Chapter 4 – Environment

Introduction
Environmental conditions heavily influence aviation. Uncontrollable natural forces, as simple as
temperature and the movement of air, have a direct impact on the efficiency and economics of air
travel.
‫ٮﺮ‬/$‫ ﻟﻬﺎ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬،‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة وﺣﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻬواء‬.‫ٮﻞ در‬$‫ ﻣ‬،‫ٮﻄﺮة‬/‫ﺣﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺴ‬.‫ٮﺔ اﻟ)ﺤﺎر‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ اﻟ"ڡوى اﻟﻄ‬.‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺮ ﻋﲆ اﻟﻄ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺸكﻞ ﻛ‬. ‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮﺌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺮ اﻟ)ﻄروف اﻟ‬$‫ٮ"ﺆٮ‬
‫ٮﻬﺎ‬. ‫ٮﻂ‬."‫ﺤويﺔ واﻻ"ڡ"ٮﺼﺎد اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬.‫ٮﺎت اﻟ‬/‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻌﻤﻠ‬/‫ٮﺎﺷﺮ ﻋﲆ ﻛ)ڡﺎءة وﺳ‬.‫ﻣ‬.

Although sometimes confused, weather and climate are not the same things. Weather refers to the
short-term environmental conditions on a specific day that can change quickly (rainy or dry, cold or
hot, clear or cloudy). Climate is an average of the weather conditions over a longer period (months
or years).
‫ٮﺮة‬/‫ٮﺔ "ڡﺼ‬/‫ٮﺌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟ)ﻄروف اﻟ‬/‫ﺸ‬/ ‫ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ٮ‬.‫ٮﺴﺎ )ٮ)ڡﺲ اﻟﴚء‬/‫ )ڡﺈن اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ واﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ ﻟ‬،‫ٮي)ٮﻬﻤﺎ‬. ‫ٮﺎ)ٮ ًﺎ‬/‫"ٮﻢ اﻟ)ﺤﻠﻂ أﺣ‬/ ‫ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮ)ﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ أ)ٮﻪ ٮ‬
‫ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ ﻫﻮ ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ )ﻃروف‬.(‫ى أو )ﻋﺎﺋﻢ‬c‫ ﺻﺎ)ڡ‬،‫ٮﺎرد أو ﺣﺎر‬. ،‫ﺣﺎف‬. ‫ٮﺴﺮﻋﺔ )ﻣﻤﻄﺮ أو‬. ‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫ﻤﻜﻦ أن ٮ"ت‬/ ‫ﻮم ﻣﺤﺪد واﻟﱵ ٮ‬/ ‫ى ٮ‬c‫اﻟﻤﺪى )ڡ‬
(‫اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ﻟ)ڡ"ٮﺮة أﻃول )أﺷﻬﺮ أو ﺳ)ٮوات‬.

Significant weather events, such as severe storms, heavy rains, and changes in prevailing winds,
directly impact aviation operations. These events may cause airlines to change their routes and
airports to invest in infrastructure such as improved drainage to manage very heavy rain, or longer
runways (as hot temperatures reduce the lifting properties of the air, which requires a longer takeoff
run for an aircraft to achieve flight). On a broader scale, significant weather events can influence
people’s decision to travel at all.
‫ "ڡﺪ‬.‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺎت اﻟﻄ‬/‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠ‬.‫ﺮ ﻣ‬$‫ ٮ"ﺆٮ‬،‫ٮﺮ اﻟريﺎح اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫ وٮ‬،‫ﻌزيﺮة‬i‫ اﻷﻣﻄﺎر اﻟ‬،‫ﺪة‬/ ‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻌواﺻﻒ اﻟﺸﺪٮ‬$‫ ﻣ‬،‫ٮﺮة‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺤويﺔ اﻟﻜ‬.‫اﻷﺣﺪاث اﻟ‬
‫ٮﻦ أ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺮف‬/‫ٮﻞ ٮ"ﺤﺴ‬$‫ٮﺔ ﻣ‬/‫ٮﺔ اﻟ"ٮﺤ"ٮ‬/‫ٮ)ٮ‬.‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ٮران ﻟﻤﺴﺎراٮ"ﻬﺎ واﺳ"ٮثﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﻄﺎرات )ڡ‬/‫ٮيﺮ ﺷﺮﰷت اﻟﻄ‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫ٮ"ﺆدي ﻫﺬه اﻷﺣﺪاث إﻟﻰ ٮ‬
‫"ٮﻄﻠﺐ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ﺣﺎت اﻟﺤرارة اﻟﻤﺮٮ")ڡﻌﺔ ٮ""ڡﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ "ڡﺪرة اﻟﻬواء ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮ)ڡﻊ‬.‫ٮ)ٮﺎء ﻣﺪارج أﻃول )ﻷن در‬. ‫ أو‬،‫ﺣًﺪا‬. ‫ﻌزيﺮة‬i‫ﻟﻠ"ٮﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻷﻣﻄﺎر اﻟ‬
‫ﺮ ﻋﲆ "ڡرار اﻷﺷ)ﺤﺎص‬$‫ٮﺮة أن ٮ"ﺆٮ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺤويﺔ اﻟﻜ‬.‫ﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻸﺣﺪاث اﻟ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ ﻋﲆ )ٮﻄﺎق أوﺳﻊ‬.(‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﻖ اﻟﻄ‬/‫ﻣﺴﺎ)ڡﺔ إ"ڡﻼع أﻃول ﻟﻠﻄﺎﺋﺮة ﻟ"ٮﺤ"ڡ‬
‫ٮﺎﻟﺴ)ڡﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﺎس‬..

As the weather can have direct and severe impacts on aviation operations, ICAO plays a vital role in
the distribution of weather information. Consistent and reliable worldwide data are crucial for
facilitating the safe navigation of aircraft. Like many aspects of aviation, this issue requires
international cooperation and a standardized approach among all the countries of the world.
‫ى‬c‫ى اﻟﺪول‬c‫ٮران اﻟﻤﺪ)ٮ‬/‫ ٮ"ﻠﻌﺐ ﻣ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﻄ‬،‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺎت اﻟﻄ‬/‫ﺪة ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠ‬/ ‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة وﺷﺪٮ‬.‫ٮرات ﻣ‬/$‫ﻜون ﻟﻪ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬/ ‫ﻤﻜﻦ أن ٮ‬/ ‫)ٮ)ﻄًرا ﻷن اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ٮ‬
(ICAO) ‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻤﻼﺣﺔ اﻵﻣ)ٮﺔ‬/‫ﻮ"ڡﺔ ﺿروريﺔ ﻟ"ٮﺴﻬ‬$‫ٮﺔ اﻟﻤ"ٮﺴ"ڡﺔ واﻟﻤﻮٮ‬/‫ٮﺎ)ٮﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ اﻟ‬.‫ى ٮ"وزيﻊ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ‬c‫ٮوًيﺎ )ڡ‬/‫دوًرا ﺣ‬
‫ﺣﻤيﻊ دول اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬. ‫ٮيﻦ‬. ‫ﺤﺎ ﻣﻮﺣًﺪا‬.ً‫ى و)ٮﻬ‬c‫ ٮ"تﻄﻠﺐ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ اﻟ"ٮﻌﺎون اﻟﺪول‬،‫ٮران‬/‫ﺣوا)ٮﺐ اﻟﻄ‬. ‫ﺪ ﻣﻦ‬/ ‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻌﺪٮ‬$‫ ﻣ‬.‫ﻟﻠﻄﺎﺋرات‬.

However, the need for accurate weather reports predates modern aviation. The first international
meteorological conference was convened in Brussels, Belgium, in 1853 to establish an international
strategy for sharing weather observations made by ships at sea.
،‫ٮروﻛﺴﻞ‬. ‫ى‬c‫ﺤويﺔ )ڡ‬.‫ى ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬c‫ ا)ٮﻌ"ڡﺪ أول ﻣﺆٮ"ﻤﺮ ﻋﺎﻟم‬.‫ﺚ‬/ ‫ٮران اﻟﺤﺪٮ‬/‫ٮ"ڡﺖ اﻟﻄ‬.‫ٮ"ڡﺔ ﺳ‬/‫ﺣﺔ ﻟ"ٮ"ڡﺎريﺮ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ اﻟﺪ"ڡ‬.‫ )ڡﺈن اﻟﺤﺎ‬،‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬
،‫ٮروﻛﺴﻞ‬. ‫ى‬c‫ﺤويﺔ )ڡ‬.‫ى ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬c‫ ا)ٮﻌ"ڡﺪ أول ﻣﺆٮ"ﻤﺮ ﻋﺎﻟم‬.‫ﺚ‬/ ‫ٮران اﻟﺤﺪٮ‬/‫ٮ"ڡﺖ اﻟﻄ‬.‫ٮ"ڡﺔ ﺳ‬/‫ﺣﺔ ﻟ"ٮ"ڡﺎريﺮ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ اﻟﺪ"ڡ‬.‫ )ڡﺈن اﻟﺤﺎ‬،‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫ٮﺤﺮ‬.‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ٮﻬﺎ اﻟﺴ)ڡﻦ )ڡ‬. ‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻣﻼﺣ)ﻄﺎت اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ اﻟﱵ ٮ""ڡﻮم‬/‫ٮﺔ دوﻟ‬/‫ﺤ‬.‫ٮ‬/"‫ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﺳ"ٮراٮ‬1853 ‫ ﻋﺎم‬،‫ٮﲀ‬/‫ﺤ‬.‫ٮﻠ‬..

In 1873, the first International Meteorological Congress was held in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, and the
International Meteorological Organization was established. This organization launched a variety of
initiatives to standardize weather observations and share the information internationally.
.‫ﺤويﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫ٮﺲ اﻟﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟ‬/‫ وٮ"ﻢ ٮ"ﺄﺳ‬،‫ﺤﺮ‬.‫اﻟﻤ‬-‫ اﻟ)ٮﻤﺴﺎ‬،‫ٮي)ٮﺎ‬/‫ى )ڡ‬c‫ﺤويﺔ )ڡ‬.‫ى ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬c‫ ﻋ"ڡﺪ أول ﻣﺆٮ"ﻤﺮ ﻋﺎﻟم‬،1873 ‫ى ﻋﺎم‬c‫)ڡ‬
‫ى‬c‫ٮﺪ ﻣﻼﺣ)ﻄﺎت اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ وﻣﺸﺎرﻛﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﲆ اﻟﻤﺴ"ٮوى اﻟﺪول‬/‫ٮﺎدرات ﻟ"ٮﻮﺣ‬.‫ﺤﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤ‬.‫أﻃﻠ"ڡﺖ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ ﻣ‬.

In 1947, at a meeting of the International Meteorological Organization in Washington, DC, States

worked to create the World Meteorological Convention with the intent that the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) would succeed the International Meteorological Organization. This convention
came into force in 1950 when 30 signatories ratified it.
‫ٮﺔ اﻷرﺻﺎد‬/‫ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ اﻟﺪول ﻋﲆ إ)ٮﺸﺎء اٮ")ڡﺎ"ڡ‬،‫ى واﺷ)ٮﻄﻦ اﻟﻌﺎﺻﻤﺔ‬c‫ﺤويﺔ )ڡ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫ﺣ"ٮﻤﺎع ﻟﻠﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟ‬.‫ )ﺣﻼل ا‬،1947 ‫ى ﻋﺎم‬c‫)ڡ‬
‫ﺤويﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫ٮﻬﺪف أن ٮ"ﺤﻞ اﻟﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬. ‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ﺤويﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬.‫( اﻟ‬WMO) ‫ د)ﺣﻠﺖ ﻫﺬه‬.‫ﺤويﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟ‬
‫ٮهﺎ‬/‫ دوﻟﺔ ﻋﻠ‬30 ‫ﻖ‬/ ‫ٮﻌﺪ ٮ"ﺼﺪٮ‬. 1950 ‫ى ﻋﺎم‬c‫ٮﺬ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﺰ اﻟ"ٮ)ٮ)ڡ‬/‫ٮﺔ ﺣ‬/‫اﻻٮ")ڡﺎ"ڡ‬.

In 1953, ICAO and the WMO established a partnership. The intent was to secure cooperation and
ensure that efforts were not unnecessarily duplicated. The partnership established that ICAO has
responsibility for specifying the aeronautical meteorological service needs of pilots and operators,
while the WMO is responsible for providing the meteorological information. The WMO and ICAO
continue to maintain a close cooperative partnership, ensuring that the weather service
requirements of aviators are met. The WMO also works closely with the International Air Transport
Association (IATA).
‫ أ)ٮﺸﺄت‬،1953 ‫ى ﻋﺎم‬c‫ )ڡ‬ICAO ‫و‬WMO ‫ )ٮﺼﺖ‬.‫ٮﺮ ﺿروري‬/‫ٮﺸكﻞ )ﻋ‬. ‫ﺤﻬﻮد‬.‫ٮﻦ اﻟ"ٮﻌﺎون وﺿﻤﺎن ﻋﺪم ٮ"ﻜرار اﻟ‬/‫ٮﻬﺪف ٮ"ﺄﻣ‬. ‫ﺷراﻛﺔ‬
‫ اﻟﺸراﻛﺔ ﻋﲆ أن‬ICAO ‫ٮي)ٮﻤﺎ‬. ،‫ٮﻦ‬/‫ﻌﻠ‬i‫ٮﺎريﻦ واﻟﻤﺸ‬/‫ٮران ﻟﻠﻄ‬/‫ﺤويﺔ ﻟﻠﻄ‬.‫ﺣﺎت )ﺣﺪﻣﺎت اﻷرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬.‫ٮﺎ‬/‫ﺪ اﺣ"ٮ‬/ ‫ ﻣﺴؤوﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ٮ"ﺤﺪٮ‬WMO
‫ ﻻ ٮ"زال‬.‫ﺔ‬/ ‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻷرﺻﺎدٮ‬/‫ ﻣﺴؤوﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ٮ"ﻮ)ڡ‬WMO ‫و‬ICAO ‫ٮﺎت‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻣ"ٮﻄﻠ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮ"ڡﺔ ﻟﻀﻤﺎن ٮ"ﻠ‬/$‫ٮﺔ وٮ‬/‫ٮ"ﺤﺎ)ڡ)ﻄﺎن ﻋﲆ ﺷراﻛﺔ ٮ"ﻌﺎو)ٮ‬
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ٮ"ﻌﻤﻞ‬.‫ )ﺣﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﺋرات‬WMO ‫ﺤوي‬.‫ى ﻟﻠ)ٮ"ڡﻞ اﻟ‬c‫ٮﻖ ﻣﻊ اﻻٮ"ﺤﺎد اﻟﺪول‬/$‫ٮﺸكﻞ وٮ‬. (IATA).

There are about 70 States that do not have the capability to generate and use climate information
and forecasts, and so the WMO is working to improve these States’ access to climate services. The
Global Framework for Climate Services, established in 2011, assists the least developed countries,
including small island States and other vulnerable countries, to strengthen their national climate and
meteorological capabilities. The WMO is also working with partners to help countries protect
themselves from climate risks through multi-hazard early warning systems, impact-based forecasts,
and risk-informed warnings.
‫ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ٮ"ﻌﻤﻞ‬،‫ٮﺪ واﺳ"ٮ)ﺤﺪام ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت وٮ"ﻮ"ڡﻌﺎت اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬/‫ دوﻟﺔ ﻻ ٮ"ﻤ"ٮﻠﻚ اﻟ"ڡﺪرة ﻋﲆ ٮ"ﻮﻟ‬70 ‫ى‬c‫ ﻫ)ٮﺎك ﺣوال‬WMO ‫ٮﻦ‬/‫ﻋﲆ ٮ"ﺤﺴ‬
‫ٮﻤﺎ‬. ،ً ‫ﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻟﺪول اﻷ"ڡﻞ )ٮﻤوا‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،2011 ‫ اﻟﺬي ٮ"ﺄﺳﺲ ﻋﺎم‬،‫ى ﻟ)ﺤﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬c‫ اﻹﻃﺎر اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬.‫وﺻول ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪول إﻟﻰ )ﺣﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ٮ"ﻌﻤﻞ‬.‫ﺤويﺔ‬.‫ى اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ واﻷرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬c‫ٮﺔ )ڡ‬/‫ ﻋﲆ ٮ"ﻌزيﺰ "ڡﺪراٮ"ﻬﺎ اﻟﻮﻃ)ٮ‬،‫ٮ)ڡﺔ اﻷ)ﺣرى‬/‫ٮﺮة واﻟﺪول اﻟﻀﻌ‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫ﺤزريﺔ اﻟﺼ‬.‫ى ذﻟﻚ اﻟﺪول اﻟ‬c‫)ڡ‬
WMO ‫ٮؤات‬.‫ واﻟ"ٮ)ٮ‬،‫ٮﻜﺮ ﻣ"ٮﻌﺪدة اﻟﻤ)ﺤﺎﻃﺮ‬.‫ٮﺮ أ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻹ)ٮﺬار اﻟﻤ‬.‫ﺔ )ٮ)ڡﺴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣ)ﺤﺎﻃﺮ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ ﻋ‬/ ‫ﻣﻊ ﺷﺮﰷﺋﻬﺎ ﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺪول ﻋﲆ ﺣﻤﺎٮ‬
‫رات اﻟﻤﺴ"ٮ)ٮﺪة إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤ)ﺤﺎﻃﺮ‬/ ‫ واﻟ"ٮﺤﺬٮ‬،‫ٮﺮ‬/$‫ٮﺔ ﻋﲆ اﻟ"ٮﺄٮ‬/‫ٮ)ٮ‬.‫اﻟﻤ‬.
Forecasting weather is a complicated process, which involves collecting a large amount of data
about current conditions, compiling this information into a database, and referencing this data
against known models of how the atmosphere changes over time.
‫ى "ڡﺎﻋﺪة‬c‫ﺤﻤيﻊ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت )ڡ‬."‫ وٮ‬،‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮﺎ)ٮﺎت ﺣول اﻟ)ﻄروف اﻟﺤﺎﻟ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻛ‬/‫ﺣﻤﻊ ﻛﻤ‬. ‫ ٮ"تﻀﻤﻦ‬،‫ٮﺔ ﻣﻌ"ڡﺪة‬/‫ٮ"ﻮ"ڡﻊ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ﻋﻤﻠ‬
‫ﺤوي ﻣﻊ ﻣرور اﻟﻮ"ڡﺖ‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺮ اﻟ‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫ٮﺔ ٮ‬/‫ٮ)ڡ‬/‫ٮﺎﻟ)ٮﻤﺎذج اﻟﻤﻌرو)ڡﺔ ﻟﻜ‬. ‫ٮﺎ)ٮﺎت‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ وﻣ"ڡﺎر)ٮﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻟ‬،‫ٮيﺎ)ٮﺎت‬..

Modern forecasting gathers international data from a variety of sources, including environmental
satellites, Doppler radar, and automated weather observing systems (AWOS), among others.
‫ وأ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ‬،‫ٮﻠﺮ‬.‫ رادار دو‬،‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮﺌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺔ اﻟ‬/‫ى ذﻟﻚ اﻷ"ڡﻤﺎر اﻟﺼ)ٮﺎﻋ‬c‫ٮﻤﺎ )ڡ‬. ،‫ٮﺔ ﻣ"ٮﻌﺪدة‬/‫ﺸﻤﻞ ﻣﺼﺎدر دوﻟ‬/ ‫ٮﺔ ﻟ"ٮﻮ"ڡﻊ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ٮ‬$/ ‫ٮﺎ)ٮﺎت اﻟﺤﺪٮ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺤﻤيﻊ اﻟ‬."‫ٮ‬
‫ى ﻟﻠﻄ"ڡﺲ‬c‫( اﻟﺮﺻﺪ اﻵل‬AWOS)، ‫ٮﺮﻫﺎ‬/‫و)ﻋ‬

Meteorology

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere associated with forecasting the weather.
Meteorology is a complex science, to which only the briefest introduction can be included in this
analysis. Critical elements of meteorology relevant to the aviation industry will be discussed,
including the composition of the atmosphere, air pressure, temperature, air masses and wind.
‫ٮﻦ‬/‫ٮ"ٮﻢ ٮ"ﻀﻤ‬/‫ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺳ‬،‫ﺤويﺔ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻣﻌ"ڡﺪ‬.‫ اﻷرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬.‫ٮ"ٮﻮ"ڡﻊ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ‬. ‫ٮﻂ‬."‫ﺤوي اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻠ‬/‫ى اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﻤ‬c‫ﺤويﺔ ه‬.‫اﻷرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬
‫ى ذﻟﻚ‬c‫ٮﻤﺎ )ڡ‬. ،‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺼ)ٮﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻄ‬. ‫ﺤويﺔ اﻟﻤ"ٮﻌﻠ"ڡﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫ٮ"ٮﻢ ﻣ)ٮﺎ"ڡﺸﺔ اﻟﻌ)ٮﺎﺻﺮ اﻷﺳﺎﺳ‬/‫ ﺳ‬.‫ٮﻞ‬/‫ى ﻫﺬا اﻟ"ٮﺤﻠ‬c‫ﻣ"ڡﺪﻣﺔ ﻣ)ﺤ"ٮﺼﺮة )ڡ"ڡﻂ )ڡ‬
.‫ واﻟريﺎح‬،‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ اﻟﻜ"ٮﻞ اﻟﻬواﺋ‬،‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة‬.‫ در‬،‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء‬i‫ ﺿ‬،‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺐ اﻟ‬/‫ٮ"ﺮﻛ‬
Atmosphere

Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases (78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 1 percent water
vapor and other gases), which we call the atmosphere. The atmosphere is warmed by Earth’s
surface, which is warmed by net radiation (including the sun’s energy).
.‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﻪ اﻟ‬/‫ وﻫﺬا ﻣﺎ )ٮﺴﻤ‬،(‫ٮ)ﺤﺎر ﻣﺎء و)ﻋﺎزات أ)ﺣرى‬. ٪1 ،‫ٮﻦ‬/‫ﺤ‬.‫ أﻛﺴ‬٪21 ،‫ٮﻦ‬/‫ﺣ‬.‫ٮ"ٮرو‬/‫ )ٮ‬٪78) ‫ﻌﺎزات‬i‫ٮﺎﻷرض ﻣزيﺞ ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬. ‫ٮﻂ‬/‫ٮ"ﺤ‬
.(‫ى ذﻟﻚ ﻃﺎ"ڡﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺲ‬c‫ٮﻤﺎ )ڡ‬.) ‫ى‬c‫ٮواﺳﻄﺔ اﻹﺷﻌﺎع اﻟﺼﺎ)ڡ‬. ‫ٮ)ٮﻪ‬/‫"ٮﻢ ٮ"ﺴ)ﺤ‬/ ‫ اﻟﺬي ٮ‬،‫ٮواﺳﻄﺔ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض‬. ‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﻦ اﻟ‬/‫"ٮﻢ ٮ"ﺴ)ﺤ‬/ ‫ٮ‬

The atmosphere is divided into layers, with the lowest being the troposphere, where weather and
clouds exist. At the top of this layer is the tropopause, at about 36,000 feet (11 kilometers) above
Earth. Here temperatures are very cold, and various flight-relevant phenomena take place (including
jet streams and clear air turbulence). Thunderstorms can penetrate the tropopause, but are mostly
.found in the troposphere and stratosphere
‫ﺣﺪ‬.‫ٮ"ڡﺔ ٮ"ﻮ‬.‫ى "ڡﻤﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻄ‬c‫ )ڡ‬.‫ﺣﺪ اﻟﺴﺤﺐ واﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ‬.‫ٮﺚ ٮ"ﻮ‬/‫ ﺣ‬،‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ٮﻮﺳ)ڡ‬.‫ى اﻟ"ٮرو‬c‫ٮ"ڡﺔ ه‬.‫ وأد)ٮﻰ ﻃ‬،‫ٮ"ڡﺎت‬.‫ﺤوي إﻟﻰ ﻃ‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫)ٮ"ڡﺴﻢ اﻟ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
‫ وٮ"ﺤﺪث ﻋﺪة‬،‫ٮرودة‬.‫ﺪة اﻟ‬/ ‫ﺣﺎت اﻟﺤرارة ﺷﺪٮ‬.‫ ﻫ)ٮﺎ ٮ"ﻜون در‬.‫ٮﻠﻮﻣ"ٮﺮ( )ڡوق اﻷرض‬/‫ ﻛ‬11) ‫ "ڡﺪم‬36,000 ‫ى‬c‫ ﻋﲆ ارٮ")ڡﺎع ﺣوال‬،‫ٮﻮﺳﻮب‬.‫اﻟ"ٮرو‬
،‫ٮﻮﺳﻮب‬.‫ﺔ ا)ﺣ"ٮراق اﻟ"ٮرو‬/ ‫ﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻌواﺻﻒ اﻟﺮﻋﺪٮ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.(‫ى‬c‫ﺔ واﺿﻄراب اﻟﻬواء اﻟﺼﺎ)ڡ‬$‫ٮﺎرات اﻟ)ٮ)ڡﺎٮ‬/‫ى ذﻟﻚ اﻟ"ٮ‬c‫ٮﻤﺎ )ڡ‬.) ‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺎﻟﻄ‬. ‫)ﻃواﻫﺮ ﻣ"ٮﻌﻠ"ڡﺔ‬
.‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ٮﺮ واﻟﺴ"ٮراٮ"ﻮﺳ)ڡ‬/‫ٮﻮﺳ)ڡ‬.‫ى اﻟ"ٮرو‬c‫ٮًﺎ )ڡ‬.‫ﺣﺪ )ﻋﺎﻟ‬.‫ﻟﻜ)ٮﻬﺎ ٮ"ﻮ‬

Above the tropopause, the temperature increases throughout the stratosphere as a result of the
ozone layer. Ozone, a very rare molecule in our atmosphere, plays an important role by filtering
ultraviolet light and allowing only a limited amount to reach Earth’s surface. Unfortunately, human-
produced chemicals have a depleting impact on the ozone layer and are a significant environmental
.and health concern
،‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ﺣًﺪا )ڡ‬. ‫ﺣزيء )ٮﺎدر‬. ‫ وﻫﻮ‬،‫ اﻷوزون‬.‫ٮ"ڡﺔ اﻷوزون‬.‫ﺤﺔ ﻃ‬.‫ٮ‬/‫ٮﺮ )ٮ"ٮ‬/‫ى اﻟﺴ"ٮراٮ"ﻮﺳ)ڡ‬c‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة )ڡ‬.‫ ٮ"ﺮٮ")ڡﻊ در‬،‫ٮﻮﺳﻮب‬.‫)ڡوق اﻟ"ٮرو‬
‫ ﻟﻠﻤواد‬،‫ ﻟﻸﺳﻒ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻣﺤﺪودة )ڡ"ڡﻂ ﻟﻠﻮﺻول إﻟﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض‬/‫ٮﻜﻤ‬. ‫ٮﺔ واﻟﺴﻤﺎح‬/‫ﺤ‬.‫ٮ)ٮ)ڡﺴ‬.‫ٮﺔ اﻷﺷﻌﺔ )ڡوق اﻟ‬/‫ى ٮ"ﺼ)ڡ‬c‫ﻠﻌﺐ دوًرا ﻣﻬًﻤﺎ )ڡ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
.‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ى ﻛ‬c‫ٮيﱩ وﺻح‬. ‫ٮ"ڡﺔ اﻷوزون وٮ"ﺸكﻞ ﻣﺼﺪر "ڡﻠﻖ‬.‫ٮﺮ ﻣﺪﻣﺮ ﻋﲆ ﻃ‬/$‫ﺤﻬﺎ اﻹ)ٮﺴﺎن ٮ"ﺄٮ‬.‫)ٮ"ٮ‬/ ‫ٮﺔ اﻟﱵ ٮ‬/‫ٮﺎﺋ‬/‫ٮﻤ‬/‫اﻟﻜ‬

Although aviation takes place in the troposphere, it is important to understand the composition of
the entire atmosphere because what exists above the troposphere directly impacts the weather and
.the climate that is experienced
‫ﺣﺪ )ڡوق‬.‫ﻮ‬/ ‫ ﻷن ﻣﺎ ٮ‬،‫ٮﺄﻛﻤﻠﻪ‬. ‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺐ اﻟ‬/‫ إﻻ أ)ٮﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻬﻢ )ڡﻬﻢ ٮ"ﺮﻛ‬،‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ٮﻮﺳ)ڡ‬.‫ى اﻟ"ٮرو‬c‫ﺤﺪث )ڡ‬/ ‫ٮران ٮ‬/‫ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮ)ﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ أن اﻟﻄ‬
.‫ٮ"ٮﻪ‬.‫ﺤر‬."‫"ٮﻢ ٮ‬/ ‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ واﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ اﻟﺬي ٮ‬.‫ﺮ ﻣ‬$‫ﺆٮ‬/ ‫ٮﺮ ٮ‬/‫ٮﻮﺳ)ڡ‬.‫اﻟ"ٮرو‬
Air Pressure
Air is composed of molecules that are always moving and bumping into each other and other
objects, exerting a force measured as air pressure. Air pressure makes flight possible. The wings of
an aircraft are designed with a slight curve to the upper surface, causing air to move more quickly
above the wing than below it. The subsequent difference in air pressure—high pressure below the
wing and low pressure above it—results in lift. However, air pressure continually changes based on
the density and temperature of air molecules.
‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء‬i‫ ﺿ‬.‫ﻌﻂ ﻫواء‬i‫)ڡﺮض "ڡﻮة ٮ" ُ"ڡﺎس ﻛﻀ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ﺣﺴﺎم اﻷ)ﺣرى‬.‫ٮﺎﻷ‬.‫ٮﻌﻀﻬﺎ و‬.‫ٮ‬. ‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت ٮ"تﺤﺮك داﺋًﻤﺎ وٮ"ﺼﻄﺪم‬. ‫"ٮﻜون اﻟﻬواء ﻣﻦ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
‫ٮﺮ‬.‫ٮﺴﺮﻋﺔ أﻛ‬. ‫"ٮﺤﺮك‬/ ‫ﺤﻌﻞ اﻟﻬواء ٮ‬./ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ى اﻟﺴﻄﺢ اﻟﻌﻠوي‬c‫ٮﻒ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﺎ)ٮﺤ)ٮﺎء ﻃ)ڡ‬. ‫ﺣ)ٮﺤﺔ اﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮة‬.‫ٮﻢ أ‬/‫"ٮﻢ ٮ"ﺼﻤ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.‫ٮران ﻣﻤﻜ)ٮًﺎ‬/‫ﺤﻌﻞ اﻟﻄ‬./ ‫ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ٮ‬
،‫ وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫)ٮ"ٮﺞ ﻋ)ٮﻪ اﻟﺮ)ڡﻊ‬/ ‫ﺤ)ٮﺎح وﻣ)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡﺾ )ڡﻮ"ڡﻪ — ٮ‬.‫ﻌﻂ ﻋﺎل ٍأﺳ)ڡﻞ اﻟ‬i‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء — ﺿ‬i‫ى ﺿ‬c‫ اﻟ)ڡرق اﻟ)ٮﺎٮ"ﺞ )ڡ‬.‫ﺤ)ٮﺎح ﻣ)ٮﻪ أﺳ)ڡﻠﻪ‬.‫)ڡوق اﻟ‬
.‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت اﻟﻬواء‬. ‫ﺣﺔ ﺣرارة‬.‫ٮﺎ)ڡﺔ ودر‬$‫ٮ)ٮﺎًء ﻋﲆ ﻛ‬. ‫ٮﺎﺳ"ٮﻤرار‬. ‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء‬i‫ٮﺮ ﺿ‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫"ٮ‬/ ‫ٮ‬

The density of air molecules decreases with height above Earth’s surface, resulting in lower air
.pressure at higher altitudes
.‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ى اﻻرٮ")ڡﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬c‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء )ڡ‬i‫ﺆدي إﻟﻰ ا)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡﺎض ﺿ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت اﻟﻬواء ﻣﻊ اﻻرٮ")ڡﺎع )ڡوق ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض‬. ‫ٮﺎ)ڡﺔ‬$‫ٮ"ت)ٮﺎ"ڡﺺ ﻛ‬

Air pressure is also linked to temperature. When air is heated, energy is transferred to air molecules,
which causes increasing movement. Heated, faster-moving molecules spread out and exert less
.pressure on their surroundings than colder molecules
‫ ٮ")ٮ"ٮﺸﺮ‬.‫زيﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻛ"ٮﻬﺎ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ﺣزيﺌﺎت اﻟﻬواء‬. ‫ ٮ")ٮ"ٮ"ڡﻞ اﻟﻄﺎ"ڡﺔ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺴ)ﺤﻦ اﻟﻬواء‬/ ‫ ﻋ)ٮﺪﻣﺎ ٮ‬.‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة‬.‫ٮﺪر‬. ‫ﻀﺎ‬
ً / ‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء أٮ‬i‫ٮﻂ ﺿ‬."‫ﺮٮ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
.‫ٮﺎردة‬.‫ﺤزيﺌﺎت اﻟ‬.‫ٮﺎﻟ‬. ‫ٮﻄﻬﺎ ﻣ"ڡﺎر)ٮﺔ‬/‫ﻄﺎ أ"ڡﻞ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺤ‬
ً ‫ﻌ‬i‫ﺤزيﺌﺎت اﻟﺴﺎ)ﺣ)ٮﺔ واﻟﺴريﻌﺔ اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ وٮ")ڡﺮض ﺿ‬.‫اﻟ‬

Air pressure directly impacts aircraft performance. Therefore, the current air pressure at an airport
is an essential element of weather reports. When air pressure is low, the lifting force produced by
the wings will be lower, and engines will generate less power. This requires pilots to make
adjustments, perhaps by reducing the weight of the aircraft (taking on less cargo or fewer
.passengers) to compensate for poor performance
‫ ﻋ)ٮﺪﻣﺎ‬.‫ى ٮ""ڡﺎريﺮ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ‬c‫ٮًﺎ )ڡ‬/‫ى اﻟﻤﻄﺎر ﻋ)ٮﺼًرا أﺳﺎﺳ‬c‫ى )ڡ‬c‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء اﻟﺤﺎل‬i‫ﻌﺪ ﺿ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ أداء اﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮة‬.‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء ﻣ‬i‫ﺮ ﺿ‬$‫ﺆٮ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
‫ٮﺎريﻦ‬/‫"ٮﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄ‬/ ‫ وﻫﺬا ٮ‬.‫ وٮ"ﻮﻟﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺮﰷت "ڡﻮة أ"ڡﻞ‬،‫ﺣ)ٮﺤﺔ أ"ڡﻞ‬.‫ﺤﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻷ‬."‫ﻜون "ڡﻮة اﻟﺮ)ڡﻊ اﻟ)ٮﺎٮ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ﻀﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء ﻣ)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡ‬i‫ﻜون ﺿ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
.‫ٮﻒ‬/‫ٮﻀﺎﺋﻊ أو ﻋﺪد رﰷب أ"ڡﻞ( ﻟ"ٮﻌويﺾ اﻷداء اﻟﻀﻌ‬.‫ٮﻞ وزن اﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮة )ﺣﻤﻞ أ"ڡﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬/‫ٮﻤﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻃريﻖ ٮ""ڡﻠ‬.‫ ر‬،‫ﻼت‬/ ‫ﺣراء ٮ"ﻌﺪٮ‬.‫إ‬
Temperature
After the sun’s energy passes through the atmosphere, heat is absorbed by Earth’s surface. This
varies with season, time of day, and latitude. Keep in mind that the sun’s angle in the sky, and
Earth’s location in its orbit, change continually. Temperatures around the world vary significantly as
a result of air movement, surface conditions, and Earth’s rotation.
‫ وو"ڡﺖ‬،‫)ﺤ"ٮﻠﻒ ﻫﺬا ﺣﺴﺐ اﻟﻤﻮﺳﻢ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.‫ٮواﺳﻄﺔ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض‬. ‫"ٮﻢ اﻣ"ٮﺼﺎص اﻟﺤرارة‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺮ اﻟ‬.‫ٮﻌﺪ أن ٮ"ﻤﺮ ﻃﺎ"ڡﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﻋ‬.
‫ﺣﺎت‬.‫ ٮ")ﺤ"ٮﻠﻒ در‬.‫ٮﺎﺳ"ٮﻤرار‬. ‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫ ٮ"ت‬،‫ى ﻣﺪاره‬c‫ وﻣﻮ"ڡﻊ اﻷرض )ڡ‬،‫ى اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬c‫ﺤﺪر اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ أن زاويﺔ اﻟﺸﻤﺲ )ڡ‬."‫ ٮ‬.‫ و)ﺣﻂ اﻟﻌﺮض‬،‫ٮﻮم‬/‫اﻟ‬
‫ ودوران اﻷرض‬،‫ و)ﻃروف اﻟﺴﻄﺢ‬،‫ﺤﺔ ﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻬواء‬.‫ٮ‬/‫ٮﺮ )ٮ"ٮ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺸكﻞ ﻛ‬. ‫اﻟﺤرارة ﺣول اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬.

As air contains moisture, when the air temperature is cooled, dew point temperature can be
reached. The dew point is the temperature at which the water naturally present in the air begins to
condense, causing visible clouds and fog.
‫ )ٮ"ڡﻄﺔ اﻟ)ٮﺪى‬.‫ﺣﺔ ﺣرارة )ٮ"ڡﻄﺔ اﻟ)ٮﺪى‬.‫ﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻮﺻول إﻟﻰ در‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ﺣﺔ ﺣرارة اﻟﻬواء‬.‫ )ڡﻌ)ٮﺪ ا)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡﺎض در‬،‫ٮﺔ‬.‫ﺤ"ٮوي ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮﻃو‬/ ‫)ٮ)ﻄًرا ﻷن اﻟﻬواء ٮ‬
‫ٮﺎب‬.‫ٮًﺎ )ﻃﻬور اﻟﺴﺤﺐ واﻟﻀ‬.‫ٮ‬.‫ ﻣﺴ‬،‫ٮﻒ‬$‫ٮﺎﻟ"ٮﻜ‬. ‫ى اﻟﻬواء‬c‫ٮًﺎ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺣﻮد ﻃ‬.‫ٮﺪأ ﻋ)ٮﺪﻫﺎ اﻟﻤﺎء اﻟﻤﻮ‬./ ‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة اﻟﱵ ٮ‬.‫ى در‬c‫ه‬.

Air Masses and Wind

The combination of temperature, moisture, and air stability can create large air masses, defined by
their moisture and temperature characteristics. Classifications include continental (C: dry), maritime
(M: wet), polar (P: cold), or tropical (T: hot).
‫ﺣﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ ودر‬.‫ٮﺚ اﻟﺮﻃو‬/‫ٮ)ﺤﺼﺎﺋﺼﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺣ‬. ‫ ٮ" ُﻌﺮف‬،‫ٮﺮة‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻛ‬/‫ واﺳ"ٮ"ڡرار اﻟﻬواء ﻟ"ٮﻜويﻦ ﻛ"ٮﻞ ﻫواﺋ‬،‫ٮﺔ‬.‫ واﻟﺮﻃو‬،‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة‬.‫ٮيﻦ در‬. ‫ﺤﻤﻊ‬./ ‫ٮ‬
‫ "ڡﺎريﺔ‬:‫ٮ)ڡﺎت‬/‫ ٮ"ﺸﻤﻞ اﻟ"ٮﺼ)ٮ‬.‫( اﻟﺤرارة‬C: ‫ﺣﺎ)ڡﺔ‬.)، ‫ٮﺤريﺔ‬. (M: ‫ٮﺔ‬.‫)رﻃ‬، ‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫( "ڡﻄ‬P: ‫ٮﺎردة‬.)، ‫ٮﺔ‬/‫( أو اﺳ"ٮواﺋ‬T: ‫)ﺣﺎرة‬.

Air masses directly impact weather. As a CP (dry, cold) air mass moves into a warm area, it brings
with it colder temperatures; however, its new location will cause it to slowly warm until the cold air
mass eventually dissipates. Warm air masses typically have low pressure, while colder air masses
have higher pressure.
‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ ﻋ)ٮﺪﻣﺎ ٮ"تﺤﺮك ﻛ"ٮﻠﺔ ﻫواﺋ‬.‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻣ‬/‫ﺮ اﻟﻜ"ٮﻞ اﻟﻬواﺋ‬$‫ ٮ"ﺆٮ‬CP (‫ٮﺎردة‬.‫ﺣﺎ)ڡﺔ و‬.) ‫ﺣﺎت‬.‫ﺤﻠﺐ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ در‬."‫ ٮ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﻣ)ٮﻄ"ڡﺔ دا)ڡﺌﺔ‬
‫ ﻋﺎدًة ﻣﺎ ٮ"ﻜون‬.‫ٮﺎردة‬.‫ٮًﺎ ﺣﱴ ٮ"تﻼﳽ اﻟﻜ"ٮﻠﺔ اﻟ‬/‫ﺤ‬.‫ﺣﺔ ﺣرارٮ"ﻬﺎ ٮ"ﺪري‬.‫ٮﺆدي إﻟﻰ ارٮ")ڡﺎع در‬/‫ﺪ ﺳ‬/ ‫ﺤﺪٮ‬.‫ )ڡﺈن ﻣﻮ"ڡﻌﻬﺎ اﻟ‬،‫ﺣرارة أ"ڡﻞ؛ وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫ﻌﻂ‬i‫ٮﺔ اﻟﻀ‬/‫ٮﺎردة ﻋﺎﻟ‬.‫ٮي)ٮﻤﺎ ٮ"ﻜون اﻟﻜ"ٮﻞ اﻟ‬. ،‫ﻌﻂ‬i‫ٮﺔ اﻟﺪا)ڡﺌﺔ ﻣ)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡﻀﺔ اﻟﻀ‬/‫اﻟﻜ"ٮﻞ اﻟﻬواﺋ‬.

Differences in air pressure cause wind. High-pressure air moves toward areas of lower pressure, and
the greater the difference in pressure, the stronger the associated winds.
‫ى‬c‫ وكﻠﻤﺎ زاد اﻟ)ڡرق )ڡ‬،‫ﻌﻂ‬i‫ﻌﻂ )ٮﺤﻮ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎﻃﻖ ﻣ)ٮ)ﺤ)ڡﻀﺔ اﻟﻀ‬i‫ى اﻟﻀ‬c‫"ٮﺤﺮك اﻟﻬواء ﻋﺎل‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.‫ﻌﻂ اﻟﻬواء اﻟريﺎح‬i‫ى ﺿ‬c‫ٮﺐ اﻻ)ﺣ"ٮﻼ)ڡﺎت )ڡ‬.‫ٮ"ﺴ‬
‫ٮﻄﺔ‬."‫ زادت "ڡﻮة اﻟريﺎح اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬،‫ﻌﻂ‬i‫اﻟﻀ‬.
Wind has both a speed and a direction. In aviation, wind speed is measured in knots (1 nautical mile
or 1.852 kilometers) per hour. Wind direction is given based on the compass orientation from which
it comes (not the direction in which it is going). For example, if a wind moves from west to east, it is
considered a westerly wind.
‫ﺤﺎه اﻟريﺎح‬."‫ُﺤﺪد اٮ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.‫ى اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬c‫ٮﻠﻮﻣ"ٮﺮ( )ڡ‬/‫ ﻛ‬1.852 ‫ٮﺤري أو‬. ‫ٮﻞ‬/‫ ﻣ‬1) ‫ٮﺎﻟﻌ"ڡﺪ‬. ‫ ٮ" ُ"ڡﺎس ﺳﺮﻋﺔ اﻟريﺎح‬،‫ٮران‬/‫ى اﻟﻄ‬c‫ )ڡ‬.‫ﺤﺎه‬."‫ﻟﻠريﺎح ﺳﺮﻋﺔ واٮ‬
‫ﻌﺮب‬i‫ إذا ٮ"ﺤﺮﻛﺖ اﻟريﺎح ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬،‫ٮﺎل‬$‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻤ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ ﻋﲆ ﺳ‬.(‫ٮﻪ‬/‫ﺤﺎه اﻟﺬي ٮ"تﺤﺮك )ڡ‬."‫ٮﺲ اﻻٮ‬/‫ٮﺚ أٮ"ﻰ )وﻟ‬/‫ٮﻮﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣ‬.‫ﺤﺎﻫﻬﺎ ﻋﲆ اﻟ‬."‫ٮ)ٮﺎًء ﻋﲆ اٮ‬.
‫ٮيﺔ‬.‫ٮﺮ ريﺎح )ﻋر‬.‫ ٮ"ﻌ"ٮ‬،‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸرق‬.

At airports, it is common to see a windsock that provides pilots with a visual reference of wind speed
and direction.
‫ٮﺲ اﻟريﺎح‬/‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻊ رؤيﺔ ﻛ‬،‫ى اﻟﻤﻄﺎرات‬c‫( )ڡ‬windsock) ‫ﺤﺎﻫﻬﺎ‬."‫ٮﺼري ﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ اﻟريﺎح واٮ‬. ‫ٮﻤﺆﺷﺮ‬. ‫ٮﺎريﻦ‬/‫زود اﻟﻄ‬/ ‫اﻟﺬي ٮ‬.

Climate
Climate describes the average weather conditions over a longer period of time, typically years.
‫ ﻋﺎدة ﺳ)ٮوات‬،‫ﺼﻒ ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ )ﻃروف اﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ ﻋﲆ ﻣﺪى )ڡ"ٮﺮة ﻃويﻠﺔ‬/ ‫اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ ٮ‬.

To track and understand the human impact on the global climate, the global average temperature
each year is compared against the average from 1850 to 1900 (i.e., before the dramatic increases in
emissions associated with human use of fossil fuels in industrial activity). This era is used as a
benchmark to understand the impact of human activities on the world’s atmosphere. On a global
level, international agencies have set a goal of limiting global warming to two degrees Celsius above
the 1850–1900 benchmark. The limit of two degrees Celsius is considered a threshold between
acceptable and dangerous climate change.
‫ )أي‬1900 ‫ إﻟﻰ‬1850 ‫ٮﺎﻟﻤ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﻦ‬. ‫ى كﻞ ﻋﺎم‬c‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬.‫ُ"ڡﺎرن ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ در‬/ ‫ ٮ‬،‫ى‬c‫ٮﺮ اﻹ)ٮﺴﺎن ﻋﲆ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬/$‫ٮﻊ و)ڡﻬﻢ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬.‫ﻟ"ٮت‬
‫ٮﺔ‬.‫ ٮ" ُﺴ"ٮ)ﺤﺪم ﻫﺬه اﻟﺤ"ڡ‬.(‫ى‬c‫ى اﻟ)ٮﺸﺎط اﻟﺼ)ٮﺎع‬c‫ٮﺎﺳ"ٮ)ﺤﺪام اﻹ)ٮﺴﺎن ﻟﻠﻮ"ڡﻮد اﻷﺣ)ڡوري )ڡ‬. ‫ٮﻄﺔ‬."‫ﺎت اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬$‫ٮﻌﺎٮ‬.‫ى اﻻ)ٮ‬c‫ٮﺮة )ڡ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﻞ اﻟزيﺎدة اﻟﻜ‬.‫"ڡ‬
‫ٮﺔ ﻫﺪ ) ًڡﺎ ﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ‬/‫ وﺿﻌﺖ اﻟﻮﰷﻻت اﻟﺪوﻟ‬،‫ى‬c‫ ﻋﲆ اﻟﻤﺴ"ٮوى اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬.‫ﺤوي ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ٮﺸريﺔ ﻋﲆ اﻟ‬.‫ٮﺮ اﻷ)ٮﺸﻄﺔ اﻟ‬/$‫ﺣﻊ ﻟ)ڡﻬﻢ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬.‫ﻛﻤﺮ‬
‫ى‬c‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎ)ح‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫ٮيﻦ اﻟ"ٮ‬. ‫ٮﻦ اﻟﺤﺪ اﻟ)ڡﺎﺻﻞ‬/‫ٮﻦ ﻣﺌوي"ٮ‬/‫ﺣ"ٮ‬.‫ٮﺮ ﺣﺪ در‬.‫ُﻌ"ٮ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.1900–1850 ‫ٮﻦ )ڡوق ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ‬/‫ٮﻦ ﻣﺌوي"ٮ‬/‫ﺣ"ٮ‬.‫ى إﻟﻰ در‬c‫اﻻﺣ"ٮرار اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬
‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ٮول واﻟ)ﺤﻄ‬.‫اﻟﻤ"ڡ‬.

The WMO’s 2020 report indicated that 2019 was the second-hottest year on record (after 2016).
The annual global temperature was 1.1 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial benchmark. In 2019,
scientists also observed record sea levels, retreating ice, increasing ocean acidification and heat,
and extreme weather.
.(2016 ‫ٮﻌﺪ‬.) ‫ٮﺮ اﻷﻋوام ﺣرارًة ﻋﲆ اﻹﻃﻼق‬$‫ى أﻛ‬c‫ﺎ)ٮ‬$‫ ﰷن ٮ‬2019 ‫ أن ﻋﺎم‬2020 ‫ﺤويﺔ ﻟﻌﺎم‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻸرﺻﺎد اﻟ‬/‫أ)ڡﺎد ٮ""ڡريﺮ اﻟﻤ)ٮ)ﻄﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬
‫ ﻻﺣﻆ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء‬،2019 ‫ى‬c‫ )ڡ‬.‫ى‬c‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻌﺼﺮ اﻟﺼ)ٮﺎع‬.‫ﺣﻊ "ڡ‬.‫ﺣﺔ ﻣﺌويﺔ أﻋﲆ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮ‬.‫ در‬1.1 ‫ٮﺔ اﻟﺴ)ٮوي‬/‫ﺣﺔ اﻟﺤرارة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬.‫ﰷن ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ در‬
‫ واﻟﻄ"ڡﺲ اﻟ"ڡﺎﳼ‬،‫ٮﻄﺎت‬/‫ وزيﺎدة ﺣﻤﻮﺿﺔ وﺣرارة اﻟﻤﺤ‬،‫ٮﺪ‬/‫ﺤﻠ‬.‫ﺣﻊ اﻟ‬.‫ وٮ"را‬،‫ٮﺤﺎر‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻟﻠ‬/‫ٮﺎﺳ‬/‫ﻀﺎ ﻣﺴ"ٮويﺎت "ڡ‬
ً / ‫ أٮ‬.
Climate change also increases the likelihood of significant turbulence, with stronger turbulence
occupying significantly more airspace and directly impacting aviation operations.
‫ﺮ‬$‫ٮﺮ وٮ"ﺆٮ‬.‫ٮﺎت أ"ڡوى ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻫواء أﻛ‬.‫ى اﺿﻄرا‬c‫ﻌط‬i"‫ٮﺚ ٮ‬/‫ ﺣ‬،‫ٮﺮة‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﻛ‬/‫ٮﺎت ﻫواﺋ‬.‫ٮﺔ ﺣﺪوث اﺿﻄرا‬/‫ﻀﺎ ﻣﻦ اﺣ"ٮﻤﺎﻟ‬
ً / ‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ أٮ‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫زيﺪ ٮ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
‫ٮران‬/‫ٮﺎت اﻟﻄ‬/‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠ‬.‫ﻣ‬.

Greenhouse Gases and Global Climate Change

Climate change is linked to greenhouse gases (GHGs) in Earth’s atmosphere. GHGs both absorb and
emit heat (i.e., thermal radiation), causing a warming process called the greenhouse effect. Four
greenhouse gases occur naturally in our environment: water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxides (NOx). Other GHGs (including CFCs linked to ozone depletion)
are human-made. The total greenhouse effect comprises the combination of natural and human-
made GHGs.
‫ ﻣﻤﺎ‬،(‫ٮﺌﺔ اﻟﺤرارة )أي اﻹﺷﻌﺎع اﻟﺤراري‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫ ٮ"ﻤ"ٮﺺ وٮ"ﺼﺪر اﻟ‬.‫ﺤوي ﻟﻸرض‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ٮﺌﺔ )ڡ‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫ٮﺎﻟ‬. ‫ٮﺮ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫ٮﻂ ٮ‬."‫ﺮٮ‬/ ‫ٮ‬
‫ٮ)ﺤﺎر اﻟﻤﺎء‬. :‫ٮيﺌ"ٮ)ٮﺎ‬. ‫ى‬c‫ٮًﺎ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺌﺔ ﻃ‬/‫ٮﻊ )ﻋﺎزات د)ڡ‬.‫ﺣﺪ أر‬.‫ ٮ"ﻮ‬.‫ٮﺎس اﻟﺤراري‬.‫ٮﺮ اﻻﺣ"ٮ‬/$‫ٮﺔ ٮ"ﺪ)ڡﺌﺔ ٮ"ﺴﻤﻰ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬/‫ٮﺐ ﻋﻤﻠ‬.‫ﺴ‬/ ‫( ٮ‬H2O)، ‫ٮﺪ‬/‫ى أﻛﺴ‬c‫ﺎ)ٮ‬$‫ٮ‬
‫ٮون‬.‫( اﻟﻜر‬CO2)، ‫ٮﺎن‬$‫ٮ‬/‫( اﻟﻤ‬CH4)، ‫ٮ"ٮروز‬/‫ٮﺪات اﻟ)ٮ‬/‫( وأﻛﺴ‬NOx). ‫ﻌﺎزات اﻷ)ﺣرى‬i‫ى ذﻟﻚ( اﻟ‬c‫ٮﻤﺎ )ڡ‬. CFCs ‫ٮﺎﺳ"ٮ)ٮ)ڡﺎد اﻷوزون‬. ‫ٮﻄﺔ‬."‫)اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬
‫ٮﺸريﺔ‬.‫ٮﺔ واﻟ‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺌﺔ اﻟﻄ‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫ى ﻣزيﺞ اﻟ‬c‫ﺣﻤﺎل‬.‫ٮﺎس اﻟﺤراري اﻹ‬.‫ٮﺮ اﻻﺣ"ٮ‬/$‫ﺸﻤﻞ ٮ"ﺄٮ‬/ ‫ ٮ‬.‫ﻣﻦ ﺻ)ٮﻊ اﻹ)ٮﺴﺎن‬.

The presence of natural GHGs in the atmosphere is beneficial to humanity; capturing some heat to
maintain an average global temperature that supports life. Carbon dioxide (CO2), for example, is a
natural part of our environment and has been for millions of years. Organic matter (plants and
animals), forest fires, and volcanoes all contribute CO2 to the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis,
plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere, and much is absorbed by seawater in the world’s oceans.
However, in the late 1800s, the burning of fossil fuels and the acceleration of other industrial and
agricultural activities resulted in a massive increase in the amount of GHGs released into the
atmosphere. The increase in GHGs in the atmosphere leads to more heat being captured, and the
result has been global warming.
‫ﺣﺔ ﺣرارة‬.‫ٮﻌﺾ اﻟﺤرارة ﻟﻠﺤ)ڡﺎظ ﻋﲆ ﻣ"ٮﻮﺳﻂ در‬. ‫ﻤ"ٮﺺ‬/ ‫ٮﺚ ٮ‬/‫ٮﺸريﺔ؛ ﺣ‬.‫ٮﺪ ﻟﻠ‬/‫ﺤوي ﻣ)ڡ‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ٮﺔ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺌﺔ اﻟﻄ‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫ﺣﻮد اﻟ‬.‫و‬
‫ٮون‬.‫ٮﺪ اﻟﻜر‬/‫ى أﻛﺴ‬c‫ﺎ)ٮ‬$‫ ٮ‬.‫ٮﺎة‬/‫ﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﺤ‬/ ‫ى ٮ‬c‫( ﻋﺎﻟم‬CO2)، .‫ٮﻦ‬/‫يﻦ اﻟﺴ)ٮ‬/ ‫ﺣﻮًدا ﻣ)ٮﺬ ﻣﻼٮ‬.‫ٮيﺌ"ٮ)ٮﺎ وﰷن ﻣﻮ‬. ‫ى ﻣﻦ‬c‫ٮع‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺣﺰء ﻃ‬. ،‫ٮﺎل‬$‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻤ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﻋﲆ ﺳ‬
‫ى إﺿﺎ)ڡﺔ‬c‫ٮﻦ )ڡ‬/‫ٮراﻛ‬.‫ واﻟ‬،‫ٮﺎت‬.‫ﻌﺎ‬i‫ ﺣراﺋﻖ اﻟ‬،(‫ٮوا)ٮﺎت‬/‫ٮﺎٮ"ﺎت واﻟﺤ‬.‫ ٮ"ﺴﻬﻢ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﻌﻀويﺔ )اﻟ)ٮ‬CO2 ‫ٮﻞ‬/‫ٮ‬$‫ ﻣﻦ )ﺣﻼل اﻟ"ٮﻤ‬.‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬
‫ٮﺎٮ"ﺎت‬.‫ ٮ"زيﻞ اﻟ)ٮ‬،‫ى‬c‫ اﻟﻀﻮﺋ‬CO2 ،‫ وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮﻄﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤ‬/‫ى اﻟﻤﺤ‬c‫ٮﺤﺎر )ڡ‬.‫ٮﺎه اﻟ‬/‫ٮواﺳﻄﺔ ﻣ‬. ‫ٮﺮ ﻣ)ٮﻪ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ﺣﺰء ﻛ‬. ‫ ويﻤ"ٮﺺ‬،‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ‬
‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ى ﻛﻤ‬c‫ٮﺔ اﻷ)ﺣرى إﻟﻰ زيﺎدة ﺿ)ﺤﻤﺔ )ڡ‬/‫ٮﺔ واﻟزراﻋ‬/‫ أدى ﺣرق اﻟﻮ"ڡﻮد اﻷﺣ)ڡوري وٮ"ﺴﺎر ع اﻷ)ٮﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺼ)ٮﺎﻋ‬،‫ى أوا)ﺣﺮ اﻟ"ڡرن اﻟ"ٮﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ‬c‫)ڡ‬
‫ﺤﺔ اﻻﺣ"ٮرار‬.‫ٮ‬/‫ وﰷ)ٮﺖ اﻟ)ٮ"ٮ‬،‫ٮﺎس اﻟﻤزيﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤرارة‬.‫ٮﺌﺔ إﻟﻰ اﺣ"ٮ‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫ ٮ"ﺆدي زيﺎدة اﻟ‬.‫ﺤوي‬.‫ﻌﻼف اﻟ‬i‫ى اﻟ‬c‫ٮﺔ )ڡ‬$‫ٮﻌ‬.‫ٮﺌﺔ اﻟﻤ)ٮ‬/‫ﻌﺎزات اﻟﺪ)ڡ‬i‫اﻟ‬
‫ى‬c‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟم‬.
What Is Being Done to Combat Climate Change?

Despite the disturbing trends in climate data, there are some challenges associated with regulations
designed to control climate change. Such regulatory controls would limit people’s actions, which
raises questions about human rights (for example, consider the public reaction to limiting the
amount of automobile use or prohibiting pleasure flying).
‫ٮﺮ‬/‫ﻌ‬i"‫ى ٮ‬c‫ٮﺎﻟﻠواﺋﺢ اﻟﻤﺼﻤﻤﺔ ﻟﻠ"ٮﺤﻜﻢ )ڡ‬. ‫ٮﻄﺔ‬."‫ﺎت اﻟﻤﺮٮ‬/ ‫ٮﻌﺾ اﻟ"ٮﺤﺪٮ‬. ‫ ﻫ)ٮﺎك‬،‫ٮيﺎ)ٮﺎت اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬. ‫ى‬c‫ﺤﺎﻫﺎت اﻟﻤ"ڡﻠ"ڡﺔ )ڡ‬."‫ﻋﲆ اﻟﺮ)ﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻻٮ‬
‫ى رد اﻟ)ڡﻌﻞ‬c‫ اﻟ)ٮ)ﻄﺮ )ڡ‬،‫ٮﺎل‬$‫ٮﻞ اﻟﻤ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮﺮ ٮ"ﺴﺎؤﻻت ﺣول ﺣ"ڡوق اﻹ)ٮﺴﺎن )ﻋﲆ ﺳ‬/‫ٮ‬$/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ٮ‬،‫ "ڡﺪ ٮ"ﺤﺪ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻠواﺋﺢ ﻣﻦ أ)ڡﻌﺎل اﻟ)ٮﺎس‬.‫اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬
(‫ى‬c‫ٮه‬/‫ٮران اﻟ"ٮﺮ)ڡ‬/‫ٮﺎرات أو ﺣ)ﻄﺮ اﻟﻄ‬/‫ٮيﺪ اﺳ"ٮ)ﺤﺪام اﻟﺴ‬/‫اﻟﻌﺎم ﻟ"ٮ"ڡ‬.

Regulation could also directly impact a company’s operations, which can affect economies.
Furthermore, some still deny the human impact on climate, believing the changes to be either
entirely natural or non-existent.
‫ٮﺮ‬/$‫)ٮﻜﺮ اﻟ"ٮﺄٮ‬/ ‫ٮﻌﺾ ٮ‬.‫زال اﻟ‬/ ‫ ﻻ ٮ‬،‫ ﻋﻼوة ﻋﲆ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫ﺮ ﻋﲆ اﻻ"ڡ"ٮﺼﺎد‬$‫ﺆٮ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ "ڡﺪ ٮ‬،‫ٮﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﰷت‬/‫ٮﺎﺷﺮة ﻋﲆ ﻋﻤﻠ‬.‫ﻀﺎ ﻣ‬
ً / ‫ﺮ اﻟﻠواﺋﺢ أٮ‬$‫"ڡﺪ ٮ"ﺆٮ‬
‫ﺣﻮدة‬.‫ٮﺮ ﻣﻮ‬/‫ٮﺎﻟﲀﻣﻞ أو )ﻋ‬. ‫ٮﺔ‬/‫ٮﻌ‬/‫ٮ‬.‫ٮرات ﻃ‬/‫ﻌ‬i‫ﻦ أن اﻟ"ٮ‬/ ‫ ﻣﻌ"ٮ"ڡﺪٮ‬،‫ٮﺸري ﻋﲆ اﻟﻤ)ٮﺎخ‬.‫اﻟ‬