Progressivism (1890–1920)

Progressivism was a reform movement in the U.S. that lasted from 1890 to 1920, aiming to
solve problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, political corruption, and social
injustice.
It took place under three major presidents:

• Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)

• William H. Taft (1909–1913)
• Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921)

Main Motives of the Progressive Movement

1. Narrow the Wealth Gap

o Wanted to reduce the growing difference between the rich and the poor.
2. Promote Economic Equality & Social Justice
o Advocated for progressive taxation and fairer economic systems.
3. Support Labor Unions & Workers' Rights
o Aimed to balance power between workers and wealthy industrialists.

Key Reform Areas

1. Labor Laws & Worker Protections

• Called for laws to:

o Ban child labor
o Set 8-hour workday
o Introduce minimum wage
o Ensure workplace safety

2. Fight Political Corruption

• Reforms were aimed at:

o Ending bribery, fraud, and nepotism
o Exposing scandals like the one during President Ulysses S. Grant's era

3. Address Racism & Discrimination

• Tried to fight Jim Crow laws

• However, racial injustice remained largely unaddressed

4. Women’s Suffrage & Rights

• Wyoming (1869): First U.S. territory to grant women the right to vote
• Leaders like Susan B. Anthony led the movement

5. Expand Political Participation

• Introduced:
o Direct primaries
o Initiatives
o Referendums
o Secret ballots
• Aimed to reduce elite control and increase public involvement

6. Break Monopolies & Trusts

• Used antitrust laws to:

o Break up large corporations
o Promote fair competition

7. Municipal (City) Reforms

• Goals:
o End corruption in city governments
o Hire city managers and professional planners
o Improve public services: sanitation, housing, urban health

8. Social Welfare

• Aimed to reduce poverty

• Supported charity reform and public aid programs

9–11. Other Goals

• Regulate big businesses

• Make government more responsive to people
• Protect farmers from:
o Debt
o Falling crop prices
o Railroad monopolies
 Progressive Era Movements & Activists

Populist Party (1891)

• Represented farmers and workers

• Called for:
o Direct senator elections
o Railroad regulation
o Better labor conditions

Muckrakers

• Journalists who exposed corruption:

o Upton Sinclair – The Jungle (1906): Meatpacking industry
o Ida Tarbell – Attacked Standard Oil's practices
o Lincoln Steffens – Shame of the Cities: Urban political corruption

Progressives

• Middle-class reformers, intellectuals, and religious leaders

• Advocated for:
o Women’s rights
o Social programs
o Education reform

Major Strikes

🪨 1902 Coal Strike

• Workers demanded higher pay and shorter hours

• Roosevelt intervened → workers received a 10% raise and shorter hours

1913 Textile Strike (New Jersey)

• Silk mill workers protested for better conditions and fair wages

Constitutional Amendments

1. 16th Amendment (1913)

o Legalized federal income tax → aimed to reduce the wealth gap
2. 17th Amendment (1913)
 Allowed direct election of U.S. Senators → reduced corruption
o
3. 18th Amendment (1919)
o Prohibition of alcohol production, sale, and transport
4. 19th Amendment (1920)
o Gave women the right to vote nationwide

Roosevelt’s Square Deal

Three Cs:

1. Control of Corporations
2. Consumer Protection
3. Conservation of Natural Resources

Laws passed under the Square Deal:

• Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) – Banned contaminated and mislabeled products
• Elkins Act & Hepburn Act (1906) – Regulated railroad rates
• Federal Aid Roads Act (1916) – Funded highways
• Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) – Outlawed monopolies
• Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) – Strengthened earlier law, protected unions
• Federal Reserve Act (1913) – Created central banking system
• NY Tenement House Act – Improved housing standards
• Workmen’s Compensation Act – Aid to injured federal workers
• Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) – Low-interest loans to farmers

✅ Successes of the Progressive Movement

• Direct primaries gave voters more power

• Secret ballots reduced voting fraud
• 17th & 19th Amendments expanded democracy
• City managers replaced political bosses
• Local governments became stronger and more professional
• Better sanitation and public health systems
• Trusts broken up, making markets more competitive
• Food and drug safety improved
• Government intervention became common in economic issues

Impacts of Progressivism
 • Improved labor conditions: fair wages, regulated hours, and safety
• Natural resources protected through conservation policies
• More accountable politicians due to direct elections
• Balanced power between federal and state governments
• Stronger local governments with professional management

Summary

The Progressive Era (1890–1920) was a nationwide reform movement driven by the need to
fix problems caused by industrial growth and political corruption. Presidents Roosevelt, Taft,
and Wilson led the charge. Key goals included reducing the wealth gap, fighting corporate
power, expanding democracy, improving labor laws, and granting women the right to vote.
Important events like the 1902 Coal Strike, muckraker journalism, and the passing of the
16th to 19th Amendments reflected deep societal changes.
The movement successfully introduced regulations, public welfare programs, and
institutional reforms that made the U.S. more democratic, fair, and responsible, shaping
modern American governance and civic life.

Here's a complete, thorough, and easy-to-understand explanation of Overseas Expansion (Late

19th – Early 20th Century)—with important events, dates, and backgrounds included, using
headings and emojis for clarity. A summary is provided at the end.

Start of Overseas Expansion (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)

The United States began expanding its influence beyond its borders during the late 1800s to
early 1900s, motivated by strategic interests and ideological beliefs.

• 1898 marked a turning point when America expanded beyond its borders and never
looked back.
• By late 1898, the U.S. had also become a naval power.
• Previously, Britain held naval supremacy, which had shifted from Spain after 1588
(after the defeat of the Spanish Armada).

🇺🇸 Early Expansion: Alaska and Hawaii

• Alaska:
o Bought from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
o Became a U.S. state in 1959.
• Hawaii:
 o Captured in 1898 by overthrowing the native monarchy.
o Driven by American business interests and military strategy.
o Also became a state in 1959.

🇨🇺 Cuban Revolt (1895–1898)

• Cuba was ruled by Spain for over 400 years.

• Cubans lacked political representation and civil rights.
• After the 1890s economic crisis, revolts broke out.
• Spain responded with brutal tactics, pushing Cubans into camps.
• By 1898, hundreds of thousands died from disease and starvation.

Yellow Journalism (exaggerated U.S. news) built sympathy for Cubans and pressure on the
U.S. government to act.

• In 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor – 266 Americans died.
o Though the cause was unknown, Spain was blamed.
• April 1898: U.S. declared war on Spain.
• U.S. victories at Manila Bay and Santiago (Cuba).

Treaty of Paris (December 1898)

• Spain surrendered control of:

o Cuba
o Puerto Rico
o Guam
o Philippines
• Platt Amendment (1901):
o Before leaving Cuba, U.S. imposed this law:
▪ Allowed U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs.
▪ Naval base at Guantanamo Bay leased for 99 years.

U.S. Self-Governing Zones & Territories

These are U.S. territories that have local representation but aren't full U.S. states.

• Guam & Philippines: Acquired after Spanish-American War.

• American Samoa: Gained via agreement between U.S., Germany, and Britain.
• U.S. Virgin Islands:
 o Bought from Denmark for $25 million to prevent German use in WWI.
• Northern Mariana Islands:
o Acquired after World War II, under a UN trust.
o Previously part of the Japanese Empire.

Rise of Imperialism & Global Competition

• Post-1871: After Germany and Italy unified, alliances and imperialism spread.
• Imperialism: Expanding power via colonization, military force, or economic control.
• The U.S. joined this race after gaining naval superiority.

Two views emerged on U.S. foreign policy:

Pro-Imperialists Believed In:

• Helping other nations like France helped America.

• Economic gains
• Stronger military/naval power
• White Man’s Burden
• Competing with Europe
• Manifest Destiny (destined expansion)

Anti-Imperialists Believed:

• Imperialism violated democracy.

• Would drag U.S. into wars.
• Considered costly and undemocratic.

Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

• Added by President Theodore Roosevelt.

• Gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Latin America if:
o A country showed chronic wrongdoing
o Political instability
o Failure to pay debts

This overrode Washington’s Farewell Address (which warned against entangling alliances).

Roosevelt’s foreign policy:

“Speak softly and carry a big stick”
→ Prefer diplomacy, but be ready to use force.

This policy became a symbol of Yankee Imperialism:

• U.S. acted without consent of other nations.

• Claimed to promote stability and economic interests.

Dollar Diplomacy

• Introduced as another imperial tool.

• Focused on economic influence instead of military force.

Panama Canal Construction (1903–1914)

• Purpose: Connect Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to shorten U.S. ship travel (previously
14,000 km).
• Initial Effort:
o French company failed due to disease, engineering issues, and corruption.
• 1903: U.S. pushed for canal after gaining Pacific territories.
o Colombia refused treaty.
o U.S. secretly supported Panamanian independence.
• After Panama became independent:
o U.S. signed treaty for a 10-mile wide Canal Zone.
o Paid $10 million to Panama.
• 1914: Canal completed.
o Symbolized U.S. engineering success and strategic dominance.

Summary

• U.S. expansion began in the late 19th century, aiming to gain influence and power
beyond borders.
• Key events included acquisition of Alaska (1867) and Hawaii (1898), and the Spanish-
American War (1898).
• Treaty of Paris (1898) handed over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
• Roosevelt Corollary (1904) and Dollar Diplomacy strengthened U.S. control over Latin
America.
• Panama Canal (completed 1914) became a symbol of U.S. imperial strength.
 • The debate between pro- and anti-imperialists shaped American foreign policy during
this era.
• These actions marked America’s emergence as a global imperial power, setting the
foundation for its 20th-century dominance.

Here is a thoroughly explained, well-structured breakdown of “US and WWI (1914–1918)”,

with all key dates, background, and highlights retained, presented in easy-to-understand
language. Emojis are added before each heading, and a summary is provided at the end.

Causes of World War I (1914–1918)

The war began due to four main long-term causes, remembered by the acronym MAIN:

1. Militarism
o European powers were building massive armies and navies.
o Britain and Germany especially competed for naval dominance, making war feel
inevitable and even necessary to resolve political tensions.
2. Alliances
o Europe was divided into tight military alliances.
o So, when a conflict began between two countries, allies were pulled in, turning it
into a world war.
3. Imperialism
o European countries competed fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia.
o This created international tension and rivalry.
4. Nationalism
o National pride was soaring.
o Ethnic groups wanted independence, and powerful nations believed they had a
right to expand.

Immediate Spark

• 28 June 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in

Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb nationalist.
• This event triggered a chain reaction, activating alliance commitments and starting World
War I.

🇺🇸 Why Did the US Enter WWI? (1917)

Although the US stayed neutral at first, they entered the war in 1917 for these reasons:
 1. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
o Germany used U-boats to sink Allied ships.
o In 1915, the Lusitania (a British passenger ship) was sunk, killing 128
Americans, which angered the public.
2. Zimmerman Telegram
o In 1917, Britain intercepted a German message to Mexico.
o Germany promised Mexico US territories (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona) if they
joined the war.
o The revelation caused public outrage in the US.
3. Economic Interests
o US businesses had lent over $3 billion to Allied countries.
o A Central Powers victory threatened these investments.
4. Military Industrial Complex
o The war was seen as an opportunity for industrial and military growth.
o New technology (weapons, railways, steel, oil) could be tested, creating profits
and jobs.
o Term “Military Industrial Complex” was later used by President Eisenhower.
5. Cultural & Historical Ties
o Many Americans felt emotionally and culturally close to Britain and France.
o Supporting them was viewed as supporting democracy and founding American
values.
6. Make the World Safe for Democracy
o President Woodrow Wilson presented the war as a moral cause.
o He believed the US could lead the world to peace and democracy.
o This shaped his later support for the League of Nations.

Impact: US entry turned the tide of war and proved it was now a world power, stepping into the
global balance of power for the first time.

Wilson’s Fourteen Points (January 1918)

President Woodrow Wilson proposed 14 Points to ensure lasting peace:

1. Open Diplomacy – No more secret alliances

2. Freedom of the Seas – All nations can travel the seas freely
3. Free Trade – Remove barriers and promote fair trade
4. Fair Colonial Claims – Respect native populations in colonies
5. Russia – Let Russia determine its own future
6. Belgium – Restore its independence
7. France – Return Alsace-Lorraine (taken by Germany in 1871)
8. Italy – Adjust borders to reflect national groups
9. Austria-Hungary – Allow ethnic groups autonomy
10. Balkans – Restore independence and stability for Serbia and others
11. Ottoman Empire – Limit Turkish control
 12. Poland – Grant it full independence
13. League of Nations – An international organization to maintain peace and prevent wars

❌ Why the US Did Not Join the League of Nations

1. Fear of Losing Sovereignty

o Many US senators opposed Article 10, which could force the US into wars to
defend other countries.
o Led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, they saw it as a violation of Congress’s
power to declare war.
2. Isolationism
o After the devastating war, many Americans wanted to avoid foreign conflicts.
o They preferred to focus on domestic growth and peace.
3. Violation of Founding Ideals
o Joining the League was seen as violating George Washington’s Farewell
Address and the Monroe Doctrine, which warned against getting involved in
European affairs.

Summary

• WWI (1914–1918) began due to Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.

• June 28, 1914: Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand sparked the war.
• The US stayed neutral until 1917, then joined due to:
o Submarine warfare (Lusitania)
o Zimmerman Telegram
o Economic and cultural ties
o Wilson’s moral mission and economic opportunities
• Wilson’s 14 Points (1918) aimed to prevent future wars, emphasizing diplomacy, free
trade, national self-determination, and the League of Nations.
• The US refused to join the League, due to:
o Sovereignty concerns
o Desire for isolationism
o Commitment to American foreign policy traditions

This marked America’s transition from isolation to a global power, shaping 20th-century
geopolitics.

Economic Boom and Bust

• Industrial Growth: The 1920s saw a sharp increase in industrial production, especially
in sectors like the automobile industry. Mass production methods (like Ford’s assembly
line) boosted efficiency and output.
• Consumer Culture: There was a surge in household appliances such as refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners, and radios. These became standard in middle-class homes, showing
rising consumerism.
• Stock Market Surge: More people invested in the stock market, believing that prices
would rise forever. This confidence contributed to a market bubble.
• Rise of Big Business: After WWI, large businesses flourished. Government policies
helped them grow, which made business owners and the upper class wealthier.
• Automobile Revolution: Car ownership increased dramatically — from 8 million to
over 23 million by 1929. This changed American lifestyles by improving mobility and
creating related industries.

Uneven Growth and Economic Disparities

• Unequal Wealth Distribution: Despite the economic boom, not everyone gained.
Wealth was mostly concentrated in the hands of the rich.
• Struggles of Farmers and Laborers: Agricultural prices fell, small farms declined, and
many workers remained poor.
• Boom and Bust Cycle: The 1920s boom wasn’t sustainable. It led to the stock market
crash in 1929, triggering the Great Depression.

Social and Cultural Change

• Jazz Age: The 1920s were called the “Jazz Age” — a time of excitement, parties,
nightclubs, and cultural changes. Jazz music symbolized youth rebellion and freedom.
• Technological Advancements: The rise of radios, telephones, and new tech created a
sense of modernity and made communication faster.
• Optimism and Modernization: Urbanization brought new values and independence.
People were optimistic about their future socially and economically.

Women’s Rights and Progress

• 19th Amendment (1920): Women got the right to vote in 1920, a big step toward gender
equality.
• Increased Workforce Participation: More women entered jobs and took part in public
and political life.
Government Policies and Politics

• Isolationism: The U.S. government chose to avoid European affairs and rejected joining
the League of Nations.
• Ku Klux Klan Revival: The 1920s saw the reemergence of the KKK, who targeted
African Americans, immigrants, Jews, and Catholics.
• Political Debates: Conservatives and liberals clashed over how much control the
government should have and about protecting individual rights.
• Republican Leadership: All three presidents in the 1920s were Republicans. They
supported Laissez-Faire Capitalism, meaning limited government control of the
economy.

Warren G. Harding (1921–1923)

• First president of the Roaring 20s.

• Slogan: “Return to Normalcy” – Promised to focus on domestic issues and reduce
foreign involvement after WWI.
• Supported free markets and high tariffs to protect U.S. industries.

Teapot Dome Scandal

• Involved secret leasing of government oil reserves in exchange for bribes.

• The scandal hurt Harding’s administration’s reputation (even though he wasn’t directly
involved).
• The scandal came to light after his death in 1923.

Analysis

• People hoped for “normalcy,” but true peace and stability didn’t return.
• Policies leaned toward minimal government intervention and big business support.

Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929)

• Took office after Harding’s death and expanded pro-business policies.

• Believed in limited government and strong private businesses.
• Famous Quote: “The chief business of Americans is business.”

Economic Policies
• Cut government spending and taxes.
• Revenue Act of 1924: Reduced income tax rates to promote business and economic
growth.
• Helped create a booming stock market and supported entrepreneurs.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

• Signed by over 60 countries, agreeing to avoid war and settle disputes peacefully.

Analysis

• Coolidge gained public trust and promoted peace.

• Maintained economic growth, but his hands-off approach allowed serious economic
problems to grow.
• After he left office, the Great Depression began.
• Government ignored rising social issues and mafia activities increased.

Summary

• The 1920s were marked by economic boom, cultural change, and rising consumerism,
known as the Roaring 20s.
• Industrial production, stock market speculation, and new technologies transformed
American society.
• However, not everyone benefited — many farmers and workers remained poor.
• Women gained voting rights in 1920, and the Jazz Age symbolized a cultural
revolution.
• The U.S. stayed out of world affairs under Harding and Coolidge, focusing on free
markets and limited government.
• While the economy grew, wealth inequality and lack of regulation set the stage for the
1929 crash and the Great Depression.

Herbert Hoover (1929–1933)

• Took office: Just 7 months before the Great Depression began.

• Nickname: Called “the best and most worst prepared president” – meaning he was highly
skilled and intelligent but not effective at managing the crisis.

1. Beliefs

• Hoover famously said: “Prosperity is just around the corner” – he believed things
would improve soon.
• He supported laissez-faire capitalism – the idea that the government should not heavily
interfere in the economy.
• He opposed aggressive government intervention during crises.
• Believed in Voluntarism: The idea that people, businesses, and local communities
should solve problems without being forced by the government.
• Thought businesses should operate freely, without government telling them what to do.

2. Economic Crash (October 1929)

• Just 7 months after Hoover became president, the stock market crashed in October
1929.
• This crash created widespread panic and economic collapse.
• Banks and businesses shut down.
• Millions of people lost their jobs and became homeless or dependent on charities.

3. Measures to Handle the Economic Crisis

• Hoover believed confidence in markets and industries was the key to recovery.
• He thought that once people believed again in the economy, factories would start
working, and goods would be bought, automatically improving the situation.
• Hoover argued the crisis mainly affected banks, not the people or the nation as a whole –
therefore, it was a depression, not just a recession.

4. Saving Business

• In 1932, Hoover created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to loan

money to banks, railroads, and large businesses to avoid bankruptcies.
• He had private meetings with business leaders, asking them not to reduce wages or lay
off workers.
• Approved some public projects, like the Hoover Dam, to create jobs.
• In 1931, he vetoed a proposal by Congress for $375 million in federal grants to states
for relief (like Kansas, which was suffering badly). He rejected it due to his strong belief
in individualism – that people should not depend on the government. This decision
received heavy criticism.

5. Balancing the Budget

 • Hoover strongly believed that balancing the federal budget would restore public trust.
• He feared that public debt would harm future generations.
• To fix the budget, he:
o Increased income taxes on all income levels, even middle and lower classes.
o Raised taxes on corporations, estates, and excise goods.
o Reduced government spending, believing this was better than increasing public
aid or social programs.

🪨 6. Trickle-Down Effect

• Hoover supported the “Trickle Down” economic theory.

• This meant if government helped businesses and the wealthy, they would invest, and
eventually the benefits would “trickle down” to the average person.
• His policies aimed to stabilize big businesses, restore market confidence, and
encourage investment as a way to help poor citizens indirectly.

Analysis

• His approach failed to lift the public out of the Great Depression.
• The general public was frustrated as Hoover was reluctant to provide direct aid.
• This situation increased Franklin D. Roosevelt’s popularity, who promised a more
active government role via the New Deal.

Final Analysis

• Hoover had initial success, but the economy was a bubble ready to burst.
• His tax policies hit average citizens the hardest.
• The stock market didn’t fully recover until 1963 – long after his presidency.
• In the 1932 election, the Democrats came back to power with FDR, marking a shift in
how government handled economic crises.

Summary:

Herbert Hoover took office in 1929 just before the Great Depression hit. He believed in limited
government and voluntarism. When the stock market crashed in October 1929, he thought
confidence and business recovery would naturally fix the problem. He created the RFC in 1932
to aid banks and businesses but avoided large-scale public aid, sticking to his beliefs. He raised
taxes on all classes and prioritized a balanced budget. His “Trickle Down” theory didn’t work as
hoped. Public anger grew, paving the way for FDR and the New Deal. Hoover’s inaction during
the crisis deeply affected public trust and shaped future U.S. economic policies.

Great Depression (1929 onwards)

The Great Depression began on October 29, 1929 with the US stock market crash, bursting
what was essentially a bubble economy. People had been rapidly buying stocks whose real
value didn’t match their price. This inflated market finally collapsed, resulting in:

• Overproduction, underconsumption
• Mass unemployment
• Poverty and homelessness – Many were forced into makeshift homes called
‘Hoovervilles’

“There are decades when nothing happens and there are weeks when decades happen.”

Causes of the Great Depression

1⃣ Overproduction

Businesses kept producing new goods (like cars, radios, refrigerators) without considering
market demand. Prices fell, and unsold goods piled up.

2️⃣ Speculation

People invested in the stock market hoping to get rich quickly. Share values rose to triple their
actual worth, forming a dangerous bubble.

3️⃣ Buying on Margin

People borrowed money from banks to invest in stocks. Only small down payments were made.
When prices started falling, panic selling began, causing a market crash.

4⃣ Real Estate Bubble

Cheap credit led to property purchases at inflated prices. When this real estate bubble burst
in the 1920s, people faced huge losses.

5️⃣ Shaky Banking Methods

Banks used people’s deposits to invest in risky stocks. There was no federal protection for
deposits, so when the market crashed, bank failures wiped out savings.
6️⃣ Tariffs on Trade

Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act (1922) raised import taxes by 38% to protect US industry.
Other countries retaliated with their own tariffs, cutting down global trade and hurting US
farmers and manufacturers.

7️⃣ Drought and Dust Bowl

Early 1930s: A severe drought hit the Great Plains (Texas to North Dakota). Bad farming
practices created the Dust Bowl, ruining farmland and forcing mass migration to cities like
California.

8⃣ Unequal Wealth Distribution

Just 1% owned most of the wealth, while 87% of Americans had no savings, making them
extremely vulnerable during a crisis.

9⃣ War Debts

After WWI, Europe owed $10 billion to the US but couldn’t repay. Germany, especially, was
suffering from Versailles Treaty penalties and inflation. The League of Nations was too
weak to manage the crisis, so it spread globally.

Industrial Output vs. Wages

Industrial productivity rose, but wages did not. Americans couldn’t afford to buy the goods
being produced → Overproduction + underconsumption.

Economic Statistics

• Farm value dropped:

→ $69 per farm in 1920s → $31 in 1930s
• Annual income:
→ $750 in 1920s → $273 in 1930s

⚫ The Crash

Black Thursday – October 24, 1929

• First big crash day

• 12.9 million shares sold in panic
 • Bankers tried to stabilize the market by buying stocks → brief recovery

Black Tuesday – October 29, 1929

• Worst day of the crash

• Over 16 million shares traded
• Prices collapsed entirely
• Official start of the Great Depression

Impacts of the Great Depression

1⃣ Mass Unemployment

• 1929: 3%
• 1933: 25%
• 1939: 15%

2️⃣ Loss of Life Savings

• Over 9,000 banks closed, erasing public savings

• Public trust in banks collapsed

3️⃣ GDP Shrinkage

• US GDP fell by 1/3rd

4⃣ High Taxes

• 1929: 3.5%
• 1932: 63.7%
• 1937: 79%
• 1945: 94%
• Stabilization returned around 1963, when tax rates dropped to 70%

5️⃣ Widespread Poverty

• Land (200 acres) became worthless

• People lost homes, savings, and access to basic needs

6️⃣ Rise of Government Intervention

• Before Roosevelt (FDR), there was no social welfare program

• FDR introduced New Deal programs → Shifted government role in economy
7️⃣ International Impact

• Economic struggles in Germany and Europe intensified

• Contributed to rising tensions leading to World War II

Summary

The Great Depression began with the stock market crash on October 29, 1929, caused by
overproduction, stock speculation, margin buying, real estate bubbles, and global trade
tariffs. These led to:

• Massive unemployment
• Collapse of banks
• A drop in GDP
• Widespread poverty and migration

Natural disasters like the Dust Bowl and inequality in wealth distribution worsened the crisis.
The international economy also suffered due to war debts and economic instability in
Europe. It wasn't just an economic downturn — it changed government policies, public trust,
and global politics, setting the stage for World War II.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) – 1932–1945

• Personal Background:
o Born into an aristocratic family in New York.
o Attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School.
o Nominated for Vice President by Democrats in 1920.
o Suffered from polio in 1931, which paralyzed him.
▪ His wife Eleanor Roosevelt played a major role in his political recovery.
▪ She campaigned on his behalf and helped maintain public connection
through FDR’s fireside chats via radio.
• Presidency:
o Elected President for 4 terms—the only U.S. president to do so.
o In his 2nd term, he won 532 electoral votes, showing immense popularity.

The New Deal (1933 onwards)

• Introduced to combat the Great Depression.

• Goal: Relief, Recovery, Reform — known as the 3️ R’s:
1. Relief – Immediate support for the unemployed and poor.
2. Recovery – Revive the economy.
 3. Reform – Prevent future economic disasters.
• Brain Trust: A group of informal advisors (economists, intellectuals, legal experts) who
helped form and guide New Deal policies.

Phases of the New Deal:

1. First Phase – Controlled prices and stabilized production (favored big businesses and
agriculture).
2. Second Phase – Focused on improving lives of ordinary Americans, especially farmers
and laborers.

Alphabet Soup Laws (1933 onwards)

1. Emergency Banking Act (1933)

o Declared bank holiday, federal inspection of banks, restored public confidence.
2. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – 1933
o Guaranteed deposits and restored trust in banks.
3. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) – 1933
o Provided grants and jobs, directly employed 5 million people.
4. Public Works Administration (PWA) – 1933
o Funded infrastructure projects (roads, bridges, schools).
5. Civil Works Administration (CWA) – 1933
o Short-term jobs for building rural roads and schools.
6. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – 1933
o 2.5 million people worked on environmental projects, earned $1/day, 85,000
women trained.
7. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – 1933
o Paid farmers to reduce crop production and stabilize prices.
8. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – 1933
o Built dams, improved electricity and flood control in Tennessee Valley.
9. Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) – 1933
o Gave low-interest loans to avoid foreclosures, helped over 1 million families.
10. National Recovery Administration (NRA) – 1933
o Set fair wages and hours, declared unconstitutional in 1935.
11. Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) – 1934
o Reversed harmful policies, protected tribal lands, encouraged self-governance.
12. Social Security Act (SSA) – 1935
o Introduced pensions, unemployment insurance, aid to elderly and disabled.
13. Works Progress Administration (WPA)
o Massive job program, 8.5 million employed in arts, roads, music, etc.
14. Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) – 1938
o Set minimum wage ($0.25/hr), maximum 44-hour workweek, banned child
labor under 16.
15. Federal Security Act
 o Created Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) to regulate stock market
fraud.

Supreme Court Packing Plan – 1937

• FDR proposed to add 6 new judges to support his New Deal.

• Criticized for interfering with judicial independence and power balance.

USA and World War II (1939–1945)

Causes of WWII

1. Treaty of Versailles (1919)

o Blamed Germany, imposed harsh penalties:
▪ War guilt, loss of 13% land, no air force, reparations of 132 billion gold
marks.
o Fueled German resentment and Hitler’s rise.
2. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes
o Hitler (Germany), Mussolini (Italy), militarists in Japan exploited crises.
3. Great Depression
o Led nations toward aggressive expansion to distract from domestic woes.
4. Appeasement Policy (1930s)
o Britain and France allowed Hitler’s expansion (e.g., Munich Agreement –
1938).
o Winston Churchill opposed appeasement.
5. Failure of League of Nations
o Had no real power, U.S. didn’t join, failed to stop violations.
6. Invasion of Poland – 1st September 1939
o Germany attacked; UK and France declared war on Germany (3 Sept 1939).

Key WW2 Events Involving the USA

1. Lend-Lease Act (1941)

o Allowed U.S. to supply weapons and aid to allies without entering the war.
2. Attack on Pearl Harbor – 7 December 1941
o Japan attacked, killing 2,400+ Americans → U.S. declared war next day.
3. Manhattan Project (1942–1945)
o Secret project that developed nuclear weapons. Led by Oppenheimer and
Groves.
Battles in the Pacific Theatre

1. Battle of Midway – June 1942

o U.S. destroyed 4 Japanese aircraft carriers, major turning point.
2. Battle of Okinawa – April–June 1945
o Final major battle, extremely bloody.
3. Atomic Bombs
o Hiroshima – 6 August 1945: 70,000–80,000 killed.
o Nagasaki – 9 August 1945: 40,000 killed.
o Japan surrendered, ending WWII.

European Theatre and Strategy Conferences

1. D-Day – 6 June 1944

o Allied invasion of Normandy, France, began liberation of Europe.
2. Tehran Conference – 1943
o First meeting of FDR, Churchill, Stalin – agreed on D-Day.
3. Yalta Conference – 1945
o Planned post-war Europe; term “United Nations” was widely used.
4. Potsdam Conference – July–August 1945
o Finalized post-war arrangements after Germany’s surrender.

Summary

• Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932–1945) led America through the Great Depression and
WWII.
• He introduced the New Deal to stabilize the economy, creating jobs, protecting savings,
and reforming industry.
• Alphabet Agencies like FDIC, TVA, CCC, WPA, and SSA helped millions.
• He attempted to reform the Supreme Court, facing political backlash.
• Under FDR, the U.S. entered WWII after Pearl Harbor, supported Allies via the Lend-
Lease Act, and helped win the war through atomic weapons and major battles like D-
Day and Midway.
• Participated in global diplomatic efforts (Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam), shaping the post-war
world and paving the way for the United Nations.

FDR’s Death & Legacy (1945️)

• Franklin D. Roosevelt died in 1945 shortly before the United Nations (UN) was officially
established.
• He coined the term “United Nations” in January 1942 when 26 countries united to fight
the Axis Powers.
• He played a crucial role in negotiating with the Big Three:
o Winston Churchill (UK)
o Joseph Stalin (USSR)
• After FDR’s death, his wife Eleanor Roosevelt became the first American representative
to the UN.

Post-War Arrangements Begin (1944–1945)

Bretton Woods Conference (July 1944)

• 44 Allied nations met to design a new global financial system after WWII.
• Led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
• Established the US dollar as the global currency.

Formation of the United Nations (1945)

• Aimed at promoting peace, replacing the failed League of Nations.

• Introduced during the Yalta Conference by the Big Three calling themselves the “United
Nations.”
• The US:
o Played a major role.
o Hosted the founding conference in San Francisco.
o Was the first to ratify the charter.
o Gained a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.
o Influenced UN structure emphasizing peace, diplomacy, and cooperation.
• Eleanor Roosevelt helped shape the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).

Cold War Overview (1945–1991)

Types of War

1. Total War – All-out war involving civilians and infrastructure.

2. Hot War – Direct, armed conflict.
3. Warm War – Tensions with some backchannel diplomacy.
4. Cold War – Political tension and proxy wars without direct combat.

Roots of Cold War

1. Power Vacuum after WWII

 o Europe (UK, France) weakened.
o Two superpowers emerged:
▪ USA: Strong economy, democracy, nuclear power.
▪ USSR: Military dominance, Eastern Europe control.
2. Division of Europe
o Western (Capitalist) vs Eastern (Communist).
o Termed “Iron Curtain” by Churchill.
3. UN Formation
o Both USA and USSR held permanent seats in the Security Council.
4. Nuclear Arms Race
o Triggered by US atomic bomb use on Hiroshima & Nagasaki.
o USSR accelerated its own nuclear program.

Cold War Tools

• Spy agencies: CIA (USA), KGB (USSR), MI6 (UK), Stasi (East Germany), Mossad
(Israel).
• Proxy Wars:
1. Korea (1950–1953)
2. Vietnam (1955–1975)
3. Afghanistan (1979–1989)
• Use of booby traps, robots, and spy tech—“4th Generation Warfare.”

Cold War Confrontation Era (1946–1962)

1. Baruch Plan (1946)

o US proposal for international control of atomic energy.
o USSR rejected it → began nuclear arms race.
2. Kennan Telegram (1946)
o Urged containment of Soviet expansion.
3. Truman Doctrine (1947)
o Support for countries resisting Communism.
o $400M aid to Turkey & Greece.
4. Marshall Plan (1948)
o $13B aid to rebuild Europe.
o Prevent spread of communism.
5. Berlin Blockade & Airlift (1948–49)
o Soviets blocked West Berlin.
o Western Allies flew in 2.3M tons of supplies.
6. NATO Formed (1949)
o US, Canada, & Western Europe formed a military alliance.
o Collective defense clause: attack on one = attack on all.
7. Soviet Atomic Bomb (1949)
o Ended US nuclear monopoly.
Key Cold War Conflicts

1. Korean War (1950–1953)

o North (backed by USSR & China) vs South (backed by US & UN).
o Ended in a stalemate, division remained.
2. Domino Theory
o If one nation falls to communism, others will follow.
3. Vietnam War (1955–1975)
o North Vietnam (Communist) vs South Vietnam (US-backed).
o Ended with Communist victory in 1975.
4. SEATO (1954) & CENTO (1955)
o Alliances to contain communism in Asia and the Middle East.
5. Warsaw Pact (1955)
o Soviet-led counter to NATO.
o Used to justify invasions in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968).
6. Suez Crisis (1956)
o Egypt’s Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal.
o Britain, France & Israel invaded; US and USSR forced withdrawal.
7. Sputnik Launched (1957)
o USSR’s satellite launch started the Space Race.
8. U-2 Incident (1960)
o US spy plane shot down over USSR; pilot captured.
9. Berlin Wall (1961)
o Built to stop East Germans from fleeing to West.
o Symbol of Cold War division.
10. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
o USSR installed nukes in Cuba.
o JFK imposed naval blockade.
o 13-day standoff ended with mutual withdrawal of missiles.

Détente & Treaties (1962–1979)

1. Détente
o Period of eased tensions via diplomacy and treaties.
2. Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
o Banned atmospheric, underwater, and space nuclear tests.
3. NPT (1968)
o Non-Proliferation, Disarmament, Peaceful nuclear use.
4. SALT I (1972)
o Limited ICBMs & SLBMs between US & USSR.
5. SALT II (1979)
o Limited MIRVs, bombers; not ratified due to Afghanistan invasion.
Rapprochement with China

1. Kissinger’s Secret Visit (197️1)

o Hidden diplomacy with China, via Pakistan.
2. Nixon’s Visit to China (197️2️)
o First US President to visit Communist China.
o Shifted Cold War dynamics.
o Led to US recognition of Beijing (full in 1979).

Cold War Resumes (Late 1970s–1980s)

1. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

o US supported Mujahideen through Operation Cyclone.
o Reagan praised them as heroic fighters.
2. Star Wars (SDI - 1983)
o Reagan’s missile defense plan.
o Not completed but pressured USSR toward disarmament.

Collapse of Cold War (1985–1991)

1. Gorbachev’s Reforms (1985️)

o Glasnost (openness) & Perestroika (economic reform).
o Withdrew USSR troops from Afghanistan (1989).
2. Fall of Berlin Wall (1989)
o Border opened; East & West Berliners tore it down.
o Led to German reunification.
3. Collapse of Soviet Union (1991)
o USSR dissolved into 15 republics.
o Marked end of Cold War.

Summary

• FDR initiated the groundwork for UN (1942–1945).

• Post-WWII arrangements like Bretton Woods and UN formation aimed to build peace.
• Cold War (1945–1991) was an ideological and global standoff between the USA
(Capitalism) and USSR (Communism).
• It featured:
 o Proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan)
o Espionage, propaganda, and alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact)
o Arms races and space race (nukes & satellites)
• Phases of tension & détente alternated.
• It ended with Gorbachev’s reforms, Berlin Wall fall (1989), and USSR’s collapse
(1991).

Personality of FDR

• Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was known for his charismatic, bold, and experimental
leadership.
• Famous for believing in hope and action:

“There is no wait that cannot be done and no hurdles which cannot be removed.”

• He believed in the positive power of the government, especially during crises.

• He strengthened federal executive power, using the government more actively to help
citizens.
• He reshaped the role of government from being passive (like during Hoover's time) to
being active and responsible.

Role of Women under FDR’s Presidency

• Eleanor Roosevelt, FDR’s wife, played a major public and political role:
o She advocated for women’s rights and pushed for more women in federal jobs.
o Helped shape the New Deal to include women in its programs.
• Under FDR, for the first time, a woman was appointed to a US Cabinet position:
o Frances Perkins became the Secretary of Labor.
• Many New Deal programs employed women, such as the Works Progress
Administration (WPA).

Criticism of the New Deal

FDR’s New Deal faced criticism from both the political left and right:

1. Too much government control – People feared it gave too much power to the federal
government.
2. Loss of individualism – Critics said too much relief made people dependent.
3. National debt rose by $3 billion due to excessive spending.
4. Misuse of funds – People did not always work according to the money they were given.
 5. Violation of Constitution and state rights – Federal power increased beyond traditional
limits.
6. Liberty League, formed by conservative Democrats and business leaders, labeled
FDR as a dictator.

Impacts of the New Deal

1. Federal government powers increased drastically.

2. The government became more proactive, unlike Hoover who stayed passive during the
Depression.
3. Government agencies gained control over aspects of people’s private lives.
4. Taxes were raised significantly — by 1945, the highest tax rate reached 91%.
5. Though it gave temporary relief, the Great Depression officially ended due to WWII,
which boosted the war industry.

Significance of the New Deal

1. Dams were constructed, creating jobs and improving infrastructure.

2. Trees were planted under programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).
3. Water power projects were developed.
4. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) led to regional reconstruction.
5. Government took responsibility for public welfare: social security, health, and
education.
6. FDR’s leadership strengthened the executive branch.
7. Redefined democracy: Government must support citizens "from cradle to grave."
8. Expanded political rights and civic engagement.
9. Laid the foundation of the welfare state, emphasizing social and economic justice.

Emergence of World Powers Post-WWII

🇺🇸 United States:

• Became an economic and military superpower.

• Spread global influence through the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine.
• Played a foundational role in global institutions:
o United Nations (UN)
o North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
o International Monetary Fund (IMF)
🇷🇺 Soviet Union:

• Gained superpower status due to:

o Powerful Red Army.
o Spread of Communist ideology.
o Control of vast territory and resources.

Cold War Context

• Defined by non-direct conflict between the US and USSR.

• Included:
o Arms Race – nuclear weapons competition.
o Proxy Wars – like in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan.
o Espionage & Propaganda – use of intelligence agencies like CIA and KGB.
o Ideological division of Europe, especially through the Iron Curtain.

Conclusion of the Cold War

• Although the Cold War officially ended in 1991, its effects still shape global politics.
• Present-day tensions between:
o US & allies vs. Russia and China.
• The rivalry is now driven more by power and influence, not ideology.

Summary

• FDR’s leadership style was bold, hopeful, and government-focused. He pushed for
active governance and public welfare.
• Women gained political and work opportunities, with Eleanor Roosevelt and
Frances Perkins playing key roles.
• The New Deal, while transformative, was criticized for federal overreach and
economic strain.
• It had lasting significance, redefining democracy, building infrastructure, and creating
the basis of the welfare state.
• Post-WWII, the US and USSR emerged as superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold
War.
• The Cold War featured arms races, proxy wars, and ideological competition, but
ended in 1991.
• However, global tensions persist, now shaped by geopolitical interests rather than pure
ideology.