Chem Textbook Notes

Ch4
Periodicity: Periodic patterns in element properties.
-​ Arrangement of Electrons is responsible for periodicity.
-​ However, the 1st periodic table was devised before the existence of subatomic particles
was known.
Periodic Table History:
-​ In 9th Century, Chemists wanted a practical format for their information on elements.
-​ Early periodic table made by Russian scientist, Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869:
-​ Elements placed in order of increasing mass of atoms.
-​ Elements w/ similar properties placed in vertical columns.
-​ Mendeleev proposed the periodic law: The properties of elements vary
periodically with their atomic masses.
Modern Day Periodic Table
-​ Atomic Number: Number of Protons in an element.
-​ In a periodic table, this is in ascending order in the rows.
-​ Valence Electrons: Number of Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
-​ In a periodic table, this is in the columns.
-​ Periods: Horizontal rows in the periodic table. 1-7
-​ Groups: Vertical Columns in the periodic table. 1-18
-​ Main group elements are in groups 1-2, 13-18
-​ Elements in groups 3 -12 are Transition Metals.
-​ Some periodic tables also mention other properties like: boiling points, or state of
element at room temperature.
Groups
-​ Help interpret number of valence electrons in each group (excluding transition metals):
Group No. of Valence Electrons

1 1

2 2

13 3

14 4

15 5

16 6

17 7

18 8
*IMPORTANT: Helium has 2 Valence Electrons, even though it is in Group 18
 -​ Elements with the same number of electrons have similar properties and periodicity.
-​ E.g. Alkali Metals (Group 1) are soft and highly reactive w/ water & oxygen.
-​ E.g. Noble Gases (Group 18) have a full outer shell of electrons, meaning they
have a stable electron configuration, and have low reactivity.
-​ Stable Electron Configuration: Do not tend to lose or gain electrons.
Periods
-​ Horizontal rows in a periodic table and are numbered 1-7.
-​ Helps provide information about electron configuration.
-​ Period of an element is equal to the number of occupied electron outer shells in the
element’s atom.
-​ E.g. Elements in period 3 have their outermost shell as the 3rd.
-​ E.g. Elements in period 5 have their outermost shell as the 5th.
Blocks (SPDF)
-​ The periodic table has 4 MAIN BLOCKS: S, P, D, F
-​ For every element in a block, the element’s highest energy subshell is the same as the
name of the block.
-​ E.g. S-Block elements have their highest energy subshell as S-subshell.
Block Elements Highest Energy Subshell Configuration

S-Block Groups 1 - 2 + Helium s¹, s²

P-Block Groups 13 - 18 (Except Helium) s²p¹ to s²p⁶

D-Block Transition Metals (3-12) d¹s² to d¹⁰s²

F-Block Lanthanides & Actinides 4f-subshell progressively being filled in the

Lanthanides
5f-subshell progressively being filled in
the Actinides
Trends in the Periodic Table Part 1
-​ Periodic Trends were first observed by Dmitri Mendeleev, and how the properties of
elements vary in periodic law.
-​ Properties like Radii, Electronegativity, and Ionisation Energy are common trends.
State at Room Temperature compared to non-metals which have low melting points.
-​ TRENDS
-​ Elements in S-Block are solids at r
-​ Most elements are metals, some are gases, and 2 are liquids at room temperature.
-​ Melting Points of the first 3 periods show a trend.
-​ Metals have a higher melting point at room temperature.
-​ Except for hydrogen and helium, which are gases at room temperature.
-​ Elements in D-Block are solids at room temperature.
-​ Except for Mercury which is a liquid as its melting point is 39°C.
-​ Elements in P-Block are either solids or gases at room temperature.
-​ Gases: Noble Gases (Group 18), Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine.
-​ Liquid: Bromine
Electron Configuration
-​ Electron Configuration is responsible for the periodicity of element properties.
-​ E.g. Alkali Metals (Group 1) has elements with their electron configurations all having 1
electron in an s-subshell. They also have an increasing number of electron shells the
lower you go in the group meaning their valence electrons are higher in energy
subshells, and have a weaker attraction to the nucleus. The weaker attraction between
the valence electrons and the nucleus results in the observed properties of being soft
metals that are highly reactive with water and oxygen.
Core Charge
-​ Core Charge: In an atom, it is the measure of the attractive force between the valence
electrons towards the nucleus.
 -​ Formula:
-​ Core Charge = No. of Protons in Nucleus - Total No. of Inner-Shell Electrons
-​ Inner-Shell Electrons: Electrons that aren’t in the valence/outermost shell.
-​ E.g. Lithium (3 Protons, 3 Electrons)
-​ Lithium has 2 Inner-Shell Electrons and 1 Valence Electron.
-​ Core Charge = 3 - 2
​ =1
-​ TREND
-​ E.g. Group 1: The Core Charge remains constant as you go down, but the no. of
electron shells increases. The valence electrons become further apart from the
nucleus and will therefore be pulled less strongly towards the nucleus.
-​ Core Charge remains constant for groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18
Group Core Charge

1 1

2 2

13 3

14 4

15 5

16 6

17 7

18 8
-​ Trend in core charge and attraction between nucleus and valence electrons.
Trend in Core Charge Trend in attraction between nucleus and valence
electrons

Down a group REMAINS Core charge stays constant, while valence

CONSTANT electrons are held weaker as they’re further apart
from the nucleus due to more electron shells.

Left to right INCREASES Valence electrons are more attracted to the

across a period. nucleus as the core charge increases.

Electronegativity
-​ Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to direct electrons towards itself.
-​ The greater the attraction between valence electrons and nucleus, the greater the
electronegativity.
-​ AKA The greater the core charge, the greater the electronegativity.
-​ Trend in Electronegativity
 Trend in Trend in attraction between nucleus and valence
Electronegativity electrons

Down a group DECREASES Core charge stays constant, while valence

electrons are held weaker as they’re further apart
from the nucleus due to more electron shells.
Therefore electronegativity decreases.

Left to right INCREASES The number of occupied shells remains constant,

across a period. but the core charge increases. Therefore valence
electrons are more attracted to the nucleus.
Therefore electronegativity increases.

Atomic Radius
-​ Atomic Radius: Measurement used for size of an atom.
-​ AKA the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus.
-​ Usually found by halving the distance between 2 nuclei of 2 atoms of the same element
that are bonded together.
-​ E.g. A hydrogen molecule has 2 nuclei that are 64 picometres apart.
-​ Therefore the atomic radius is 32 picometres.
-​ TREND
Trend in Atomic Radii Explanation

Down a group INCREASES Core charge stays constant, while the no. of
electron shells increases. Therefore the atomic
radius increases.

Left to right DECREASES The number of occupied shells remains constant,

across a period. but the core charge increases. Therefore valence
electrons are more attracted to the nucleus.
Therefore atomic radius decreases.

SUMMARY of Trends in the Periodic Table Part 1

PROPERTY DOWN A GROUP ACROSS A PERIOD (Left to Right)

Core Charge No change Increases

Electronegativity Decreases Increases

Atomic Radius Increases Decreases

Trends in the Periodic Table Part 2

-​ Changes in core charge and atomic radii, accounts for periodic trends in Ionisation
Energy, Reactivity, and Metallic Character.
First Ionisation Energy
-​ When an element is heated, its electrons can move to higher energy shells.
 -​ If sufficient energy is given, atoms can completely lose an electron.
-​ If this occurs, the atom has 1 less electron than the no. of protons in the nucleus.
-​ This makes the atom a positively charged ion. AKA a cation.
-​ Ionisation: The process of removing an electron from an atom.
-​ Usually the valence electrons are removed as they are the farthest from the
nucleus, and the least strongly held.
-​ First Ionisation Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from an atom of an
element in the gaseous state.
-​ The stronger the attraction between valence electrons and nucleus, the greater
the energy required to remove them. Therefore a greater first ionisation energy.
-​ Therefore, magnitude of first ionization energy reflects the strength of the
attraction between the nucleus and valence electrons
Trend in Ionisation Explanation
Energy

Down a group DECREASES Core charge stays constant, while the no. of
electron shells increases. Therefore the attraction
between nucleus and valence electrons is less,
and the ionisation energy required to remove an
electron decreases.

Left to right INCREASES .The number of occupied shells remains constant,

across a period. but the core charge increases. Therefore valence
electrons are more attracted to the nucleus.
Therefore more ionisation energy is required to
remove electrons.

Metallic Character
-​ Usually, Metals conduct electricity and are solid at room temp.
-​ Usually, Non-Metals do not conduct electricity and are gases at room temp.
-​ Properties of metals & non-metals are related to the no. of valence electrons.
-​ Elements w/ 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons usually have metallic properties.
-​ Elements w/ 4+ valence electrons usually have nonmetallic properties.
-​ Metals are located on the left of the periodic table, while non-metals and
metalloids are on the right.
-​ Metalloids: Elements that exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals. Located
between metals and non-metals.
Reactivity
-​ Reactivity: Indication of how easily elements gain or lose electrons.
-​ Reactivity of Metals
-​ A measure of how easily an atom of a metallic element can lose electrons.
-​ The weaker the attraction between valence electrons and nucleus, the easier it is
to lose electrons
-​ Rate at which metals react to water, indicates their relative reactivity.
-​ TREND
 Trend in Reactivity Explanation

Down a group INCREASES No. of electron shells increases. Reactivity

increases when there is a greater no. of electron
shells to lose electrons.

Left to right across DECREASES The core charge increases, making the attraction
a period. between electrons and nucleus greater, making
losing electrons more difficult.

-​ Reactivity of Non-Metals
-​ Undergo chemical reactions to gain electrons to form a stable octet arrangement.
-​ The easier a non-metal can attract or share electrons, the greater its reactivity.
-​ Elements w/ a greater core charge, and fewer electron shells, will have a greater
attractive force between nucleus and valence electrons = greater reactivity.
Trend in Reactivity Explanation

Down a group DECREASES Harder for a non-metal atom to attract into its
valence shell.

Left to right across INCREASES The core charge increases, making non-metals
a period. attract electrons easier.

Ch 3
Atomic Models
 -​ Mid-19th Century, scientists believed atoms were hard spheres that couldn’t be broken
down into smaller parts.
-​ Late 19th Century, scientists discovered atoms could be broken down into smaller
particles. Led to the discovery of subatomic particles.
Electrons
-​ Negatively charged particles.
-​ Creates cloud-like structure around the nucleus, which gives an atom its volume & mass.
-​ Cloud-like structure is 10 000 - 100 000 times larger than the nucleus.
-​ Approx 1800x smaller than protons and/or neutrons.
-​ Electrostatic Attraction: Negative particles attracted to positive particles.
-​ Electron charge is -1, which is equal but opposite to protons (+1).
The Nucleus of an Atom
-​ Nucleus is composed of nucleons (protons & neutrons).
-​ Neutrons and protons are almost identical in mass.
-​ 10 000 - 100 000 times smaller than the size of the atom.
PARTICLE SYMBOL CHARGE SIZE relative to Mass [10^-27]
a proton (Yoctograms)

Protons p +1 1 1.673

Neutrons n 0 1 1.675

Electrons e -1 1/1800 9.109 x 10^-31

Types of Atoms
-​ Each element is made up of 1 type of atom.
-​ Type of atom is determined by no. of protons in nucleus,
-​ Atomic Number: No. of Protons in an atom’s nucleus, Symbol is Z.
-​ Mass Number: No. of Protons & Neutrons in an atom’s nucleus, Symbol is A.
-​ Represents total mass of the atom.
-​ Since atoms are electrically neutral, the no. of electrons = no. of protons.
-​ Therefore, atomic number also represents the no. of electrons.
Representing Atomic Structure

Isotopes
-​ Isotopes: Atoms with the same no. of protons, but different no. of neutrons.
-​ Hence atoms w/ the same atomic number, but may have different mass numbers.
-​ Isotopes have identical chemical properties, but have different physical properties.
-​ ATOMS ALWAYS HAVE THE SAME NO. OF PROTONS
Radioisotopes
-​ Radioisotopes: Radioactive isotopes.
 -​ Band of Stability: Region where nuclei are stable.
-​ Nuclei outside the band of stability are unstable, and radioactive.
-​ Radioisotopes will decay to form stable nuclei, and will release radiation in the form of
alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma radiation.
-​ Alpha emitters have too few neutrons to be stable,
-​ Beta emitters have too many neutrons to be stable.
-​ Alpha Particles:
-​ Low penetrating power
-​ In the form of a helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
-​ Can only travel a few cm from its source, and can be stopped by paper.
-​ Beta Particles:
-​ Greater penetrating power than alpha particles.
-​ A neutron is converted into a proton during beta decay.

-​ In radioactive decay equations, it is shown as

-​ Gamma Radiation:
-​ High-Energy EM Radiation.
-​ Great penetrating power.
-​ Do some radioactive decay equations-------------------------------------------------------------------
Relative Masses
 -​ Relative Isotopic Mass: Mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12 of the mass of an
atom of carbon-12.
-​ The standard to which all masses are compared to is Carbon-12.
-​ Decided in 1961 to be the standard.
-​ Carbon-12 has a mass of 12.
-​ Relative Isotopic Mass is almost equal to the mass no. of the isotope.
-​ Relative Isotopic Abundance: % Abundance of an isotope in the natural environment.
-​ E.g. Naturally occuring chlorine has 75.8% of the lighter isotope, and 24.2% of
the heavier isotope.
Element Isotope Relative Isotopic Mass Relative Isotopic Abundance

Hydrogen ¹H 1.008 99.986

²H 2.014 0.014

³H 3.016 0.0001
-​ Mass Spectrometer: An instrument used to determine RIM and RIA. It separates the
individual isotopes in a sample of an element, and determines the mass of each isotope
relative to Carbon-12, and it provides the RIA of each isotope.
-​ Mass Spectra: The output of a mass spectrometer.
-​ No. of Peaks determines no. of isotopes.
-​ X-Axis determines RIM.
-​ Y-Axis determines RIA.
IN THIS CASE FOR CHLORINE:
-​ 2 Isotopes
-​ The isotopes have a RIM of 35 and 37.
-​ The isotopes have a RIA of 75% and 25%.

Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

-​ RAM: Average relative mass of an atom in a mixture. Symbol = Aᵣ
-​ Formulae:

-​ You can use the information from the Mass Spectrum to calculate the RAM.
Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)
 -​ RMM: Some elements & compounds exist as molecules, and can have their RMM
determined.
-​ Symbol = Mᵣ
-​ Formulae: Mᵣ = Sum of RAMs of the atoms in the molecule
-​ *Based on scale of the exact mass of the atom Carbon-12
Relative Formula Mass (RFM)
-​ Some compounds exist as ionic networks, rather than molecules.
-​ For ionic compounds, the term RFM is used.
-​ Follows the same formula as Relative Molecular Mass.
Flame Tests
-​ Flame Test: Helps determine the identity of a metal in a sample. A sample of the metal
compound is inserted into a non-luminous bunsen burner flame, which produces a flame
with the characteristic colour of the metal compound.
Emission Spectra (watch video for better explanation)
-​ When atoms are heated, they give off EM radiation or light.
-​ IF the light passes through a prism, a spectrum is produced with black
background w/ coloured lines, AKA Emission Spectra.
-​ Each element’s emission spectra is unique, and helps identify the element.
-​ Emission Spectra

-​ Apparatus

-​ Emission spectra gives information about the electronic structure of atoms. 2 main clues:
1.​ Atoms of the same element produce identical line spectra.
2.​ Each element has a unique line spectrum, thus, a unique electronic structure.

Bohr Model of the Atom

 -​ In 1913, Niels Bohr, explained emission spectra, via developing a new model of a
Hydrogen atom.
-​ Bohr Model Explained:
-​ Electrons revolve around a nucleus, in a fixed, circular orbit.
-​ The electrons’ orbits correspond to different energy levels in the atom.
-​ Electrons occupy fixed energy levels, and can’t exist between 2 energy levels.
-​ Orbits of larger radii correspond to higher energy levels.
-​ In Bohr’s Model, electrons can move between energy levels by absorbing or emitting
energy in the form of light.
Electron Shells
-​ Scientists proposed that electrons are grouped by energy levels, called electron shells.
-​ Low energy electrons are closer to the nucleus, while higher energy electrons aren’t.
-​ Lowest energy level is n=1, and as n increases, so does the energy level (n=6).
Emission Spectra & the Shell Model
-​ Heating an element causes an electron to absorb energy, and jump to a higher energy
level. After some time, the electron releases energy in the form of light, and goes back
down to the initial energy level.

Each of the pathways

produces a light of a
specific colour on the
emission spectrum.

-​ Ground State: The lowest energy state of an atom. n=1

-​ Excited State: When an electron absorbs energy and jumps to a higher energy level.
-​ E.g. When a Hydrogen atom absorbs heat, its electron gets excited.
-​ After being excited, the electron returns to the ground state.
-​ It may pass through the other energy levels first. E.g. n=4 → n=2 → n=1
-​ As electrons go down in energy levels, they emit light energy. Each transition
corresponds to a specific light energy, thus, a different line in the line spectrum.
Electronic Configuration and the Shell Model (How scientists determined the electron
configuration of other atoms from the Bohr Model)

Ionisation Energy
-​ Ionisation Energy: Energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
-​ As each electron is removed from the atom, the ionisation energy can be measured.

The first electron removed requires the least

ionisation energy, and the ionisation energy
required to remove electrons, increases. Once
the last 2 electrons are reached, the ionisation
energy required substantially increases.

-​ Using ionisation energy, scientists determined electrons were grouped in energy levels
called electron shells.
-​ Electrons in the same shell have the same energy, and distance from the nucleus
-​ Electron shells hold different no. of electrons,
-​ Electronic Configuration: The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.

Electron Shell (n) No. of Electrons (2n²)

1 2

2 8

3 18

4 32

Valence Electrons
-​ Valence Shell: Outermost electron shell of an atom.
-​ Valence Electron/s: Electrons in the valence shell.
-​ Valence electrons require the least ionisation energy.
-​ You can predict chemical properties of elements via valence electrons..
Schrödinger Model of the Atom
-​ The Bohr model mathematically explained the lines of the emission spectrum of
Hydrogen atoms.
-​ However there were things the Bohr model couldn’t explain including:
-​ It could only predict the emission spectrum of Hydrogen.
-​ It couldn’t explain why electron shells hold 2n² electrons.
-​ It doesn’t explain why the 4th shell accepts 2 electrons before the 3rd shell is
completely filled.
-​ Bohr’s model was the first to propose electrons orbit at a specific distance from the
nucleus. Other scientists like Rutherford believed that electrons orbited at any distance.
-​ Bohr’s model stated the energy of electrons was quantised.
-​ Schrodinger’s model is called Quantum Mechanics, and is still used today.

-​ Bohr viewed electrons as tiny, hard particles that revolve around the nucleus in circular
orbits.
-​ Shrodinger viewed electrons as having wave-like properties that occupy a 3D space
called an orbital.

Electron Properties in the Schrödinger Model

-​ Schrodinger also followed the electron shell idea, but proposed subshells, which contain
separate energy levels w/ similar energy (S, P, D, F).
-​ Each subshell only holds a certain no. of electrons.
-​ The 1st shell (n=1) → s-subshell.
-​ The 2nd shell (n=2) → s-subshell, p-subshell.
-​ The 3rd shell (n=3) → s-subshell, p-subshell, d-subshell
-​ The 4th shell (n=4) → s-subshell, p-subshell, d-subshell, f-subshell
-​ Each subshell is comprised of orbitals:
-​ s-subshell = 1 Orbital, p-subshell = 3 Orbitals | d-subshell = 5 Orbitals |
f-subshell = 7 Orbitals
Pauli Exclusion Principle
-​ States that: Each orbital is made up of a maximum of 2 electrons, with each electron
having a different spin.
-​ Spin is a quantum mechanical property.
-​ Therefore, the no. of orbitals in a shell is n².
-​ Therefore, the no. of electrons in a shell is 2n².
-​ Thus, the schrodinger model accurately predicts the maximum no. of electrons a shell
can hold.
Aufbau Principle
-​ States that: The lowest energy orbitals are always filled with electrons first.

Hund’s Rule
-​ States that: Every orbital in a subshell must first be filled with one electron with the same
spin before an orbital is filled with a second electron (of opposite spin).

Exceptions to the Rules

-​ Main exclusions: Chromium, and Copper
-​ Others include:
-​ Electron Configuration MUST be memorised prior to exam.
-​ I DON’T KNOW WHY THEY ARE EXCLUSIONS
Chapter 5 - Bonding
Metals
-​ Metallic Properties:
-​ Relatively high melting & boiling points.
-​ Good conductors of heat and electricity.
-​ High density.
Stop