ Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Initiatives like the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) focus
on developing drought and heat-tolerant crop varieties, ensuring food security amid changing climate conditions.
¾ Afforestation and Reforestation: Programs like the Green India Mission and “Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam” campaign aim
to increase forest cover and enhance carbon sinks.
¾ Coastal Zone Management: Implementing mangrove restoration programs (e.g., MISHTI scheme) and building
resilient coastal infrastructure to combat sea-level rise and erosion.
¾ Urban Planning: Programs like the development of mini-forests in Uttar Pradesh aim to combat urban heat islands,
enhancing green cover and reducing temperatures in urban areas.
¾ Water Resource Management: Focus on rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and efficient water use (e.g., Jal
Jeevan Mission)
¾ Education and Awareness: Delhi’s climate change education initiative seeks to empower students to take climate
action, fostering environmental responsibility from the classroom level.

Addressing the multifaceted impacts of global warming requires a holistic approach that combines mitigation and adaptation
strategies. India’s proactive measures in renewable energy, agriculture, urban planning, and education are steps in the right
direction, but sustained efforts and global cooperation are essential to safeguard the nation’s future.

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11. Briefly describe the key factors contributing to biodiversity loss in India’s ecological hotspots along with required
measures to mitigate further degradation.

Ans. India’s ecological hotspots, regions with exceptionally high levels of biodiversity and endemism, are facing significant
biodiversity loss. These areas, such as the Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, the Sundaland and the Indo-Burma region,
are crucial for their unique flora and fauna. However, according to the State of India’s Environment 2021 report, 25 species
have also gone extinct in India’s 4 biodiversity hotspots.

Key factors contributing to biodiversity loss in India’s ecological hotspots:

¾ Deforestation: According to State of India’s Environment in figures 2021, India has lost 90% of the area under its four
biodiversity hotspots.
™ For example: In the Western Ghats, extensive deforestation for timber, plantations, and human settlement has
drastically reduced forest cover, impacting species that depend on these forests.
¾ Climate Change: Climate change has led to extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and storms, impacting
ecosystems and species survival.
™ For example: Frequent flooding in Kerala affects the biodiversity in the region.
¾ Pollution: Pollution of soil, water, and the atmosphere affects ecosystem functioning and may eliminate sensitive
species.
™ For example: In India, pesticide pollution has been documented to affect species, such as the high levels of aldrin
pesticide residues found in Sarus Cranes in Keoladeo National Park.
¾ Unplanned Development: Large-scale development projects, like dam construction, have led to significant loss of
forests and biodiversity.
™ For example: The construction of dams on the Periyar River in Kerala caused the submergence of large tracts of
forest.
¾ Population Pressure and Human Activities: Increasing population and human activities has led to the encroachment
of natural habitats for settlement and unsustainable Agriculture Practices has affected biodiversity in a negative way.
™ For example: Expansion of human settlements in the Himalayan region.
¾ Habitat Destruction: The Indo-Burma hotspot, for example, has lost nearly 95% of its original vegetation. This massive
habitat destruction, driven by urbanization, agriculture expansion, and infrastructure development, leads to the loss
of flora and fauna.
¾ Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native species such as Lantana camara, Ageratina adenophora, Parthenium
hysterophorus, and Ageratum conyzoides in regions like the Himalayas disrupts the ecological balance, leading to the
decline of indigenous species.
¾ Illegal Wildlife Trade: The trade of exotic species, like the Red Panda in the Eastern Himalayas, contributes to
biodiversity loss. Poaching for fur, bones, and other body parts has led to the decline of several species.

Measures required to mitigate further degradation of Biodiversity:

¾ Strengthening Legal Frameworks: Enhancing wildlife protection laws is crucial. A prime example is Project Tiger,
initiated in 1973, which significantly reduced tiger poaching in India through stringent legal measures and dedicated
tiger reserves. Similar robust legal frameworks can protect other species and habitats.
¾ Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Mitigate climate change impacts by reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and promoting climate-resilient strategies.
™ For example: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which includes various missions targeting
climate change adaptation and mitigation measures.
¾ Community Engagement and Education: The Joint Forest Management (JFM) program in states like Odisha and
West Bengal is a stellar example of community involvement in forest conservation. This model can be replicated in
other hotspots to engage local populations in conservation efforts.
¾ Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Sikkim, declared India’s first fully organic state in 2016, showcases how sustainable
farming practices can coexist with conservation. By banning chemical pesticides and fertilizers, Sikkim has enhanced

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its biodiversity while promoting eco-friendly agriculture.
¾ Eco-Sensitive Zoning: The buffer zones around the Sundarbans, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, regulate activities
to protect this delicate ecosystem. Implementing similar zoning policies around other hotspots can prevent habitat
destruction and maintain ecological balance.
¾ Habitat Restoration Projects: The reforestation efforts in the Aravalli Range, where indigenous tree species have been
replanted, demonstrate successful habitat restoration. This initiative has helped in reviving local flora and fauna, which
can be a model for other degraded areas in biodiversity hotspots.
¾ Invasive Species Management: In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, invasive species like Lantana are being controlled
through community participation and biological methods. This approach not only helps restore the native ecosystem
but also engages local communities in conservation efforts.
¾ Wildlife Corridors: The Kanha-Pench Corridor in Madhya Pradesh is a successful wildlife corridor that facilitates
tiger movement between two major reserves. This corridor ensures genetic diversity and reduces human-wildlife
conflict, serving as a model for connecting fragmented habitats in other regions.

Preserving biodiversity in India’s ecological hotspots is imperative for maintaining ecological balance and sustaining human
life. By adopting the above given successful examples of conservation efforts, India can effectively combat biodiversity loss
in our ecological hotspots, ensuring a sustainable and vibrant future for India’s rich and diverse natural heritage.

JOKTA ACADEMY SCO 22 SECTOR 15-C, CHANDIGARH PH 9779464470 35