Certificate

Certified that:

1. The experimental work as recorded in this record book has been done under my
supervision and guidance.

2. It is a bonafide record of the above said work.

3. The personal details of the student, as given below, have been verified and are
correct to the best of my knowledge.

Name: Miss/Mr. :......................................................................................

Class :......................................................................................

Class Roll No. :......................................................................................

Board Exam Roll No. :......................................................................................

Academic Session :......................................................................................

Countersigned by : Principal/HOD .............................................................

.............................................................. ..............................................................

(School Stamp) (Teacher Incharge)

 index
Teacher’s
[Link]. Experiment Remarks Date
Signature
1 RELATioNs ANd fuNCTioNs

Objective of the Activity

To verify that the relation R in the set L of all the lines in a plane defined by R = {(l ,
m): l || m and l, m L} is an equivalence relation.

Materials Required
✧✧ A piece of card board of suitable size
✧✧ Pieces of wires
✧✧ Nails
✧✧ White chart paper
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Scale

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white chart paper on it.

2. Draw some parallel lines with

the help of wires on the chart
paper in such a way are line
is perpendicular to the given
drawn || lines and drawn a
line which is inclined to the
given || lines.

3. Let the wires represents the

lines l1 l2 l3 l4 l5 l6. Then we have
the following observations.

Observations
1. Line l1 is ^ to l4 and l6.

1
 2. Line l2 is ^ to l4 and l6.

3. Line l3 is ^ to l4 and l6.

4. Line l4 is parallel to l6.

5. Line l1 is parallel to l2, l2 is parallel to l3 and line l1 is parallel to l3.

6. So (l1, l2) (l2, l3) (l1, l3) (l4, l6) ∈ R.

From the given figure we can see that every line is parallel to itself thus l1 || l1, l2 || l2 and
l3 || l3, l4 || l4, l6 || l6. So we can say (l1, l1) (l2, l2) (l3, l3) (l4, l4) .... (l6, l6) ∈ R. Hence the given
relation R is a reflexive relation.

7. From the given figure we can see that l4 || l6 thus l6 || l4 so we can say (l4, l6) ∈ R ⇒ (l6, l4)
∈ R.
Similarly (l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ∈ R
(l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ∈ R
also (l1, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l1) ∈ R

Hence the given relation R is a symmetric relation.

8. From the given figure we can see that l1 || l2, l2 || l3 and l1 || l3.
So we can say (l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l1, l3) ∈ R
Hence the given relation is a transitive relation.
Thus the given relation R is a reflexive, symmetric and transitive relation. Hence the relation
R is an equivalence relation.

Result
From the above discussion through the activity it is verified that the relation “is parallel to” on
the given set R of all straight lines in a plane is an equivalence relation.

Application

This activity is helpful to identify whether the given relation is an equivalence relation or not.

Follow-up Activity

Take some wires and construct triangles (In which some triangles are similar triangles) and
put them in a collection say A. Define a relation R = {(T1, T2): T1 is similar to T2} in A and
check whether the given relation R is an equivalence relation or not.

1
2 RELATioNs ANd fuNCTioNs

Objective of the Activity

To demonstrate a function is not one-one but is on to.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Basic knowledge of relations, functions and type of relations and type of function such that
one-one functions and on to functions.

Materials Required
✧✧ Coloured chart papers (orange, green)
✧✧ A card board
✧✧ Scissors
✧✧ Glue sticks
✧✧ Pins

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a orange chart paper and
cut out a elliptical strip length 10
cm and width 5 cm as shown in
the figure.

2. Take a green chart paper and

cut a elliptical strip of length 8
cm and width of 3 cm as shown
in figure.

3. Paste these two strips on the

card board and mark X and Y
on them respectively as shown
in the figure.

3
4. Fix 5 paper pins on the orange strip and
mark as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Similarly fix 4 paper
pins on the green strips and mark them a,
b, c and d as shown in the figure.

5. Now join the pins on the given strips with

the help of threads as shown in the figure.

4
Observations
1. Now we can see that image of the element 1 of x in y is a.

2. The image of the element 2 of x in y is c.

3. The image of the element 3 of x in y is d.

4. The image of the element 4 of x in y is b.

5. The image of the element 5 of x in y is d.

6. The pre image of the element a of y in x is 1.

7. The pre image of the element b of y in x is 4.

8. The pre image of the element c of y in x is 2.

9. The pre image of the element d of y in x is 3 and 5.

10. Since the elements 3 and 5 in x have the common image as d in y, so the given function is
many-one not one-one.

11. Also we can see that every element of y is image of some element of x so function is on to.

Thus from the observation 10 and 11 we can say that the given function is shown in the
figure is on-to but not one-one.

Result

From the above activity we have demonstrated a function which is not one-one but on-to.

Application

This activity is helpful to clear the concept of bijective functions.

5
3 Inverse
Trigonometric function

Objective of the Activity

To explore the principal value of the inverse trigonometric function y = sin–1x with the
help of a unit circle.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Basic knowledge about trigonometric ratios and properties of inverse trigonometric functions.

Materials Required
✧✧ A cardboard of suitable size
✧✧ White chart papers
✧✧ Board pins
✧✧ Wires
✧✧ Ruler
✧✧ Needle

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it with the help of board pins.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines XoX‘ and YoY‘
with the help of wires on white sheet. XoX‘
says x-axis and YoY‘ says y-axis.
3. Take one unit radius and draw a circle on to
the white sheet with centre O.
4. Mark the points P, Q, R, S where the circle cuts
the axis respectively as shown in the figure.
5. Now fix two bars which are || to y-axis on
the opposite sides of the cardboard as shown
in the figure.

6
6. Now fix one steel wire between the bars so that the wire can be moved freely which is ||
to the x-axis.

7. Now fix a needle of unit length such that one end of the needle is at the centre of the circle
and the other end to move freely along the circle as shown in the figure.

8. Place the needle at an arbitrary angle Q1 with the positive x-axis.

9. Now measure the angle in Radius is equal to the length of intercepted arc of the circle.

10. Now slide the steel wire between the bars such that the wire meets with free end of the
needle mark this meeting point as A1 as shown in the figure.

12. Identify the y-co-ordinate of point A1, which is equal to the perpendicular distance from
the x-axis it gives y1 = sin Q1.

13. Rotate the needle further in the anticlockwise direction and keep it at the angle (p – Q1).
Here the wire meets the needle at point A2 as shown in the figure.

14. Now with the help of slide wire find the value of y-coordinate of A2. With the help of both
the points A and A2 the value of y-coordinates are same for different values of angles i.e.,
y1 = sin Q1 and y1 = sin (p – Q1).

15. The above observations shows that the sine function is not one to one function for the
angles which are in first and second quadrants.

16. Now repeat the same process of angle –Q1 and (–p + Q1) respectively or we can say (p + Q1)
and (2p – Q1) in this case we also get the same result that y-coordinate for the point A3 and
A4 are the same. Thus the sine function is not one to one for the angle which are coming in
IIIrd and IVth quadrants as shown in the figure.

17. Here we observe that the value of y-coordinate is different for the points A3 and A1.

7
 π π
18. Now move the needle again in anticlockwise direction from − to . By sliding the steel
2 2
wire we see that the value of y-coordinate for the points A5, A6, A7 and A8 are different.
 π π
Therefore sine function is one-one in the domain  − ,  and thus the range lies between
–1 and 1 as shown in the figure.  2 2

 π π
19. Now place the needle at any arbitrary angle f lying in the interval  − ,  and find
 2 2
y-coordinate of the intersecting point A9 through the sliding steel wire. We can say it as y.
 π π
The y = sin f or f = sin–1 y as sine function is one-one and on-to in the domain  − ,  and
 2 2
range [–1, 1]. Hence its inverse arc sine function exists as shown in figure.

8
 20. Thus the domain and range of sine inverse function are interchanged with the domain and
 π π
range of sine function i.e., the domain of arc sine function is [–1, 1] and range  − ,  . This
 2 2
range of arc sine function is known as principal value of arc sine function or sin–1 function.

Observation
1. From the above discussion we observe that sine function is non-negative in first and second
quadrants.

2. And for the third and fourth quadrants the sine function is negative (including zero).

3. We observe that f = arc sin y ⇒ y = sin–1 f

 π π
where  − ≤ φ ≤ 
 2 2
Result
 π π
From the above activity we conclude that the principal value branch of sin–1 x is  − ,  .
 2 2
Application

This activity is helpful to clear the concept of principal value branch of various inverse
trigonometric function.

Follow-up Activity

Repeat this activity to find the principal value of cos–1 y or other inverse trigonometric
functions.

9
 4 Continuity and
differentiability

Objective of the Activity

To verify that for a function f(x) to be continuous at given point x0 and Dy = [f(x0 + Dx)
– f(x0)] is arbitrarily small provided Dx is sufficiently small.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Knowledge of continuity of a function at a given point.

Materials Required
✧✧ Card board
✧✧ White sheets
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale
✧✧ Calculator
✧✧ Glue

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Paste a white sheet on a graph paper on the card board.

2. Draw a curve for any given continuous function y = f(x) as represented in the given figure.

3. Take any point A (x0, 0) on x-axis in the positive side and mark a point P (x0) corresponding
to this point A on the curve.

4. Take one more point A1 (x0 + Dx0, 0) to the right side of A where Dx1 is an increment in x.

5. Draw a perpendicular from point A1 to meet the curve at B1. Let the co-ordinates of B1 be
(x0 + Dx1, y0 + Dy1).

6. Draw a perpendicular from the point P (x0, y0) to meet B1 A1 at C1.

10
 7. Now measure AB1 = Dx1 (say) and record it and also measure B1A1 = Dy1 and record it.

8. Reduce the increment in x to Dx2 (i.e. Dx2 < Dx1) to get another point B2 (x0 + Dx0, 0). Get the
corresponding point C2 on the curve.

9. Let the perpendicular PC1 intersects B2A2 at C2.

10. Again measure AA2 = Dx2 and record it.

11. Repeat the steps 4, 5, 6, 7 for some more points so that Dx becomes smaller and smaller.

12. Similarly take points A2, A3, A4 and locate the corresponding points B2, B3 and B4.

Observation
1. With the help of graph we prepare the following table.

[Link]. Value of increment in x0 (x0 = 1) Corresponding incrementing

1
2

11
 [Link]. Value of increment in x0 (x0 = 1) Corresponding incrementing
3
4
5

2. From the table we observe that Dy becomes smaller when Dx becomes smaller.

3. Thus lim ∆y = 0 for a continuous function.

∆x → 0

Result
From the above activity it is verified that for any given function to be continuous at any point x0,
Dy = [f(x0 + Dx) - f(x0)] is an arbitrarily small when Dx provided sufficiently small.

Application

This activity is helpful to check the differentiability of a function means explaining the
concept of right hand derivative and left hand derivative of a function at a given point.

12
 5 APPLiCATioN of dERivATivE

Objective of the Activity

To understand the concepts of decreasing and increasing functions.

Materials Required
✧✧ Piece of plywood of suitable size
✧✧ Piece of wire of different lengths
✧✧ White paper sheet
✧✧ Adhesive
✧✧ Geometry box
✧✧ Trigonometric tables

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.

2. Take two wires of convenient size. With the help of wires draw two perpendicular lines
XOX‘ and YOY‘ which will bisect perpendicularly at point O. Now XOX‘ will represent
x-axis and YOY‘ represent y-axis.

3. Take two more pieces of wire of suitable lengths and make its shape of curves representing
two functions and fix them on the paper sheet as shown in the figure.

4. Take two or three wires of suitable lengths for the tangents to the curves at different points
on the curves.

5. Take the straight wire and place it on the curve in (L.H.S.) such that it is tangent to the
curve at the point say A1 and making an angle Q1 with x-axis in the positive direction.

6. Take another two points say A2 and A3 on the same curve and make tangents using the
same wire at A2 and A3 making angles Q2 and Q3 respectively with x-axis in the positive
direction.

13
 7. Now take three points B1, B2 and B2 on the curve (R.H.S.) and using another wires forms
tangents to each of these points which makes angles f1, f2, f3 respectively with x-axis in the
positive direction.

Observations
1. With the above figure we have Q1 = 110º is an obtuse angle so tan Q1 is –ve.

2. Again we Sec. Q2 = 120 and Q3 = 125º are obtuse angles and therefore shapes of the tangents
tan Q2 and tan Q3 both are –ve.

3. tan Q1 = tan 110 = − 5.6712 


tan Q2 = tan 120 = − 2.7474 These are − ve values
tan Q3 = tan 125 = − 1 

4. Thus we can say that the given function in (L.H.S) is a decreasing function.

5. In R.H.S. on measuring f1, f2 and f3 the angles which makes by the tangents are f3 = 65º,
f3 = 75º, f1 = 0º.

14
 ⇒ tan B1 = tan 80° = + 5.6112
tan B2 = tan 75° =  These are +ve values
tan B3 = tan 65° = 

Thus we can say that the given function in (R.H.S.) is a increasing function.

Result
From the above activity it is verified that a function f(x) is increasing when f‘(x) ≥ 0 and decreasing
when f‘(x) ≤ 0 (where X ∈ domain of f)

Application

This activity is helpful to clarify the concept of increasing and decreasing function.

15
 6 APPLiCATioN of dERivATivE

Objective of the Activity

To understand the concept of local maxima and local minima and point of inflexion
for a given function.

Materials Required
✧✧ A drawing board
✧✧ A white paper sheet
✧✧ Board pins
✧✧ Wires
✧✧ Glue
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a drawing board of convenient size and paste a white paper on it.

2. Take two pieces of wires of convenient lengths and fix them on the drawing board which
are bisected at point o. One is horizontal (XoX‘) is called x-axis and one is vertical (YoY‘) is
called y-axis.

3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. (The curve should be
make at least four points). Fix this curved wire on the white paper pasted on the drawing
sheet as shown in the figure.

4. Take four more wire of suitable lengths and fix them at the points A, B, C, D and P. Which
are represents the tangents of the curves at points A, B, C, D which are parallel to the x-axis.

5. The slope of tangents at these points are zero i.e., the value of first derivative of a function
is zero at all these points and the tangent at point P intersect the curve.

16
Observation
dy
1. We see from the given figure the sign of the slope of the tangent   first derivative at
 dx 
a point on the given curve to the immediate left of A is negative and sign of the slope of
dy
tangent   first derivative at a point on the curve to the immediate right of A is positive.
 dx 
That means at the point A sign of the first derivative is changes from negative to positive.
So the point A is the point of local minima.

dy
2. Now similarly we observe that the slope of tangent   (first derivative) at point B. When
 dx 
we move from just left to just right is changes from negative to +ve. Therefore we can say
the point B is also a point of local minima.

dy
3. The slope of tangent   (first derivative) at point on the curve the immediate left of c
 dx 
 dy 
is +ve and the sign of the slope the tangent   first derivative at a point on the curve is
 dx 

17
 immediate right of c is –ve. That means the sign of the first derivative of a given function is
changes from +ve to –ve. Thus the point c is the point of local maxima.

4. Similarly the sign of first derivative is also changes from the +ve to –ve thus the point D is
also point of local maxima.

5. But when we move from just left to just right at point P there is no change in the sign of the
 dy 
first derivative   of the given function. Thus the point P is the point of inflexion.
 dx 

Result
Hence from the above discussion we conclude that point A and B are the points of local minima
and the points C and D are the points of local maxima and the point P is neither minima nor
maxima it is a point of inflexion.

Application

1. This activity is helpful to find the points of local minima and local maxima and point of
inflexion for the given curve.
2. The concept of maxima and minima is useful in daily life problems for constructing of
packages of maximum and minimum capacity. Cost and profit maximum and minimum.

18
 7 dEfiNiTE iNTEgRAL

Objective of the Activity

To evaluate the definite integral as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual
integration.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Knowledge of integration and geometrical concepts related with area of plane geometrical
figures.

Materials Required
✧✧ A card board of suitable size
✧✧ White chart paper
✧✧ Graph paper
✧✧ Pencil
✧✧ Scale

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a cardboard of suitable size and paste a white paper on it.

2. Draw two line which is bisected perpendicularly at point o. The horizontal line XoX‘ is
called x-axis and vertical line YoY‘ is called y-axis.

3. Now draw a quadrant of a circle with centre at origin o and radius is 1 unit which is shown
in the fig. This curve in the 1st quadrant represents the graph of the function 1 − x 2 in the
closed interval [0, 1].

4. Let origin o be denoted by Mo and the points where the curve meets the x-axis and y-axis
be denoted by M10 and N0 respectively.

5. Divide M0M10 into 10 equal parts with the help of point of division as M1, M2, M3 .... Mg.

19
 6. With the help of each points M1, M2, M3 .... Mg draw perpendicular on the x-axis to meet the
curve at the points N1, N2, N3 .... Ng measure the lengths of M0N0, M1N1, M2N2, ...... MgNg
and call them as y0, y1, y2, y3, ..... yg whereas width of each part M0M1 = M1M2 = M2M3 =
M3M4 = M4M5 = M5M6 = M6M7 = M7M8 = M8M9 = M9M10 = 0.1 unit.

Observation
1. We observe that y0 = M0N0 = 1 unit.

y1 = M1N1 = .99 units.

y2 = M2N2 = .97 units.

y3 = M3N3 = .95 units.

20
 y4 = M4N4 = .92 units.
y5 = M5N5 = .87 units.
y6 = M6N6 = .80 units.
y7 = M7N7 = .71 units.
y8 = M8N8 = .6 units.
y9 = M9N9 = .43 units.
y10 = M10N10 = which is very small and assumed to be zero.

2. Now area of the quadrant of the circle

= area bounded by the curve and two axis
= sum of the areas of 10 trapeziums

1
= × (.1) × [1 + .99] + [.99 + .97] + [.97 + .95] + [.95 + .92] + [.92 + .87] + [.87 + .8]
2
+ [.8 + .71] + [.71 + .6] + [.6 + .43] + (.43)]
= .1 × [.5 + .99 + .97 + .95 + .92 + .87 + .80 + .71 + .60 + .43]
= .1 × 7.74 = 0.774 sq units (Approximately)
1
x 1 
3. Now by integration we have 1
∫0
2
1 − x dx =  1 − x 2 + sin −1 x 
2 2 0
1 π π 3.14
= × = = = 0.785 sq. units (Approx.)
2 2 4 4

4. The area of the quadrant as a limit of sum is nearly the same as the area obtained by actual
integration.

Result

From the above discussion we see that the definite integration ∫ab 1 − x 2 dx can be evaluated as
the limit of a sum.

Application

This activity is helpful to evaluate the area of bounded curves.

Follow-up Activity
2
Repeat the same activity by evaluating ∫ 16 − x 2 as the limit of a sum and verify it by actual
integration. 1

21
 8 vECToRs

Objective of the Activity

To verify geometrically that

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Knowledge of vector algebra, addition of vectors, vector product or cross product of two
vectors.

Materials Required
✧✧ Card board of suitable size
✧✧ White paper sheet
✧✧ Cutter
✧✧ Sketch pen
✧✧ Cello tape
✧✧ Scale

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white paper on it.

2. Draw a line segment OA = 7 cm which is representing c .
  
3. Draw a line segment OB = 5 cm which is representing a such that ∠AOB = 60°. Let OB = a.
 
4. Draw line segment BC = 3 cm representing b and making an angle of 30º with OA.

5. Draw BM ^ OA, CL ^ OA and BN ^ CL.

6. Now complete the parallelogram OAQB, OAPC, and BQPC.

22
Observations
   
1. We know that c × a = c a sin α ∵ α = 60°

= OA × BM

= Area of parallelogram OAQB.

   
2. c × b = c ⋅ b sin α

= OA × CN

= BQ × CN

= Area of parallelogram BQPC

   
3. OB = a and BC = b
    
∴ in ∆OBC , OC = OB + BC = a + b

and ∠ COA = d
     
4. ( )
C × a × b = c a × b sin d

= OA × OC sin d = OA × CL

= Area of parallelogrram OAPC

5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= OA × (LN + NC)
= OA (BM + MC)
= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)
= Area of parallelogram OAQB
+ area of parallelogram BQPC

23
       
∴ ( )
c× a+b = c×a + c×b

      
6. ( )
c × a + b , c × a and c × b are perpendicular to the same plane.
      
∴ ( )
c × a + b = c × a + c × b (Condition of co-planarity)

Result
  
From the above activity we conclude that it is verified that for any three vectors a, b and c we
      
( )
have c × a + b = c × a + c × b.

Application

This activity is helpful to understand the concept of distributive property of vectors.

24
 9 Three-Dimensional
Geometry

Objective of the Activity

To measure the shortest distance between two skew lines and verify by analytically.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Knowledge about various forms of equation of lines, skew lines. Knowledge about the
formula of distance (shortest) between two skew lines.

Materials Required
✧✧ Thick card board sheets
✧✧ White chart paper
✧✧ Four wooden blocks of suitable dimensions
✧✧ Threads
✧✧ Glue sticks etc.

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board sheet of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it and after that paste a
graph paper on it.

2. Draw two lines XOX‘ and YOY‘ which is bisected perpendicularly at point O. The point O
represent the origin and XOX‘ is called x-axis and YOY‘ is called y-axis. On these axis take
1 cm = 1 unit and label them as shown in the figure.

3. Mark the points P(3, 3), Q(11, 3), R(6, 11), S(14, 13) on the graph paper.

4. Label the four wooden blocks as a, b, c and d.

5. Now fix the wooden blocks labeled a, b, c and d at point P(3, 3), Q(11, 3), R(6, 11) and S(14,
13) respectively such that their base centers fall exactly at these points.

6. Using adhesive/glue sticks fix a piece of thread joining points A and D where A and D are
the contents of the tops of blocks a and d respectively.

25
7. Similarly fix a piece of thread joining points B and C where B and C are the centers of the
blocks b and c respectively.

26
 8. Take a thread and join it perpendicularly with the lines AD and BC and measure the actual
distance.

9. Place a set square such that its side forming the right angle is along the thread BC.

10. Move the set square along AD till its other side forming the right angle touches the other
piece of thread.

11. Measure the distance between the two threads in this position to get the required shortest
distance between AD and BC.

Observations
1. Here the threads joining AD and BC represents two skew lines.

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
2. Equation of line joining two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is = = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
3. Now equation of line joining A(3, 3,1) and D(14, 13, 2) is given by

x−3 y −3 z−1
= =
14 − 3 13 − 3 2 − 1
x −3 y −3 z−1
or = = ... (1)
11 10 1
and equation of line joining B(11, 3, 1) and C(6, 11, 0) is given by

x − 11 y − 3 z − 0 x − 11 y − 3 z
= = or = = ... (2)
6 − 11 11 − 3 0 − 1 −5 8 −1
4. Now we know that the shortest distance (d) between two skew lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = is given by
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2

x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
d= a2 b2 c2

( a1b2 − a2b1 )2 + (b1c2 − b2c1 )2 + (c1a2 − a1c2 )2

So the shortest distance d between the lines (i) and (ii) is given by

11 − 3 3 − 3 0 − 1
11 10 1
d= −5 8 −1
(88 + 50)2 + ( −10 − 8)2 + ( −11 + 5)2

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 8 0 −1
11 10 1 8 ( −18 ) − 0 + 1 ( 88 + 50 )
d= =
−5 8 −1 19044 + 324 + 36
2 2 2
(138 ) + 18 + 6

−144 + 138 −6
d= =
19404 139.29

6
or ⇒ d = .04 cm
139.29
5. On actual measurement the shortest distance between two skew lines = 0.6 cm

6. From point (4) & (5) we observe that the shortest distance between Skew lines AD and
BC by actual measurement is approximately equal to the shortest distance obtained by
analytical method.

Result
From the above activity we conclude that the shortest distance between two Skew lines obtained
by actual measurement and obtained by analytical method is coming equal.

Application

This activity is helpful to explain the concept of Skew lines and shortest distance between
two Skew lines.

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10 PRobAbiLiTy

Objective of the Activity

To explain the computation of conditional probabilities of a given event A when event
B has already occurred through an example of throwing a pair of dice.

Pre-requisite Knowledge
❖❖ Knowledge about probability, knowledge about random experiment, sample space, event,
equally likely events etc., conditional probability.

Materials Required
✧✧ Card board sheet
✧✧ Squared sheet
✧✧ White chart
✧✧ Glue sticks etc.

Logical Steps of the Activity

1. Take a card board of suitable size and paste a white sheet on it and paste a squared paper
on it which has 36 square as shown in the figure.

2. Write all possible out comes obtained

by throwing two dice on the squared (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
paper i.e. and write all the following
outcomes on the squared paper as (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
shown in the figure.
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2,
1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1), (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (4,
2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6,
3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6) (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)

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Observation
Case I: To find the conditional probability of an event E when F has already occurred where E is
the event a number 3 appears on both the dice and F is the event 3 has already appeared on one
 E
of the dice. Here we have to find the conditional probability P   .
 F
1. From the above figure

Favourable out comes of E is (3, 3)

E = {3, 3} i.e, n(E) = 1

Favourable outcomes of F are

F = {(1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5, 3) (6, 3) (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)}

No. of favourable outcomes of F i.e., n(B) = 11

Now the common outcomes of E and F is {3, 3}

Now no. of favourable outcomes of ( E ∩ F ) = n(1)

E P (E ∩ F ) 1
Conditional probability P   = =
 F P( F ) 11
Alternate Method:

 E  P (E ∩ F )
P  =
 F P (F)

Total no. of outcomes in a single throw of two dice = 36

 n(S) = 36 and n(F) = 11

n( F ) 11
P( F ) = =
n(S) 36
n(E ∩ F ) = 1

1
P(E ∩ F ) =
36
1
 E  P ( E ∩ F ) 36 1
So P   = = =
 F P( F ) 11 11
36

Case II: To find the conditional probability of an event E when F has already occurred, where
E be the event getting the sum 8 and F is the event a doublet has already occured. Here also we
 E
have to find P   .
 F

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 2. From the figure

Favourable outcomes of E are (3, 5) (4, 4) (5, 3) ⇒ {( 3, 5) ( 4, 4)( 5, 3)}

No. of outcomes of (E) = n(E) = 3

Favourable outcomes of F are (1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6)

F = {(1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6)}

No. of outcomes in F i.e. n(F) = 6

Common outcomes of E and F is {4, 4}

No. of outcomes in ( E ∩ F ) i.e. n ( E ∩ F ) = 1

 E  P (E ∩ F ) 1
Hence P   = =
 F P (F) 6
Alternative Method

 E  P (E ∩ F )
We know that P   =
 F P (F)
n(S) = 36, n(E) = 3, n(F) = 6, n ( E ∩ F ) = 1

n( F ) 6 1
P (F) = = =
n(S) 36 6
n (E ∩ F ) 1
P (E ∩ F ) = =
n(S) 36
1
 E  P (E ∩ F ) 36 1
So P  = = =
 F P( F ) 1 6
6

Result
From the above activity we conclude that this activity explains how to calculate the conditional
probability of an event when another event has already occurred.

Application

This activity is helpful to clear the concept of Baye’s Theorem.

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