Rural sociology and agricultural extension handout

PART I: RURAL SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER ONE: SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

1.1 The concepts and Definition of Sociology

The study of sociology starts from the basic premise that human life is social life. Most of us are
constantly involved in interactions with other human beings. From the families we are born into,
through school, work, and play; retirements; and even the gatherings that memorialize our
deaths, we spend our lives within a tapestry woven of interlocking social arrangements.
Sociology focuses on these arrangements, including how they are created, how they change, and
how they impact our lives, opportunities, and options.

Auguste Comte first coined the term ―Sociology‖ in 1842 .the term ‗socio‘ means society and
‗logy‘ means science thus, sociology means the science of society. Furthermore, social academic
sociology was established by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Among those various social
sciences, sociology focuses on social interactions and relationship. There is no entirely
satisfactory definition of sociology due to the diversity of perspectives or views of various
scholars. But, some of definitions of sociology are as follow:

It is a science which interprets social behavior with the aim of arriving at a casual explanation of
human behavior (Max Weber)

It is an observational science which studies actual social phenomena (Le Play)

It is a comprehensive science of society which aimed at interpretation of social life

([Link])

It is the study of the conditions and consequences of human interaction and

interrelations(Ginsberg)

Sociology is the study of society or the science of society or the scientific study or knowledge of
society, human relation, interaction, action, behavior, institution, organization, groups, etc. It
offers perspectives or views of social world.

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Sociology is the scientific study or the science of the patterns and processes of human actions,
behaviors, relations and interactions or it is the surveys and studies of the whole range of human
actions, behavior, social aggregations, rules, relations, etc.

Sociology is the systematic discovery and investigations of all human groups, organizations,
institutions units of society, communities, including their interactions and relations or it is the
study of the influence of social relations, interactions, organizations, institutions on humans or
people‘s attitudes, actions and behavior.

Sociology focuses on individual and understand individual only in its group function, its
relations and interaction with other individuals/groups/people/community members, etc. It
studies the past, the present, and forecast the future actions and behavior of society.

Sociology also studies the social nature of human being and everything in the society such as
social rules, traditions, customs, bonds and linkages, lines that tied and binds society to exist
together.

In general, sociology deals with the human social behavior, especially the study of the origin,
organization, institution and development of human society i.e. the study of social lives of
humans, groups and societies. A careful examination of various definitions cited above, makes it
evident that sociologists differ in their opinion about definition of sociology. Their divergent
views about the definition of sociology only reveal their distinct approaches to its study.
However, the common idea underlying all the definitions mentioned above is that sociology is
concerned with man, his social relations and his society.

1.1.1 Development of Sociology

There was no sociology as a distinct discipline before the 19th century. As a distinct discipline it
emerged about the middle of the 19th century when European social observers began to use
scientific methods to test their ideas. It looks that three factors led to the development of
sociology: The first was the Industrial Revolution by the mid-19th century Europe was changing
from agriculture to factory production. There was the emergence of new occupations as well as
new avenues of employment away from the land. Masses of people migrated to cities in search
of jobs. Pull and push factors were instrumental in such migrations. In the countryside, due to the

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nature of agricultural society, there were no occupations that could be alternatives to agriculture.
Hence people got pushed to look for new places whereas the urban/industrial places with new
job opportunities provided a pull to the same population. Eventually the urban life brought
radical changes in the lives of people. The city greeted them with horrible working conditions-
low pay, long and exhausting working hour, dangerous work, foul smoke, and much noise.

The second factor that stimulated the development of sociology was Imperialism. Europeans
successfully conquered many parts of the world. They were exposed to radically different
cultures. Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures differed.

The third impetus for the development of sociology was the success of the natural sciences.
People moved to question fundamental aspects of their social world. They started using the
scientific method (systematic observation, objectivity) to the study of human behavior.

The idea of applying the scientific method to the social world, known as positivism, was
apparently first proposed by Auguste Comte (1798-1857). The changes he himself experienced,
combined with those France underwent in the revolution, led Comte to become interested in the
two interrelated issues: social order (social static) and social change (social dynamics). He
advocated for building new societies on twin foundations of science and industry rather than on
religion and landowner-serf relationship. This will be a new science and Comte named it as
Sociology (1838) – the study of society. Comte is credited with being the founder of sociology.

1.1.2. What Sociology Offers

A sociological look at the world provides a number of unique benefits and perspectives.

a. Sociology provides an understanding of social issues and patterns of behavior. It helps us

identify the social rules that govern our lives. Sociologists study how these rules are created,
maintained, changed, passed between generations, and shared between people living in various
parts of the world.

b. Sociology helps us understand the workings of the social systems within which we live our
lives. Sociologists put our interactions with others into a social context.

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c. Sociology helps us understand why we perceive the world the way we do. We are inundated
with messages in a variety of forms about how we, and the world around us, both are and should
be.

d. Sociology helps us identify what we have in common within, and between, cultures and
societies. Sociologists know that, although people in different parts of the city, country, or world
dress differently, speak differently, and have many different beliefs and customs, many of the
same types of social forces are at work shaping their lives.

e. Sociology helps us understand why and how society changes. Obviously, the social world is
constantly changing. This change has been a major interest to sociologists from the beginning of
the discipline. However, many sociologists believe that sociology should not stop with only
explaining society and how and why the world changes.

f. Sociology provides us theoretical perspectives within which to frame these understandings and
research methods that allow us to study social life scientifically. Sociology is a social science.
That means sociologists work to understand society in very structured, disciplined ways.

g. Sociology is not just common sense. Results of sociological research may be unexpected. They
often show that things are not always, or even usually, what they initially seem. ―People who like
to avoid shocking discoveries, who prefer to believe that society is just what they were taught in
Sunday School, who like the safety of the rules and maxims of what Alfred Schultz . . . has
called ‗the world-taken-for-granted‘, should stay away from sociology‖ (Berger 1963, 24).

1.1.3. Major Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists view society in different ways. Some see the world basically as a stable and ongoing
entity. They are impressed with the endurance of the family, organized religion, and other social
institutions. Some sociologists see society as composed of many groups in conflict, competing
for scarce resources.

The three perspectives that are most widely used by sociologists will provide an introductory
look at the discipline. These are the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives.

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Functionalist Perspective

In the view of functionalists, each part of a society contributes to its survival. The functionalist
perspective emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.
Emile Durkheim's analysis of religion represented a critical contribution to the development of
functionalism. As noted earlier, Durkheim focused on the role of religion in reinforcing feelings
of solidarity and unity within group life.

Under the functionalist approach, if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society's
stability or survival—if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote value
consensus among members of a society—it will not be passed on from one generation to the
next.

Conflict Perspective

In contrast to functionalists' emphasis on stability and consensus, conflict sociologists see the
social world in continual struggle. The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best
understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups. Such conflict need not be
violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, and competition among
religious groups for members, or disputes over cuts in the federal budget.

As we saw earlier, Karl Marx viewed struggle between social classes as inevitable, given the ex-
ploitation of workers under capitalism. Expanding on Marx's work, sociologists and other social
scientists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday
life in all societies.

Interactionist Perspective

The functionalist and conflict perspectives both analyze" behavior in terms of society-wide
patterns. However, many contemporary sociologists are more interested in understanding society
as a whole through an examination of social interactions such as small groups conducting
meetings, two friends talking casually with each other, a family celebrating a birthday, and so
forth. The interactionist perspective generalizes about fundamental or everyday forms of social
interaction. Interactionism is a sociological framework for viewing human beings as living in a

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world of meaningful objects. These "objects" may include material things, actions, other people,
relationships, and even symbols (Henslin, 1972:95).

1.2 Definition of Rural Sociology

Rural sociology is the science of rural people. It is the study of the nature, behavior and
development of societies or human-beings live in the rural areas. It is the scientific study of rural
human in relation to groups with whom she/he interacts. It is the study of human beings and their
lives in the rural situations. Rural sociology can be defined as the science of rural society or rural
man and his group relationships, the laws of social structures and development of rural society,
an aid in discovering the social laws governing the rural society and it can be defined as simply
enough to say that it studies and focuses on human behavior in rural areas.

Rural sociologists do not study cattle, poultry, crop, agricultural implements/tools, but they study
rural people, their way of life, interaction and inter-relation among them. They study the rural
people/communities, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, relations, tendencies, institutions, organizations,
and so on. It is the specialized field of sociology or the branch of sociology that studies rural
location of human‘s residence and its consequences being the distinction that demarcates this
specialized field of sociology, as rural sociology.

Rural sociology studies about the rural population, social organizations and social progresses
operating in the rural societies. It studies to discover rural people‘s conditions and tendencies to
formulate principles of progress and development in the rural areas. It uses the scientific
procedures to study the interaction and interrelationships between individuals, groups,
communities in the rural areas.

It also deals with the rural people, norms, values; traditions culture in general, way of life, way
and methods of production to fulfill their livelihood or to satisfy their need of life. Only in
comparatively in recent times the approach like natural sciences, has been applied to the study of
the behavior of rural society- living in the rural areas called rural sociology. Rural sociology
though it is not yet have developed to a full coherent body of theoretical generalizations to serve
as a foundation for further scientific investigation, it is nonetheless a science.

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1.2.1 Origins of rural sociology

It is clear from the above mentioned definitions that rural sociology studies the social
interactions, institutions and activities and social changes that take place in the rural society. It
provides us that knowledge about the rural social phenomena. Rural Sociology originated in
1908 and developed in USA to study and bring recommendation for improvement of the
deteriorating rural social life. The historical background of rural sociology has traced to its early
beginnings in the USA. Rural sociology in this country (USA) was born and developed through
more than half a century in to a distinctive academic field of professional study

1.2.2 Scope of Rural Sociology

In its broadest definition, the scope of rural sociology can be described as follows:

1. Rural community-rural sociology is concerned with the study of the characteristics, special
features and ecology of the village community.

2. Rural social structure- it studies the rural social structure

3. Rural institutions- social, economic, political, educational and religious institutions are the
subjects of study of rural sociology.

4. Culture-it studies the various aspects of the cultural life of the rural people

5. Social change- the impact of urbanization, industrialization and other aspects of

modernization on rural life come under the purview of rural sociology.

6. Agricultural Transformation- an important area of study for rural sociology is the process of
diffusion and adoption of agricultural technology among the farming community.

7. Rural development program-it evaluates the various rural development programmes; and the
impact of various social legislation measures on the various sections of the village people.

8. Rural demography- it studies the population growth, rural to urban and rural to rural
migration of the people

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9. Rural social problem- it studies socio-economic inequality, unemployment, poverty,

malnutrition, illiteracy, use of drugs and alcohol and incidence of crimes in rural areas.

1.2.3 Importance of rural sociology

A) Rural populations is in majority; the world population is more rural than urban more than
two-third of the people of the world live in villages it is the village that forms the basis of
society.

B) Intimate (close) relationship between the land and man: man is born out of land and his entire
culture depends on it. Land has been the part and parcel of human life.

C) Villages and rural life‘s form the source of population cities normally grow out of towns and
villages. No city can come into existence all of a sudden without having rural background.

A village, when improved and thickly populated, becomes a town or a city.

1.3 The rural –urban continuum debates

There is some controversy among rural sociologists as to whether rural –urban differences occur
in dichotomous fashion or along a continuum.

Proponents of the former, more conventional theory hold that differences between the two
populations are categorical in nature and direct opposition to one another.

Proponents of the continuum theory feels that rural –urban differences occur in relative degrees
in a range extending between the two polar extremes of rural and urban.

1.3.1 Methods of closing the gap of urban –rural differences

 Rapid increase and improvements in communication

 Progressive and rapid technological advancements can break down the isolation of rural
people
 Increased contacts and inter-dependences to meet the needs, requirements and wants of
rural and urban people can lessened the differences existed between them.
 Increase in borrowing and diffusion of ideas and material technologies between rural and
urban societies can narrow the gap.

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The Major and predominant characteristics and differences between of the rural and urban

Items/features Rural societies Urban societies

Occupation Totality of people are cultivators Totality of people engaged principally in

manufacturing, mechanical pursuits,
Their families are usually a few representatives of trade, commerce, professions, governing
several non-agricultural pursuits and other non-agricultural occupations

Environment and Predominance of nature over human-social Lived away from nature
orientation to nature environment. Direct relationship to nature

Size of community Open farms or small communities, agriculturalist The size of urban community is much
and size of community are negatively correlated larger than the rural community. In other
words, urbanity and size of community
are positively correlated

Density of population In the same country and the same period the Greater than in rural communities.
density is lower than in urban [Link] Urbanity and density are positively
and rurality are negatively correlated correlated

Social differentiation and Rural differentiation and stratification is less than Differentiation and stratification show
stratification urban positive correlation with urbanity

Heterogeneity and Compared with the urban populations, rural More heterogeneous than rural
homogeneity of the communities are more homogenous in racial and communities (in the same country and at
population psychological traits(negative correlation with the same time). Urbanity and
heterogeneity) heterogeneity are positively correlated

Mobility Territorial, occupational and other forms of social More intensive. Urbanity and mobility are
mobility of the population are comparatively less positively correlated. Only in the periods
intensive. Normally the migration current carries of social catastrophy is the migration
more individuals from the country to the cit from the city to the country greater than
from the country to the city.

System of interaction Less numerous contacts per man. More numerous contacts.

Narrower area of the interaction system of its Wider area of interaction system per man
members and the whole aggregate. and per aggregate.

More prominent part is occupied by primary Predominance of secondary contacts.

contacts.
Predominance of impersonal casual and
Predominance of personal and relatively durable short lived relations.
relations.
Greater complexity, manifoldness,
Comparative simplicity and sincerity of relations. superficiality and standardized formality
of relations.
―Man is interacted as a human person.‖
Man interacted as a ―number‖ and
―address‖.

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CHAPTER TWO : CULTURE

Definition of Culture

In social science, the term culture refers to the shared ways of thinking and believing. It can
grow out of group experience and passed from one generation to the next. Hence, culture can be
defined as the ways of life of a society, the knowledge, beliefs, customs, and skills available to
its members. Different scholars defined culture according to their contexts. Edward Taylor
(1832-1917) is an English anthropologist and the founder of cultural anthropology. He defined
culture as ―the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of a society‖. Culture is a ways of
life includes what people have, to do, and think.

Puddingstone defined culture as ―the sum of total material and intellectual equipment whereby
people satisfy their biological and social needs.‖ Culture includes: Intangible (non-material)
items like values, beliefs, norms, language, and ideas (ideologies, perception of reality) that
govern the way of life. Tangible things – material objects. Human beings have created this way
of life, which includes both material and non-material objects. Culture is the patterns of behavior
and the products of the patterns of behavior. Non-humans guided by instincts. They have a
biological programming. Humans guided by culture, which may be called as social
programming.

Characteristics of culture

i. Symbolic: Culture is found only in human society. This is because human develop and use
highly complex systems of symbols. Symbols allow people to develop complex thoughts and to
exchange those thoughts with others. Language and other forms of symbolic communication
such as art, enable people to create, explain, and record new ideas and information. A symbol
has either an indirect connection or no connection at all with the object, idea, feeling, or behavior
to which it refers. Symbols can be verbal (e.g. dog) or non-verbal (e.g. Flag).

ii. Universal: Culture is universal. There is no society without culture. For example the
institutions like marriage, family, religion, education, policy, economy, and sports are found all
over the world. Societies have developed values, norms, beliefs, and other patterns of behavior

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that govern the system of marriage and family. Universality (food, shelter, language), generality
(flag, aid), and sub-culture (dressing style, housing condition, etc).

iii. Variability: There is variability in the universals of culture. The arranged marriages, in
family size, type of family, and residence of new couples, in authority pattern, political and
economic systems are all variations that are found in world.

iv. Learned: Culture is learned through the process of interaction with others. It is not inherited
through the biological process. People are not born with culture. Animals can learn but no animal
species has ever develop a culture. We learn to talk, to walk, and to act as our elders train us.
Also human beings have the capacity to learn a variety of languages.

v. Shared: Culture is not the property of one individual or of a group. It is shared with other
members of society. You are sharing TV transmission with others, sharing a classroom with
others, sharing the road with others, and sharing the knowledge with others. You are sharing
culture with others because you are a social being. Therefore, culture can be learned through
observing, listening, talking, & interacting as a member of society.

vi. Transmitted: Culture does not end with the death of a person or a group. During its lifetime
that individual or group tries to pass on its culture to the future generation. That is how culture
grows and that is how our culture becomes richer and richer. Culture is not transmitted
genetically but equipped through learning or transmitted through observation.

vii. Changing: Culture is continuously changing. The patterns of behavior transmitted by one
generation to another are continuous in the process of modification for catering to the changing
needs of time and demands of people. New technologies are developed and are borrowed from
other groups and societies. It is not transmitted genetically and it is not static rather it is dynamic.
The rate of change may be varying. In small scale societies the rate of change is slow whereas in
industrial societies it is fast. There are various factors for the rate of change to be fast or slow.
Some of these factors are- mass media, education, attitude of the people, etc. Hence in small
scale societies there is a cultural lag. However, the material aspect of culture changes more
quickly than the non-material culture as a result the non-material culture is usually adjusting to
keep pace with the material culture. Material culture is sum of artifacts and others whereas non-
material culture includes values, attitudes, and behavioral patterns.

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Culture could be changed in to two means-internal and external. Internal change can be invention
and innovation. Invention is new thing (idea) or behavioral pattern that emerges within that
society. It could be brought deliberately, consciously or non-consciously. External change could
be cultural diffusion. Diffusion is the process of spreading of a thing, an idea, or behavioral
pattern from one culture to another.

viii. Culture is adaptable and maladaptive: Human adapts their environment for survival or
reproduction i.e. cultural and biological adaptation of animals and humans in common in
physiological features. For instances lions have long jaws and canines for their survival; but for
human being‘s survival culture is needed. Humans developed spears and tools by innovations for
food collection. To protect sun light humans wear white clothes, which is the result of cultural
invention. Adaptive behavior that offer short term benefits for particular individuals may also
harm the environment and threaten the group‘s long term survival.

ix. Integrated: All cultures share a certain number of universal characters. It is interconnected
one to another. In human beings there are different types of systems such as respiratory system,
digestive systems, and the like. When we come to culture, there is marriage system, kinship
system, economic system, social system. Then each part contributes to the whole system. For
instance the economic importance of cattle is for food, hide and fuel, medicine, and fertilizer.
The cultural importance of marriage system is for bride price. An aesthetic value also can be
mentioned such as folk, song, etc.

x. Culture has patterns: Pattern is refers to a specific ways of behaving which is part of a given
culture. Culture has two patterns namely ideal and behavioral.

Ideal pattern: what a people of a society would do or say in a particular situation.

Behavioral pattern: derived from observation of how people actually behave in a particular
situation.

High culture - Cultural patterns that distinguish a society‘s elite.

Popular culture - Cultural patterns those are widespread among a society‘s population.

Culture of poverty - Cultural patterns shared by the poor.

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Sub-Culture: It is the cultural patterns that set apart some segments of a society‘s population.
Cluster of patterns which both are related to the general culture of the society yet distinguishable
from it. Example, student sub-culture, business sub-culture

Multiculturalism: A policy followed by some governments whereby they recognize cultural

diversity in the society and promote the equality of all cultural traditions.

Counter-Culture: It is a sub-culture, which is in active opposition to the dominant culture.

Cultural patterns that strongly oppose widely accepted patterns within a society. Example, drug
users

xi. Culture is global: Today, more than ever before, we can observe many of the same cultural
practices being followed the world over. We find people sharing of clothes, music, and same
products language in different countries. Societies now have more contact with one another than
ever before, involving the flow of goods (economy), information (communication), and people
(migration).

Elements of culture

Symbols: Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which
people attach meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically,
symbols are words, objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than
themselves. Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. It is the human
ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning.
There is no obvious natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes.

Language: Language, specifically defined as a system of verbal and in many cases written
symbols with rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex
meanings, is the distinctive capacity and possession of humans; it is a key element of culture.
Culture encompasses language, and through language, culture is communicated and transmitted.
Without language it would be impossible to develop, elaborate and transmit culture to the future
generation.

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Values: Values are essential elements of non-material culture. They may be defined as general,
abstract guidelines for our lives, decisions, goals, choices, and actions. They are shared ideas of a
groups or a society as to what is right or wrong, correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable,
acceptable or unacceptable, ethical or unethical, etc., regarding something. They are general road
maps for our lives. Values are shared and are learned in group. They can be positive or negative.
For example, honesty, truth – telling, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need, etc are
positive values. Examples of negative values include theft, indecency, disrespect, dishonesty,
falsehood, frugality, etc. The Hippocratic Oath in medical profession dictates that practitioners
should among other things, keep the secrets of patients, provide them whatever help they can, do
no harm to patients willingly, etc. This is an example of positive value.

Values are dynamic, meaning they change over time. They are also static, meaning they tend to
persist without any significant modification. Values are also diversified, meaning they vary from
place to place and culture to culture. Some values are universal because there is bio-
psychological unity among people everywhere and all times. In other words, they emanate from
the basic similarity of mankind‘s origins, nature and desires. For example, dislike for killing
people, concepts and practices of disease management, cleanliness, personal hygiene, cosmetics,
incest taboo, etc.

Norms: Norms are also essential elements of culture. They are implicit principles for social life,
relationship and interaction. Norms are detailed and specific rules for specific situations. They
tell us how to do something, what to do, what not to do, when to do it, why to do it, etc. Norms
are derived from values. That means, for every specific norm, there is a general value that
determines its content. Individuals may not act according to the defined values and norms of the
group. Therefore, violation of values and norms and deviating from the standard values and
norms are often common. Social norms may be divided into two. These are mores and
folkways:
Mores: Are important and stronger social norms for existence, safety, well-being and continuity
of the society or the group or society. Violation of, and deviation from these kinds of norms, may
result in serious reactions from the groups. The strongest norms are regarded as the formal laws
of a society or a group. Formal laws are written and codified social norms. The other kinds of

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mores are called conventions. Conventions are established rules governing behavior; they are
generally accepted ideals by the society. Conventions may also be regarded as written and signed
agreements between nations to govern the behaviors of individuals, groups and nations.
Folkways: Are the ways of life developed by a group of people. They are detailed and minor
instructions, traditions or rules for day-to-day life that help us function effectively and smoothly
as members of a group. Here, violating such kinds of norms may not result in a serious
punishment unlike violating mores. They are less morally binding. In other words, folkways are
appropriate ways of behaving and doing things. Examples may include table etiquette, dressing
rules, walking, talking, etc.
Conformity to folkways usually occurs automatically without any national analysis and is based
upon custom passed from generation to generation. They are not enforced by law, but by
informal social control. They are not held to be important or obligatory as mores, or moral
standards, and their violation is not as such severely sanctioned. Although folkways are less
binding, people have to behave according to accepted standards. Some exceptional behaviors are
regarded eccentric behaviors.
Folkways are distinguished from laws and mores in that they are designed, maintained and
enforced by public sentiment, or custom, whereas laws are institutionalized, designed,
maintained and enforced by the political authority of the society. Folkways in turn may be
divided into two sub types: fashion and custom.
Fashion: Is a form of behavior, type of folkways that is socially approved at a given time but
subject to periodic change. Adherents combine both deviation and conformity to norm of a
certain group.
Custom: Is a folkway or form of social behavior that, having persisted a long period of time, has
become traditional and well established in a society and has received some degree of formal
recognition. Custom is a pattern of action shared by most or all members of a society. Habit is a
personality trait, whereas the custom is a group trait. Fashion and customs can be differentiated
in that while custom changes at slower rate, fashion changes at a faster rate.
Cultural variations / diversity

There are many ways of life; hence there are differences in culture. In one society there could be
differences in patterns of marriage and family, patterns of education, patterns of worship, and
patterns of earning a living.

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Cultural diversity can involve social class. In everyday life, we usually use the term ―culture‖ to
mean art forms such as classical literature, music, dance, and painting. We describe people
―cultured,‖ and speak less generously of ordinary people, assuming that everyday culture is
somehow less worthy. Such judgments imply that many cultural patterns are readily accessible to
only some members of society. People often divide society in different social classes and find
that each class represents differences in their norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, and thinking.
These norms, values, and attitudes may relate to the institutions of marriage and family, religion,
education, earning a living, or their political behavior, one could find the differences.

Attitudes toward cultural variation

Ethnocentrism: In Greek ‗Ethno’ means people and ‗centric’ is a Latin word which means
center. The whole judgment is centered on one‘s own culture. The practice of judging other‘s
culture by the standards of one‘s own culture. People consider their own culture as superior to
others and apply their standards for evaluating the patterns of behavior of others. It is a notion
that one‘s culture is more sensible than or superior to that of the other societies.

Cultural relativism: The practice of judging a culture by its own standards. A particular pattern
of behavior is right or wrong as it is declared by the people who follow it. The same practice
may be useful for one group and may be harmful for the other in the same society whereas Xeno-
centrism- is idea of considering other‘s culture as superior to one‘s own.

Aspects of Cultural Variation

Subcultures

A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and
values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. In a sense, a sub culture can be thought
of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. The existence of many subcultures is
characteristic of complex societies such as the United States.

Subcultures develop in a number of ways. Often a subculture emerges because segment of

society faces problems or even privileges unique to its position. Sub- cultures may be based on
common age (teenagers or old people), region, ethnic heritage, occupation or belief. Certain
subcultures, such as computer hackers, develop because of a shared interest or hobby.

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In still other sub cultures, such as that of prison inmates, members have been excluded from
conventional society and are forced to develop alternative ways of living.

Counterculture

When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, it
is known as a counterculture. Countercultures typically thrive among the young, who have the
least investment in the existing culture. In most cases, a 20 year old can adjust to new cultural
standards more easily than someone who has spent 60 years following the patterns of the
dominant culture.

Culture shock

Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place, even fearful, when immersed in an
unfamiliar culture may be experiencing culture shock. For example, a resident of the United
States who visits certain areas in China and wants local meat for dinner may be stunned to learn
that the specialty is dog meat. Similarly, someone from a strict Islamic culture may be shocked
upon first seeing the comparatively provocative dress styles and open displays of affection that
are common in the United States and various European cultures.

All of us, to some extent, take for granted the cultural practices of our society. As a result, it can
be surprising and even disturbing to realize that other cultures do not follow our ―way of life‖.
The fact is that customs that seem strange to us are considered normal and proper in other
cultures, which may see our mores and folkways as odd.

Culture Lag and Culture Lead

Culture is dynamic. When culture change occurs, the change is usually not evenly distributed
across material and non-material dimensions of culture. The rate of change is not balanced.
Material culture may change at a faster rate than non- material culture. The growth in science
and technology in western, industrialized societies for example, does not seem to be matched by
the necessary changes and appropriate adjustment of adaptive culture. That is non-material
culture changes slowly. This condition is termed as culture lag.

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Associated with the rapid growth in material culture are usually crisis in the realm of amorality,
social and cultural dilemmas, which in turn result in various social pathologies such as extreme
form of individualism, alienation, the state of formlessness, suicide, etc (Team of Experts, 2000).

On the other hand, in some less developed societies, the change of non-material culture may
outpace the material culture. When this occurs, it is called culture lead. Due to the effect of
globalization and rapid assimilation processes, people in the Third World are accustomed to the
ideology and cultures of the Western World, though their material culture is not changing
keeping pace with non- material culture.
Global culture may also be associated with cultural imperialism, the unequal cultural exchange
in the global system whereby western material and non-material cultures have come to occupy a
dominating and imposing roles over the indigenous cultures of the Third World peoples.

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CHAPTER THREE

Rural Social Structure, Organizations and Institutions in Rural Setting

3.1 Definition and Main Features

Social institutions: - may be defined as practices based on similar principles that display some
degree of regularity. More specifically, a social institution is an interrelated system of social
roles and social norms, organized around the satisfaction of an important social need or social
function.
In general, a social institution is an established pattern of behavior that is organized to perpetuate
the welfare of society and to preserve its form. From the above definition, we can observe that
social institutions have got some important functions. Three of such main functions are:

1) Perpetuation of the welfare of society,

2) Preservation and maintenance of the form of society, and
3) Meeting the major needs of the members of society.

A society is functionally integrated and held together by social institutions. Social institutions are
universal. They vary from time to time and across cultures, in terms of complexity,
specialization, scope, formality and organization. But their basic nature and purpose are similar
everywhere. These features are particularly true regarding the five major social institutions
discussed below. Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend to persist. However, once a
change occurs in particular social institution, it tends to affect the other institutions as well.

3.2 Major Types and Functions of Social Institutions

There are many principles around which institution are organized. The five social institutions of
major significances are:

1. Economic institutions: those that deal with economic and property relations;
2. Polity and law: Those that are concerned with social control with politics and law
government, the police, court, etc;
3. Religious institutions: Those concerned with the supernatural magic and religion;
4. Family: those based on principles of kinship, meaning, social relations created by descent
and marriage; and
5. Educational institutions: those that deal with the need for training individuals in the roles,
values, skills, knowledge, attitudes etc which are associated with being a citizen and a
worker.

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The primary functions of the five major social institutions are as follows.

3.2.1 The Family

The family is the most important social unit in any society. It is the building block of any society.
The family fulfills two basic functions. These are reproduction and socialization. Society
reproduces or recreates itself through the family. Children are born in the family to join the
society. Parents play the roles of nurturing, caring for, teaching and training children; children
are expected to play the roles of good and teachable trainees. The way parent‘s nurture, train and
care frothier children vary according to forms of family organization.
Nuclear family is a dominant form of family organization in modern, industrialized and urban
societies. It usually consists of husband wife and dependent children. In traditional, agrarian and
rural societies, Extruded family form dominates.

[Link] The Concept of Marriage and Family

The family is a relatively permanent group of persons. They are linked in social roles by ties of
blood, marriage or adoption. Members are living together; they cooperate economically and in
the rearing of children. Broadly speaking there are two forms of families. The nuclear and the
extended:

A family that contains of the husband, the wife and their children is termed as nuclear family.
In addition to the husband the wife and their children a family may consists relatives such as the
in-laws. This kind of family is termed as extended family .Many families in Ethiopia in general
and particularly in the countryside are extended families.

The family is usually defined as a kinship group linked by blood and marriage and occupying a
common household. A household is not the same thing as the family. It refers to all persons
occupying the same house. These include relatives as well as lodgers. The family as a social
group is made up of a man, his wife or wives and children living under a common roof,
interacting and influencing the behaviors of each other in a more intimate manner than with
others who do not belong to it. As a social institution the family entails the formalized, regular
and patterned way or process by which family life is carried out. It involves:
Marriage involves choice of mates.

Marriage allows the social relationship in which sexual expression is expected to take place for
the major purpose of procreation. But if much sexual expression within and outside marriage is
for the purpose of sexual urge gratification rather than procreation, then sex plays an important
role in self-fulfillment in both rural and urban areas. Marriage is sanctioned by the society.

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[Link] Features of the Rural Family

The rural family is characterized by many features such as families, production and consumption
of goods and services, continuity, size, child bearing and rearing, socialization, participation in
family decision making, marital expectations and evaluation. Families could be described as the
degree to which members of the family show solidarity in the process of performing the
multifarious role of the family institution. It involves the following factors:

 The extent to which personal goals are made secondary to be consistent with family goals
 The extent to which control is exerted over individual members so that family values are
imposed on each member, who in turn accepts the values
 Personal security of individual members of a family which shows families is generated by
members through their deep sense of integration into the family.
 It embodies an intergenerational family group in which many generations live under one roof
near one another.
 Existence of family property such as land, house, shares in companies, animals and farm
crops. This practice discovers age‘s individualism among members.
 Continuity of the family ensures that members bring in their children into the fold so that it
does not discontinue when certain members die.
 Mutual help exists among members who are assisted to set up their own farms, pay education
costs, dowries, burial and other forms of expenses when the need arises.

[Link] The Function of the Family

The family performs many societal functions to ensure the welfare and progress of its members.
The functions include:

 Reproduction of the human species; that is grant life

 Care and rearing of the young offspring particularly at infancy and years of dependence.
 Education of the children.
 Protection from enemies, danger and psychological isolation, provision of love and affection
to reduce tension and frustration.
 Care of the aged and disabled family members.
 Production and consumption of goods and services.
 Moral and financial support to family members in time of joy and trouble.
 Social, psychological and material support in time of bereavement, disaster or other forms or
adversities.
 Provide socialization. That is, the family equips the individual with the knowledge which
he/she will need in order to play his/her roles in the society.

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3.2.2 Educational Institution

This social institution is responsible for providing training for the members of society. It serves
as center of knowledge production, exchange, and distribution. Generally, educational
institutions are responsible forth vertical and horizontal transmission of material and non-
material cultures. Vertical transmission means overtime from one generation to another
generation; whereas horizontal transmission means over geographical space or from one society
to another. Educational institutions also play the role of preparing members of society for the
statuses and roles that re associate with being good citizens and workers, holding various
occupations.
Education is the process of transmitting the socially approved cultural heritage of any society
from one generation to another. It is also the process by which the new knowledge is spread
among members of a society. The cultural heritage and knowledge are transferred through
education. Education as an activity is the process of transmitting and acquiring the socially
approved aspects of cultural heritage. The school is the social organization in which education
takes place. The process of socialization or culture learning usually starts informally in the
family, churches, mosques, the community and then formally in schools. Education in the formal
sense has come to mean systematic training by specialists within the formal organization of the
school.

[Link] Functions of Education

The functions of educational institutions include the following:

1) The transmission of the culture from one generation to another. This is the normal
socialization function which involves the teaching of societal values, norms, taboos, rotes,
folk ways among others to the new entrant into the society (Ekong, 1988).
2) Bringing about social change via the modification of cultural heritage and development of
new knowledge skills, arts and artifacts. New knowledge is acquired through research and
present experience has shown that technologically advanced nations invest more on research
than developing nations.
3) Training of people for specialized adult roles. This involves learning of new skills through
apprenticeship, acquisition of knowledge, tutorship or indoctrination, or by formal
educational institutions.
4) Provision of a setting for school interaction. The school brings people from diverse
background into constant interaction.
5) Differentiation of people in the society and validation of their social status. In most
contemporary society, the acquisition of formal education and possession of some certificate
ensure the entry of individual into prestigious jobs.

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[Link] Types of Education in Rural Ethiopia

There are various forms of formal educational facilities in rural Ethiopia. These include the
followings:

1. Extension Education: This is an informal out-of-school education given to rural families by

experts in agriculture, home economics, health, small-scale industries among others. This
type of education is often known as extension education.
2. Adult Education: This is semi-formal literacy education organized for adults who had no
opportunity to acquire formal education at earlier age.
3. Formal Education: This is the type of education offered at the primary and secondary levels
to rural children and adolescents. At the primary level, two main types of education can be
identified in our country. These are the western type of education and the church/ koranic
type of education with the latter being more prevalent in the Moslem areas in Ethiopia.

3.2.3 Religious Institution

This asocial institution is responsible for meeting (providing) spiritual needs of the members of
the society. There are puzzling questions about the meaning of the human life, human destiny,
the universe, and other questions.

Religion and related institutions like magic provide explanations for these puzzling paradoxes of
life and provides meaning and purpose for life. It helps people to cope with purposelessness,
meaninglessness and sense of alienation and frustration. These institutions also help members of
society conform to social values and norms, and play their expected social roles appropriately.
They also provide a sense of social solidarity among members of society.

[Link] The Function of Religion

Integrative: Religion integrates people. It brings the believers together and creates the sense of
oneness and cooperation.
Social control: Religion server to promote stability, peace and order.
Social Support: Religion develops the sense of hope or comfort. For instance, illness, life
hardship and misfortune etc
Generally, Religion fulfils certain universal functions which include:

1. The explanation of the unknown and irregular physical occurrences e.g. flood, earthquakes,
drought, lightening, etc.
2. The justification of human existence by stating the nature and role of man in terms of super-
natural design.
3. Promotion of group solidarity as religion is a cultural possession.

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4. The celebration of human achievement. That is, most rituals are connected with some crucial
periods in the society. Examples are puberty, planting of crops, harvest, etc.
5. Strengthening of moral order and promotion of social control.
6. Support for other social organizations and institutions, e.g. schools, hospital, welfare
agencies, etc.
7. The rationalization of individual suffering in the material world thereby making such
suffering bearable (Ekong, 1988).

3.2.4 Political Institution (Government and Law)

These social institutions are responsible for protecting the society from internal disorder, crime
and chaos; as well as from external threats and invasion. They are responsible for maintaining
peace and order at micro and macro levels; enforcing social control; and maintaining the welfare
and well-being of society.

3.2.5 Economic Institution

Every society needs to make effective use of the scarce resources. Goods and services have to be
produced to meet the basic needs such as food, clothing, sheltered. Economic institutions are
responsible for organizing the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods and
services.

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CHAPTER FOUR

SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

4.1 The Concept of Socialization:

4.1.1 Definition and Necessity

In any society there are socially recognized ways in which the norms and values of the society
are inculcated in the human infant who comes into this world as a biological organism with
animalistic needs or impulses. Individuals learn group-defined ways of acting and behaving, and
what they socially learn becomes part of their personality.

Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human. Or more appropriately, it
is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs,
skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social group or society.
It is an on-going, never ending process- from cradle to the grave. That means an individual
person passes through various stages of socialization, from birth to death. Thus, we need
socialization as infants, preschool children, schoolboys/girls, pubescent, adolescents, adults and
older persons.

From the point of view of individual persons, especially a newly born baby, socialization is a
process whereby a biological being or organism is changed into a social being. In terms of the
group, society or any professional organizations, socialization is a process whereby the
organizations', social groups' and society's structure and well-being are kept and sustained. It is
the process whereby the culture, skills, norms, traditions, customs, etc., are transmitted from
generation to generation – or from one society to another.

Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes formal when it is conducted by formally

organized social groups and institutions, like schools, religious centers, mass media universities,
work places, military training centers, internships, etc. It is informal when it is carried out
through the informal social interactions and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and
small social group levels. The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal
agents like family, parents, neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful
influence, whether negative or positive, in our lives.

The process of socialization, whether it is formal or informal, is vitally important to both

individuals and society. Without some kind of socialization, society would cease to exist.
Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are
fitted into the society's organized way of life.

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4.1.2 The Goals of Socialization

In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialization is to equip him or her with the basic
values, norms, skills, etc, so that they will behave and act properly in the social group to which
they belong. Socialization has also the following specific goals.

 To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate

gratification; a child who is toilet-trained will relieving himself/ herself until the proper
environment is created.
 To instill aspirations;
 To teach social roles;
 To teach skills;
 To teach conformity to norms; and
 To create acceptable and constructive personal identities.

4.1.3 Human Biological Bases of, and Capacity for, Socialization

From among the animal kingdom, humans are the only ones who are capable of socialization
because they are endowed with the necessary biological bases that are lacking in other animals.
The following are the key biological characteristics of human beings on which socialization is
based:
Absence of Instincts: The term "instinct" in its current social science usage refers to the
complex behavior patterns for which some animal species as biologically program(s). For
example, nest-building among birds is an indistinct. But humans have no comparable behavior
patterns which are biologically fixed, although they have innumerable built-in physiological
reflexes. Human have biological drives or impulses such as hunger, thirst, sextet, rather than
instincts. This absence of instincts makes humans dependent on social direction and their
behaviors are amenable to such direction. The open-endedness of humans is thus the biological
ground for social conformity.

Social Contact Needs: Humans need sustained social contacts. Studies conducted on primates
and human infants revealed that lack of body stimulation and contact in infancy appear to inhibit
and prevent the development of higher learning functions. Satisfaction of the social contact and
initiations needs in humans is strong biological imperative.

Longer Period of Childhood Dependence: A third biological condition that makes extensive
socialization essential for humans is that the human infant need much longer period of physical
dependence and sexual immaturity than other animals. The need to acquire the techniques and
skills of social living further prolongs the dependence. Such longer period of dependence, during
which the child is cared for and controlled by others, results in an intense emotional dependence
that remains throughout life.

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Capacity to Learn: A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological potential. Hence,
humans are highly educable; they can learn much more than other animals and can continue to
learn more over a longer period of time.

Language: Man's ability to learn is a function of his capacity for language. Other animals may
have some degree of intelligence but only humans have reasoning capacity because they have
language. Language expresses and arouses emotion; conveys feelings, values and knowledge.
Whether as vehicle for knowledge or for attitude, language is the key factor in the creation of
human society. Symbolic communication, which is possessed only by humans, makes language
possible. Humans innately possess the potential and capacity to create culture and to be guided
by cultural and social norms. At the center of all these is language.

4.1.4 Patterns of Socialization

There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These are: Repressive and
participatory socialization. Repressive socialization is oriented towards gaining obedience,
while participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child.
Table 4.1: Two modes of socialization, adapted from Broom and Selznick (1973)

Repressive Socialization Participatory Socialization

Punishing wrong behavior Rewarding good behavior
Material rewards and punishment Symbolic rewards and punishment
Obedience of child Autonomy of child
Non-verbal communication Verbal communication
Communication as command Communication as interaction
Parent-centered socialization Child-centered socialization
Child's discernment of parents' wishes Parents' discernment of child's needs
Family as significant other Family as generalized other

[Link] Major Types of Socialization

There are different types of socialization; the major ones include: primary or childhood
socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, de-socialization and re-socialization.
Other minor types of socialization include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization
(Calhoun et al, 1994; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Soroka, 1996; Macionis, 1997).

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A. Primary or Childhood Socialization

This is also called basic or early socialization. The terms "primary", "basic" or "early" all signify
the overriding importance of the childhood period for socialization. Much of the personality
make-up of individuals is forged at this period in life. Socialization at this stage of life is a
landmark; without it, we would cease to become social beings. The human infant who is a
biological being or organism is changed into a social being mainly at this early stage. Hence,
children should be appropriately socialized from birth up to particularly five years of age,
because this period is basic and crucial one. A child who does not get appropriate socialization at
this stage will most likely be deficient in his/her social, moral, intellectual and personality
development. Some grew up developing anti-social attitudes, aspirations and practices.

B. Secondary or Adult Socialization

While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a never-ending

process that continues throughout life. Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated when
individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their changes social statuses
and roles, as in starting marital life. The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be
intense. For example, fresh college graduates entering the world of work to start their first jobs,
there are quite many new roles to be mastered. Intense adult socialization may also occur among
immigrants. When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language, values,
norms, and a host of other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic hardships
may prove to be truly stressful and most challenging. Although it may be fairly stated that
childhood socialization experiences what kind of people we become, the challenges of
socialization thus continues in late adolescent and adult stages. This happens to be so particularly
in the context of fast changing world in complex societies.

C. Re-socialization and De-socialization

In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life experiences, there is the
need for re-socialization and de-socialization. Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of
radically different norms and life ways that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous
norms and values. Re-socialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life.
The change may demand abandonment of one life way with a new one, which is completely
different from, and also incompatible with, the former.

This quite so often happens as adult life in modern society‘s demands sharp transitions and
changes. De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. De-socialization refers to stripping
individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes so that they may take up other
partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values. The individuals have to abandon their
former values and take up new ones in order to become part of the new social group.

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De-socialization and re-socialization often take place in what is called total institutions, which
are an all-encompassing and often isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-
socialization of the new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership.
Total institutions include: mental hospitals, prisons, religious denominations and some other
political groups, and military units. In each case, persons joining the new setting have first to be
de-socialized, before they are re-socialized.

Re-socialization may also mean socializing individuals again into their former values and norms,
after they rejoin their former ways of life, spending a relatively longer period of time in total
institutions. This is because they might have forgotten most of the basic values and skills of the
former group or society. This kind of re-socialization may also be regarded as reintegration,
helping the ex-community members renew their memories of their former life ways, skills,
knowledge, etc.

D. Anticipatory Socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals
try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or occupation
for which they are likely recruits in the future. They do this in anticipating the actual
forthcoming socialization. It involves a kind of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a
feel of what the new role would look like. However, anticipatory socialization may not be
adequate when the nature and scope of life transition is complex. It may be difficult to fully
anticipate what will happen.

4.1.5 Agents and Components of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the different groups of people and institutional arrangements which
are responsible for training new members of society. Some of them could be formal, while others
are informal. They help individual members get into the overall activities of their society.

There are three components to socialization process. There is the socialize who could be either a
newborn child, a recruit to the army or the police force or afresh man in a college or an intern in
medical service. Then again there are the socializes who may be parents, peer groups,
community members, teachers or church members. Both the socialized and the socialize interact
with one another not in a vacuum but in a social environment which plays an important role in
the socialization process. These different socializing environments are called socialization
settings. The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships, schools, neighborhoods
(the community), the mass media, etc.

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The institution of family is generally regarded as the most important agent of socialization. In the
process of socialization, the most important contacts are between child and his/her parents and
siblings. The contacts could also be between the child and surrogate parents when actual parents
are not available. Besides the child‘s parents, there are other agents of socialization (in modern
societies) such as day-care-centers, nurseries and kindergarten, as well as primary and secondary
schools and universities. It seems that these various agents of socialization have partially taken
over the function of the parents, particularly in modern societies, where women are increasingly
leaving their traditional home-based responsibilities by engaging in employment outside home.
The school represents a formal and conscious effort by a society to socialize its young.

Other than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialization
process. Sometimes, the influence of the peer group is it negative or positive can be as powerful
as that of parents. The peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or develop new and
distinct cultures of its own with peculiar values.
The mass media such as television, radio, movies, videos, tapes, books, magazines and
newspapers are also important agents of socialization. The most crucial effect on children comes
from television, as studies show. The effects are both negative and positive.

Negative impact seem to be greater that parents and other concerned bodies worry about the way
television is socializing children. For example, studies show that watching violence on television
can encourage aggressive behavior in children.

4.2 Social Stratification

Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every
society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are
regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the
society as a whole or in a certain situations.

Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or

strata. It refers tithe differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a given
society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social
structure. When applied to the world of people, it refers to hierarchical arrangement of people
into different classes or strata which is the division of a population into two or more layers, each
of which is relatively homogenous, between which there are differences in privileges,
restrictions, rewards and obligations

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4.2.1 Theories of Social Stratification

There are various theories of social stratification concerning its importance, origin and value, of
which two important theories are the following;

1) The functionalist theory of social stratification

2) The conflict theory of social stratification

Conflict theory: According to Marx, the reason for the existence of social classes is, basically,
economic. Society is mainly divided in to exploiters and exploited. Thus, the two classes have
different culture. The solution for such inequality is social revolution.

Functionalist: According to Max Weber, class, status and power are the components of
stratification.

 Class refers to economic i.e. people with similar income

 Status refers to position regardless of income or prestige
 Power comes from the opportunity of holding position in the bureaucracy or political
party etc.

Examples: Coffee producer peasant may earn much. However she/he has lower status than a
health extension worker who earns relatively little.

According to the proponents of the functionalist theory, segments or hierarchies and social
inequalities exist in all societies. Moreover, their main argument is that social stratification is
functional and purposeful and also essential in any society. They contend that no society is
classless or unstratified, and social stratification is universally necessary. Social stratification in
short is universal, functional, inevitable, and beneficial and something which can't be avoided.
The proponents of the conflict theory of social stratification also accept the fact that social
inequality exists in every society. But they do not believe that social stratification is functional.
According to conflict theorists, it is the way of oppressing one group of people by another
(Calhoun et al., 1994).

4.2.2 Forms of Social Stratification

Systems of Stratification
Stratification is universal. Every society has its own ways of stratification based on inequality.
Stratification has different forms: System of slavery, estate, cast and class.

1) Slavery: It is a system where society is divided in to slave owner and salves. Slavery is one
of the worst forms of stratification.

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2) Estate: It is a system where society is divided into land lords and peasants. Ethiopia in the
feudal era is a good example of estate system.
3) Cast System: Another well-known form of social stratification is the caste system. The
system is based on religious and other strongly rooted traditional belief that cannot be
changed or are very difficult to change. This is the form of social stratification whereby
classification of people into different strata is made on the basis of usually religious and other
very strong conventions/ traditions that are difficult to change. Some of the features of caste
system include:
 It is a very rigid and closed system.
 People belonging to the same stratum practice endogamy.
 Intermarriage between strata is not permitted.
 There are occupational differences between strata; i.e., each stratum is usually
assigned a particular type of occupation.
 Food sharing, social drinking, friendships, etc., are permitted only within a stratum,
not between strata.

This form of social stratification characterizes most traditional, agricultural societies. However,
the best example of caste is the Hindu caste system of India.
This has existed for some 3000 years and was only officially nullified in 1947. Hindu caste
system divides the society into five major strata. These are Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
Sudras and Haryans (Indrani, 1998).

In rural Ethiopian society, this form of stratification has existed for centuries and it still persists.
Individuals in such traditional occupations as pottery, blacksmith, tannery, weaving, carpentry,
and others such as so called slaves have been given lower places and are often denied free
membership and social participation in various social affairs. Among the Wolaita, for example,
such kinds of people are called by various names such as the chinasha (potters), degella
(tanners), wogachia (blacksmiths), shimagnia (weavers) and aylia (slaves).

These groups of people are not allowed to create marital and other important social bonds with
the gokka (meaning the decent groups). Similar types of stratification may also be found among
the Sidama, Kambata, Guraghe in the southern region of Ethiopia, and elsewhere in other regions
throughout the country. It is believed that such conditions have contributed to the slow socio-
economic development of the country.

It is a hereditary oriented rank system. In cast system, stratification is based on parents‘ position.
A good example of cast system is practiced in India. The cast called ―untouchables‖ are not
allowed access to social, economic and political position. In some parts of our country potters
and blacksmiths are considered as cast.

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4) Class Systems: Social classes are groups of people who are stratified into different
categories. In a more general sense, social class can be defined as a category or level of
people found in similar positions in the social hierarchy. The criteria or the bases for dividing
people in a given society into different social classes may include wealth, occupation,
education, sex, family background, religion, income, among others. The societies in modern
world have been divided usually into three; low class, middle class and upper class. Each of
these three classes is usually divided in to sub-classes.

Social class is often characterized as an open and flexible system. Thus, we have societies which
can be characterized as open system, as opposed to societies having closed system. This form of
social class is common in industrialized, modern, heterogeneous and literate societies. Such
system generally works in most contemporary societies of the world (Stockard, 1997).

Sociologists measure stratification from the angel of social classes. This means, individuals are
assigned to social class based on different criteria. This includes education, occupation and
income. Education can give us high prestige. Many known intellectuals are good examples.
Occupation and income are also the other factors.
Example: By virtue of occupation an engineer or a lecturer may have higher prestige. However,
a merchant with similar educational background may have lesser prestige than the engineer or
the lecturer.

Generally speaking, the present Ethiopia is in the class system. This system is also dominant
throughout the world. It is very difficult to put clear division in class system. Hard work, talent
and chance, among others, determine the social category of persons. In class system, there are
two ways that influence the social category: ascribed status, and achieved status.

Ascribed Status: It is a social position assigned to a person without the person‘s unique
character or talent. Gender, age, race could also be the source of ascribed status. By virtue of
being female, or disabled a person can occupy lower status.
Example:

˗ Children of a prime minister most likely inherit prestige and wealth.

˗ A blind with a good talent may occupy a lower status.

Achieved Status: It is a social position that people attain through their own talent or effort. The
Ethiopia Mother Teresa, Abebech Gobena, Molla Maru and, Bekele Molla are good examples of
achieved status. All of them had lower status; however, by their personal effort they were/are
able to occupy higher status.

˗ A minister may earn relatively little but has higher power. On the other hand, a specialist
doctor may get a better income but less power than the minister.

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5) Stratification by Gender

Gender Identity and Gender Role

The difference between women and men can be seen from two angles. The first is biological:
their significance difference is the chromosomes, reproductive capacity and sexual organs.
Second, culturally women and men have different social roles: women are responsible for
household affair and child care while men are income earners. The term sex refers to male and
female that is directly related to the biological differentiation. The concept gender on the other
hand implies the cultural behavior that both sexes show.

Gender role socialization

The family socializes girls and boys differently. In most societies girls are socialized to act
softly. On the other hand, boys are expected to be tough and act daringly. This process is
decisive in fixing gender roles. While other institutions also re-inference this mode of
socialization, educational institutions try to reverse the situation.

6) Social Stratification by Age: Aging is an aspect of socialization; moreover age stratification

is the other aspect of in equality. This means, like other stratifications there is also age
stratification that affects the elderly. Many societies highly respect old people. However, the
aged are among the disadvantaged groups and are victims of in equality. Aging is a relative
matter. Aging depends not on our physical/ mental deterioration; but also on how the society
perceives. Age limit, particularly in the modern world, is institutionalized. According to a
common consensus old age begins at 65.

4.2.3 Consequences of Social Stratification on the Lives of Individuals

Social stratification has crucial implications for the health and well-being of people. Social
stratification is directly related to the issue of inequality, power imbalance etc, and these directly
or indirectly influences the life chances of individuals in the social strata. Health status of
individuals is among one of these life chances which can be significantly affected by one‘s
location in the stratification system. The different stratification systems on the basis of age, sex,
gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc, directly or indirectly promote unequal chances of
living standards.

The key concepts in the relation between health and social stratification are the concepts of
vulnerability, risk and hazard. Vulnerability is a sociological concept which refers to the
―characteristics of individuals and social groups [along the lines of gender, age, ethnicity,
occupation etc;] that determine [their capacity] to protect themselves, withstand and recover
from disasters, including health hazards based on their access to material and non-material
resources‖

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CHAPTER FIVE: SOCIAL CHANGE

5.1 Definition of Rural Social Change

We often hear older people say ―the world is not what it used to be any longer‖. This statement
may mean that values or physical structures have changed or that there have been so many
innovations in the society that keeping abreast with them is becoming a frustrating experience.
The foregoing statement however sums up the meaning of the term. ―Social change‖ Rogers
(1989) defined social change more specifically as ―the process by which alterations occur in the
structure and function of a social system‖. The social system in this definition may be a social
group, a community, a city, a region or a nation. Any change that occurs either in ideas, norms,
values, roles and social habits of a people or in the composition or organization of their society
can be referred to as social change. Moore (1983) defined social change as ―the significant
alteration of social structures (i.e. of patterns of social action and interaction), including
consequences and manifestation of such structures embodied in norms (rules of conduct), values,
and cultural products and symbols‖.

One basic feature in the life of all living and non-living things is change. When it takes place in
the lives of interacting human beings, it is termed social change. When it is viewed within the
rural setting, it is termed rural social change. The fact is that changes take place in the rural,
suburban and urban areas. Change could be in all attributes of a societal unit such as in number,
quality and importance. It could be introduced from internal or external sources to the society or
both. It could be planned, when it is more effective and predictable, or unplanned.

5.2 Typology of Rural Social Change

Many types of social change are noticeable in the lives of the rural population. With the rise in
aspiration and outlook brought about through colonialism, improved transportation and
communication systems which led to increase in contact with the advanced industrial world,
great social changes are taking place in the less developed societies. The various types of such
changes are:

1. Economic Change: Rural areas of the developing world had undergone some degree of
economic change particularly during the post-independence era. In Nigeria for example, with
the increase exploitation of petroleum resources, salaries of workers have increased in
government establishments over the past three decades. A greater number of roads have been
constructed to link rural with urban areas. Some dual carriage expressways have been
constructed in the economically most active parts of the country to link goods from the rural
areas and major cities to the sea for export. It is obvious that changes in the processing,
storage and distribution of economic goods have been rather slow. Processing of agricultural
commodities is virtually non-existent. Storage of agricultural products such as maize, cowpea

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and rice is still largely in bags, grounds, bare flour and ceilings of buildings. A recent
practice of storing in cribs is only fairly satisfactory. The use of silo for grain storage or
refrigeration for preserving fresh fruits, fish and vegetables is not a common feature.

2. Political Change: This deals with the change on the distributions and operating mechanisms
of social and political power within the social system. For example, some of our traditional
societies had a monolithic power structure with recognized chieftains-Emirs and Obas-
whereas some had no paramount chiefs ruling over the entire group but rather governed
themselves on the basis of lineages. With the arrival of the British, chiefs were created where
none ever existed; later on with independence, provinces, regions, districts, local government
areas among others were introduced which completely changed the preexisting political
boundaries and structures. The laws of the land became centralized issue and law
enforcement and maintenance of peace and order were removed from the immediate
jurisdiction of the traditional leaders. Therefore erstwhile powerful traditional rulers have
now been reduced in power status to mere titular heads. Western concept of democracy has
also been introduced into the political system thereby making citizens of today more aware of
their rights and to challenge and eschew any form of authoritarianism. These are all, political
changes.

3. Technological Change: Technology entails ways of applying scientific and other organized
knowledge to practical task. Technological change therefore is continuous process of change
within technical material and physical practices in a culture. Technological changes are
evident in our society in the areas of:

1) Transportation, where river crafts have been modernized for greater speed and comfort,
head portage and use of animals have been replaced with lorries, trucks, railway trains
etc, narrow foot paths have been replaced by wide mechanized thoroughfares;
2) Communication, where oral transmission of messages by personal contact or through
messengers has been replaced by the postal system, newspapers, wireless and electronic
media;
3) Health, where traditional healing based on superstitions beliefs in supernatural forces has
been largely replaced by scientific medicine and hospital care;
4) Education, where socialization by imitation and direct teaching of basic skills has been
enriched by formal instructions in schools using books containing scientific knowledge
and other scientifically designed audio-visual equipment;
5) Economy, where traditional farming has been transformed through the introduction of
cash crops, improved breeds of crops and livestock, agricultural chemicals, improved
processing and storage techniques;
6) Leisure, where specific scientific knowledge has been applied in the enrichment of the
quality and variety of leisure and recreational facilities now abounding in our society.

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The cinema, television, various games and sports, etc. are direct results of technological
change;
7) Housing, where traditional houses constructed with mud, sticks and leaves are gradually
giving way to permanent structures constructed out of cement blocks, iron, glass and
other products of modern technology. These are just a few areas where a great deal of
change has taken place as a result of technology.

4. Cultural Change: Culture consists of material and non-material aspects. Cultural change is
thus interactions in the non-materials and artifacts of the society. The material aspects of
cultural change are mainly technical. Examples are use of aluminum cooking pots instead of
clay pots, use of metal eating plates and utensils instead of clay plates and wooden utensils,
use of clucks and wrist watches to observe time instead of observing the position of the sun
and relying on cock crow. The change in non-material aspects of culture are also numerous.
If the institution of the rural family is considered as social system in terms of its elements and
processes, the cultural changes which had taken place can be elucidated with some examples.
The norm of not calling elders by their name still persists as a reflection of the value of
respect for age which is universally resistant to change. Premarital virginity has declined as a
value with increased contact of rural females with more people beyond their communities.
Sanctions are exercised largely by the police and the courts when these are beyond the
control of the family and the community elders. The change from the traditional way of
worship which entailed the recognition of several gods (Polytheism) to Christianity and
Islamism which emphasize one god (monotheism) is a good example of cultural change.

5. Behavioral Change: This may also be regarded as part of cultural change but it specifically
embraces changes arising from the influence of education on the attitude and overt reactions of
people. Behavioral change includes favorable change in the knowledge, skill, and attitude of
people as a result of their exposures to educational experiences. Residents of rural areas are often
exposed to information which had led to acquisition of better knowledge, skill and attitude in the
economic and social spheres.
Agriculture is the major occupation of rural people. Improvements in knowledge of crop and
livestock pest and disease control measures, higher yielding crop varieties, better spacing of
crops, weeding, cultivation, harvesting storage and marketing operations had taken place. The
skill to practice such knowledge is also taught largely by extension workers via the method
demonstration technique, various attitudes such as clearing of livestock pens without getting
scared by the odor of droppings, handling young animals such as piglets without developing the
goose skin, waking up early in the morning to take care of livestock, are also learned.

5.3 Characteristics of Social Change

A basic characteristic of every society is change in nature. Societies are in a continued state of
change. We have to always be conscious of the time frame and identify the time span and take an

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analytical assessment of what people have written before arriving at a conclusion. Social change
has the following characteristics:

1) Space and Time Characteristics: In analyzing any change process, the researcher must
specify both the geographical location and the period of time. If it is not done, level of
generalization becomes very high.

2) Resistance to Change: In any change process, there will be some forces which will be
resistant to change. These forces tend to promote status quo even though there may be very
strong forces working towards change. Forces like industrialization, urbanization or scientific
innovation will promote change. But processes like socialization and social control will
attempt to maintain the same status quo. In any change that you want to introduce, there must
be resistance.

3) Differential Rate of Change: It is important to understand that not all societies or all parts
within a given society change at the same speed. Urban areas may change faster than rural
areas; educational characteristics may change faster than religious characteristics. We have to
realize that societies change at different rates.

4) Change is Inevitable: It is normal, necessary and expected. Since people have different
ideas, there are bound to be changes.

5) Unchanging Elements in a Changing Society: We do have certain bias, beliefs (religions)

that we do hold on to, something that can give a certain kind of meaning. We hold on to
themes a kind of security. There are certain things that people hold onto even though the
society keeps on changing. The importance is that when there is a change and the rural
people still hold on to their beliefs and values, you have to realize that there are some
elements of importance to it and allow them to hold on to it.

6) Subjective Nature of Progress: Change itself can be evaluated objectively, but progress
requires subjective evaluation as to what is an improvement. What you may seas progress
may not be progress at all to others? Improvement must note from the agricultural agents‘
perspective alone but from the ruralities‘ perspective too.

7) Planned and Unplanned Changes: Many of the changes societies go through are unplanned
but as the societies become more complex with different challenges they meet, the need for
planning becomes more acute. Therefore, it is no longer acceptable to simply wait for what
will happen or to hope for the best, but we must actively seek for solution to our increasing
complex problem.

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5.4 Sources of Change in the Society

Social changes are brought about mainly through invention, diffusion and discovery.
Invention: This involves the recombination of existing cultural traits to fashion new things and
the rate at which this takes place is directly related to the existing cultural base;
Discovery: It is the sharing with others of a perception of a fact, object or relationship which has
always existed but was not known. Therefore, discovery can enhance the cultural base in a
society and thus the rate of invention.
Diffusion: It involves the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. Cultural diffusion
takes place both at the material and non-material levels and this process has been enhanced today
by:

1) Increased and more efficient communication facilities

2) The speed at which people can now travel from one part of the world to another and
3) The existence of specially trained personnel for the diffusion of innovations.

Other sources of social change in the Nigerian society include:

Religious Institutions: These have brought changes mostly in the world view of individuals
through formal preaching, indoctrination and the use of metaphors to convert people from one
way of life to another, and by the opening and support of formal educational institutions where a
great number of Ethiopians have submitted to instructions in many aspects of life which together
has remolded the benefiting population.

Government Polices: A number of changes have been brought about in the Nigerian society
generally, via governmental policies. Perhaps, at no particular point in time could this be more
dramatic and impressionable than during the thirteen years of military rule (1966-1979) when
hardly a week passed by without the promulgation of a decree which required major social
changes to be effected.

Application of Science and Technology: Technology implies the application of scientific

knowledge to the solution of specific task. The patterns of daily life in most rural settlements
have changed considerably today as a result of rural electrification and water supply schemes. A
variety of alien food and cash crops have been accommodated within the traditional farming
systems and we now raise and enjoy exotic breeds of livestock all as a result of research and
improved technology.

Natural Physical Forces: These include natural forces like wind, flood, drought, erosion, insect
and pest infestation and all such elements of the physical and biological environments. Erosion
and floods have necessitated the relocation of villages while excessive droughts have caused the
migration of the whole population within a region. These physical forces generally inflict

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disaster (which is a change in its own right) which then calls for the application of other
mechanisms to bring about solution.

Urbanization: The growth of urbanization or cities has meant the attraction of youths and school
leavers to urban areas. Within the cities themselves, increase in population, rise of industries,
increase in retail and wholesale trades, etc. have called for great adjustments on the part of urban
dwellers.

5.5 Concept of Attitudes and Attitudes Change

Attitudes can be defined as the more or less permanent feelings, thought and predispositions a
person has about certain aspects of his environment. Its components are knowledge, feelings and
inclinations to act. In a more simple term, attitude can be defined as an evaluative disposition
towards some objects which has consequences for how a person would act vis-à-vis the attitude
object. The emphasis here is on feelings or emotions. A change in attitude is referred to as
attitude change.

Many social psychologists now assume that among other factors, behavior is influenced by
behavioral intentions; these intentions are not influenced by attitudes of people alone.
Attitudes influence behavior and the analysis of attitudes usually produces a model of behavioral
change which is used by extension agents to persuade their clients to behave in a certain way or
to adopt innovations disseminated them.

Extension agents would have to arouse their clients‘ attention by prosecuting their message in
such a way that the clients select it from the vast array of messages available to them. The
message is presented to the clients in such a way that the clients understand it. The client then
should be helped to balance the advantages and disadvantages of the new behavior innovation. If
the extension agent comes with a message which deviates widely from the client‘s present
opinion, the message will be rejected. If the change advocated by the extension agent is
favorably accepted in the client social environment, there is an increased probability that the
clients will change their intention. It is quite possible to have a change in behavior if there are
other changes. In the environment for example, fertilizer may be added to improve varieties of
maize or availability of inputs. The farmers may revert back to their old behavior unless
feedback, teaches them how their changed behavior will help them to achieve their goals more
effectively.

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PART II: AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

CHAPTER SIX: THE CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

6.1. Definitions of Extension

In agriculture, knowledge and decision-making capacity determine how production factors - soil,
water and capital - are utilized. Agricultural extension is central in formulating and disseminating
knowledge, and in plays an important role in most agricultural development projects.
Agricultural extension is part of a system of actors who influence farmers‘ decisions. It includes,
among others, agricultural researchers, political authorities, farmer organizations, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer training centers and the media. These actors assume
the functions of research, information dissemination, training and so on.

A number of other terms are used in different parts of the world to describe the same or a similar
concept:

 Dutch: Voorlichting (―lighting the path‖)

 German: Beratung (―advisory work‖)
 French: Vulgarisation (―simplification‖)
 Spanish: Capacitacion (―improving skills‖)
 Persian: Tarvij & Gostaresh (―to promote and to extend‖)

However, Van Den Ban and Hawkins (1996) noted the common meaning for the term
extension:
 Extension involves the conscious communication of information to help people form
sound opinions and make good decisions.
Swanson and Clair define extension as follows:
 Extension is an ongoing process of getting useful information to people(the
communication dimension) and then in assisting those people to acquire the necessary
knowledge, skills and attitude to utilize effectively this information or technology (the
educational dimension)

According to Rolling:
 Extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to
induce voluntary behavioral change with presumed public or collective utility.

The meaning of extension is well known and accepted by people who work in extension
organization but not usually widely known and understood by other people. It could also be
defined in different ways because it is organized in different ways and many activities are
included under it to accomplish different objectives.

1. Extension is an informal process directed toward the rural population. This process offers
advice and information to help them to solve their problems. Extension also aims to increase the
efficiency of the farm family.

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2. The objective of extension is to change farmer‘s outlook toward their difficulties. Extension is
not just concerned with physical and economic achievements but also with the development of
rural people, themselves. Extension agents therefore discuss matters with the rural people; help
them to gain clearer insight into their problems and also to decide how to overcome these
problems.

3. Extension is a process of working with rural people in order to improve their livelihoods. This
involves helping farmers to improve the productivity of their agriculture and also developing
their abilities to direct their own future development.
Some consider it as a simple Transfer of Technology (TOT) while others regard it as an
instrument, particularly policy instrument, geared towards achieving policy objectives.

Van Den Ban and Hawkins (1988) have defined extension as the conscious communication on
information to help people form sound opinions and make good decisions. These all clearly show
that it is not possible to have one and universally agreed definition of agricultural extension.

Despite the many varied ways agricultural extension is defined there are certain elements that are
common to all the definitions. They are

1. Extension is an intervention
2. Extension uses communication as its instrument to induce change
3. Extension can be effective only through voluntary change
4. Extension focuses on target processes and outcomes.
5. Extension is deployed by an institution

1. Extension is an intervention
Almost all definitions emphasize that extension is a premeditated, planned, programmed,
systematically designed, goal-directed and purposeful activity. It is therefore an intervention. An
intervention is a systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate seemingly
catalyzing elements in an ongoing social process so as to permanently reorient that process in
directions deemed desirable by the intervening party.

2. Extension uses communication as a leverage instrument.

The instrument used in extension for inducing change is communication. Some professionals
might have access to other instruments, such as subsidies or regulations to induce change, but
that does not detect from the fact that extension dries its leverage from the strategic use of
communication. Extension is therefore a communication intervention.

3. Extension can be effective only through voluntary change

When communication is one‘s instrument for change, one‘s impact is limited to induce voluntary
change unless one has other, derived sources of power to coerce people into compliance. It is for
this reason that extension definitions stress that extension‘s effectiveness depends on the
willingness of the people to be persuaded or on the extent to which they see extension as serving
their own lettersets and benefit.

4. Extension focuses on target processes and outcomes.

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Many definitions of extension mention that extension aims at transferring information,

knowledge or technology or at promoting the utilization of same. Other definitions emphasize
that extension is in the business of affecting decision making and opinion formation. At the
individual level, changing target behaviors include attitudes, knowledge, decision making, and
opinion formation and so on. At a societal or collective level of aggregation, one deals with very
different variables such as one share of the market (advertising), the reputation of ones company
, the percentage of votes for one‘s candidate (political propaganda) or publics awareness about
some event or cause (publicity).

5. Extension is deployed by institutions.

Extension requires money. It is a professional activity. Hence extension as an instrument is
deployed by institutions. These can be government institutions, voluntary agencies, commercial
companies, and member associations.

Types of extension
We can also classify the concept of extension based on the purpose it tries to achieve as follows:
informative, emancipatory, human resource development & persuasive.

 Informative Extension
In conventional tradition it is seen as an instrument for helping people make well considered
choices among alternatives which extension provided. The emphasis is on supporting the
individual to make optimal decisions with respect to achieving his/her own goals. The individual
is seen as free to use or not to use the extension. We call this ‗informative‘ extension.

 Emanicipatoy extension
In socialist & different religious tradition extension is seen as an instrument of emancipation and
up-liftment of the poor, a ‗pedagogy of the oppressed‘ as Paolo Freire has called it. Hence,
extension is an instrument for achieving societal objectives and correcting structural problems
like poverty, income distribution, etc...

 Human Resource Development

In both traditions there is a considerable emphasis on the use of extension for developing the
human being, on ‗forming‘ or enhancing his or her capacities to make decisions, to learn, to
manage, to communicate with others, to analyze the environment, to be a leader, to stand up to
oppression, to organize, etc. We call this ‗formative extension‘ or ‗human resource development‘

 Persuasive Extension
This is the use of extension as a policy instrument for achieving societal objectives or collective
utilities for inducing preventive behavior with respect to environmental pollution, health hazards,
vandalism traffic safety, etc. Emotional arguments can arise between people who accept
extension an instrument of persuasion & those who see extension as an instrument to support the
free choice of the individual.

The adherence to persuasive extension is often led by the assumption that it is methodologically
possible to ‗manipulate‘ innocent people to engage in various behavior against their wish.

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Agricultural extension now has three main facets:

1. As a discipline it deals with the behavior of people. It is educational in content and purposive
in approach. Whether the content consists of agriculture, medicine (preventive and social
medicine), public health, education, engineering, etc, extension is always dependent on a firm
knowledge and expertise in sociology, anthropology, psychology, administration, economics,
communication arts, political science and so on.

2. As a process, agricultural extension seeks to influence the behavior of rural people through
education and information exchange. The aim is to assist them in gaining a livelihood, improving
the physical and psychological level of living of rural families, and fostering rural community
welfare. The success of the extension process requires an atmosphere of mutual trust, helpfulness
and respect on the part of both extension worker and rural people.

3. As a service, agricultural extension makes the government ministry, the university or

voluntary agency as useful as possible to the people who support it through taxes and donations.

The concept that the broader function of extension work is to help people to solve their own
problems through the application of scientific knowledge is now generally accepted.

6.2. Common barriers to farmers and role of extension

Problems which prevent farmers from achieving their goals are barriers which extension may
help overcome, depending on the nature of the problem. The common barriers/problems to
farmers are grouped by Vend den ban and Hawkins as follows:

 Knowledge
Some farmers lack adequate knowledge and insight to recognize their problems, to think of
possible solution, or to select the most appropriate solution to achieve their goals. Their
knowledge may also be based on incorrect information because of limited experience,
upbringing or other cultural factors. The extension agent’s objective is to remove the barrier
by providing information and insight into the problem. For example, a farmer may not be
aware of the decline in his or her crop yield caused by a pest he or she cannot see or
identify. The extension agent assists by providing appropriate technical information about the
pest and by showing the farmer how to eradicate it.
 Motivation
Some farmers lack motivation to have in a certain way, perhaps because the desired change in
behavior conflict with other motives. Extension some times can overcome this problem by
helping farmers to reconsider their motives. For example, they may not pay much attention to
milking shed hygiene because disinfectants are expensive and require extra physical effort to use
correctly. The extension agent may motivate the farmer to use the recommended methods by
demonstrating how shed hygiene improves milk quality and increase financial returns.

 Resources
Some extension organizations have the responsibility for removing the barrier of a lack of
resources. For example, the extension organizations of ministries of agriculture in less
industrialized countries often are responsible for supervising credit and distributing essential
inputs such as fertilizers. However, according to the context indicated in their definition and

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reality of extension organizations jurisdiction, the organization which provides resources is not
engaged in extension, even though it may be doing very worthwhile work.

 Insight
Some farmers lack insight into how to obtain the necessary resources. That is similar to the
barrier of lack of knowledge and is an appropriate role for extension. For example, an extension
agent may provide information about sources of credit, but would not actually grant or supervise
repayment of the credit.

 Power
It is unlikely that provision of information will bring a change in the power of the farmer and
hence this is not a feasible extension activity, except when caused by the following barrier.

 Insights into power

Some farmers lack insight into community power relations, or into the power resources they and
their colleagues may have at their disposal, and how they could use this power to institute
change.

6.3. Principles of Extension

Principles are generalized guidelines which form the basis for decision and action in a consistent
way. The universal truth in extension which have been observed and found to varying conditions
and hold good under circumstances are presented.

1. Principle of cultural difference. Culture simply means social heritage. There may be cultural
difference between the extension agents and the farmers. Differences also exist between groups
of farmers. The difference may be in their habits, customs, values, attitudes and ways of life.
Extension work to be successful, it must be carried out in harmony with the cultural pattern of
the people.

2. Grass roots principle. Extension program should start with local groups, local situations and
local problems. It must fit to the local problem. It must fit to the local conditions. Extension work
should start with where people are and what they have. Change should start from the existing
situations.

3. Principle of indigenous knowledge. Peoples everywhere have indigenous knowledge system,

which they have developed through generations of work experience and problems solving in
their specific situations. The indigenous knowledge system encompasses all aspects of life and
people consider it essential for their survival. Instead of ignoring the indigenous knowledge
systems as outdated, the extension agent should try to understand them and their implication in
the life of the people, before proceeding to recommend something new to them.

4. Principles of interest and needs. People‘s interest and people‘s needs are the starting point of
extension work. To identify the real needs and interest of peoples are challenging tasks The
extension agent should not pass on there own needs and interests as though of the peoples
Extension work shall be successful when it is based on the interest and needs of the people as
they see them.

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5. Principles of learning by doing. Learning remains far from perfect, unless people get
involved in actually doing the work. Learning by doing is most effective in changing people‘s
behavior. This develops confident as it involves maximum number of sensory organs. People
should learn what to do, how to do, and with what result.

6. Principle of participation. Most people of the village community should willingly cooperate
and participate in identifying the problem, planning of projects for solving the problems and
implementing the projects in getting the desired results. It has been the experience of many
countries that people become dynamic if they take decisions concerning their own affairs,
exercise responsibility for, and are helped to carry out projects in their own areas. The
participation of the people is of fundamental importance for the success of an extension program.

7. Family principle. Family is the primary unit of the society. The target for extension work
should, therefore, be the family. That is, developing the family as a whole, economically and
socially. Not only the farmers, the farm women and farm youth are also to be involved in
extension program.

8. Principle of leadership. Identifying different types of leaders and working through them is
essential in extension. Local leaders are the custodians of local thought and action. The
involvement of local leaders and legitimizes by them are essential for the success of a program.
Leadership traits are to be developed in the people so that they shall seek change from less
desirable to more desirable situation. The leaders may be trained and developed to act as carriers
of change in the villages.

9. Principles of adaptability. Extension work and extension teaching methods must be flexible
and adapted to suit the local conditions. This is necessary because the people, their situation,
their resources and constraints vary from place to place and time to time.

10. Principles of satisfaction. The end product of extension work should produce satisfying
results for the people. Satisfying results reinforce learning and motivate people to seek further
improvement.

11. Principles of evaluation. Evaluation prevents stagnation. There should be continuous built-
in methods of finding out the extent to which the results obtained are in agreement with the
objectives fixed earlier. Evaluation should indicate the gaps and the stapes to be taken for further
improvement.

CHAPTER SEVEN
HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN ETHIOPIA

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Though agriculture has a long history in Ethiopia, it attracted the recognition of the country only
in 1908 when the then ‘yeirsha Mesriabet’ was officially established through a proclamation.
The ministry, when established, had the following objectives:

1. Advisory service on and monitoring of both crop and livestock production

2. Animal health service
3. Forestry development and conservation
4. Collecting agricultural statistics

These objectives were set with the consent that anyone violating the proclamation would be
punished while those who really stick to it would be rewarded. Before the establishment of this
ministry through proclamation, however, there were sort of ‘extension type’ activities going on
in the country (1890-99) mainly in the areas of:

- Eucalyptus development
- Irrigation
- Improved agricultural production practices

Different agreements were also signed between the Ethiopian government and foreign experts
representing their country with an aim to improve the agricultural sector of the country.

In 1931 the ―Yeirhsa Mesriabet‖ was restructured through a proclamation, and its name
changed to Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). The objectives set when this ministry was
established were also improved. In 1943 and thereof, however, there were somehow organized
and concerted efforts made, as a result of which a number of demonstration sites were
established throughout the country some of which include:

- Sholla Poultry Demonstration Center,

- Andasa (Gojam) and Adami Tullu (Shewa) ranches, and
- Intoto, Kundi, Kofele, Bale, Jijiga and Amed Guya sheep ranches for mutton production. These
demonstration sites were serving as improvement centers and demonstration centers that aid
farmers to get an understanding of improved production practices.

During 1948, emphasis was given to animal health, as a result of which an agreement was signed
between FAO and the Ethiopian government to start vaccination program. Besides, for the first
time in the history of Ethiopian agriculture, professionals were sent abroad for training,
particularly on animal health.

Even though there existed the conceptualization and some efforts of improving the agricultural
sector, there were many problems, which heavily constrained the extension activities. These
include:

- lack of properly organized research centers,

- lack of adequately trained manpower,
- failure to assess farmers‘ problems and situations, as well as

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- lack of responsible body to effectively carry out the extension service.

Generally, before 1953 the agricultural extension service was not properly organized as a result
of which its objectives were not clearly defined, and it was not clear which farmers it is
targeting, what extension method(s) was/were employed, how it was organized, and its contents
were not properly defined. Nevertheless, evidences showed that there was sort of ―extension
type” activity going on in the country until 1953.

7.1 Extension Approaches in Ethiopia

A. Agricultural Extension Service under Alemaya College of Agriculture

(ACA)(1953- 1963)
Agricultural extension and research in a well established form have started operation in Ethiopia
in 1953 when the then Alemaya College of Agriculture (now HU) was established through a
technical support agreement signed between the Ethiopian government and the US government.
The college was established under the administrative control of the Oklahoma State University
with triple mandates of Research, Extension and Training. It was, therefore, nationally mandated
to administer the agricultural extension service.

The main objective of the extension service under the ACA was demonstrating research results
obtained from both within the country and abroad to farmers. With an aim to speed up this
demonstration, training of personnel with sound agricultural background in extension was also
given due attention. The research work was carried out in the College campus, Debre Zeit
experiment station, and Jimma Technical School, while the extension service was rendered in the
vicinities of these institutions and other selected areas.

B. The Conventional Agricultural Extension Service (1963-67)

In 1963 when the administration of the ACA was transferred to the then HSIU, the agricultural
extension service was transferred to the MOA, and the college only retained its research and
training programs. The extension service rendered during that time is referred to as conventional.
Since the organization of the agricultural extension service was not properly defined, it was
difficult to properly define its objective. Nevertheless, some documents revealed that the
objectives of the extension service were based on the concept of changing the life style of
farmers. Changing the quality of life of farmers could, therefore, be cited as the objective of the
extension service.

C. Agricultural Extension Service under the Comprehensive Package Projects (CPPs)

(CADU, ARDU and WADU)
In the late 1960s, in different parts of the country strategies approaches called CPPs were
launched. The CPPs when launched included the following basic components:

-Agricultural extension service

- Agricultural research
- Seed multiplication and distribution
- Marketing and credit services
- Improved farm implements production and distribution

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- Rural infrastructure Viz. rural road, water supply, health centers, etc.
- Organizing multipurpose cooperatives

i) Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU)

CADU was established in 1967 through a bilateral agreement signed between the governments
of Ethiopia and Sweden. The head quarter (HQ) of the project was stationed at Assela, the
project being intended to serve Chilalo Awraja in Arsi Administrative Region. CADU‘s
objective was to increase production and productivity in Chilalo Awraja, and thereby improve
the living standard of the farmers. It also had the objective of getting lessons of comprehensive
package approach that could be extrapolated to other similar agro-ecological areas. The
extension service objective was therefore to facilitate the overall objective of the project by
enhancing the increase in agricultural production and productivity, and thereby advisory service.

ii) Arsi Rural Development Unit (ARDU)

ARDU was established in 1977 after the Land proclamation in 1974. The project area consisted
of three Awrajas, namely Chilalo, Tocho and Arbagugu. Although ARDU was established based
on the philosophy of CADU, it differed from CADU in the following ways:
- Its name is changed from Agricultural Development to Rural Development.
- Marketing wing was transferred to Agricultural Marketing Corporation (AMC) and the credit
wing to Agricultural and Industrial Bank (AIB).
- Cottage industry promotion had become a component of the package.
- Agricultural agents, after getting training on extension, marketing and cooperatives
management, had become Development Agents and had involved in input distribution and multi
purpose development works.
- Strengthening of rural infrastructures/rural road.

The objective of the agricultural extension service was to increase agricultural production, and
thereby bring about socio-economic development of the farming community through
dissemination of improved farm inputs particularly fertilizer, improved seed, improved animal
breeds and farm implements. Increasing agricultural production and there by socio-economic
development of the farming community is the objective of the agricultural extension service.

iii) Wolaita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU)

WADU was established in 1970 following CADU‘S philosophy of comprehensive multipurpose
development concept in Wolaita Awraja of sidamo administrative region.

WADU‘S primary objective was to increase production and thereby improve the living condition
of farming communities in areas where land is scarce due to high population and in areas where
perennial tree crops are predominant. Furthermore, it was aimed to develop a development
model which could be extrapolated to other but similar agro-ecological and socio-economic
conditions.

D. Agricultural Extension Service under Minimum Package Projects

(MPP-I and MPP-II)

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i) Agricultural Extension Service under MMP-I

When CPPs were established, the intention was to extrapolate the same approach and in 15-20
years, to cover 100% of the farming population. This being the case, because of expensiveness of
CPPs, it was found that it was impossible to continue with CPPs. As a result, the approach was
revisited, and the First Minimum Package Project (MPP-I) was established in 1971, which
targeted 220 woredas throughout the country.

The objective of the agricultural extension service was to increase both crop and livestock
production, and thereby improve the living condition of farmers in the project area. Minimum
package project implementation followed two stages:

Stage 1: Observation Area: - this lasted 1-2 years and a number of observation works like
surveys, fertilizer trials and improved seeds have been conducted in the specified period of time.
Only one extension agent was taking care of all the activities.

Stage 2: Demonstration Area: - when works done during the observation time result in
significant result the area was then considered a demonstration area. The number of personnel is
1 supervisor, 2 extension agents and 1 assistant marketing agent. One demonstration area had a
total of 4000 farmers. The demonstration work takes only one year and as one year elapses, the
demonstration area is promoted to minimum package project area. Project area consisted of 1
extension supervisor, 5 extension agents and at least 5 assistant

ii) Agricultural Extension Service under MPP-II

This is the continuation of MPP-I. It was established in 1980, after the land reform. It continued
its operation until the advent of PADEP, but was different from MPP-I in its objective, content,
organization, method & target group. The objectives of the agricultural extension service under
MPP-II was not similar to that of the MPP-I, i.e. through increasing the production of both crop
and livestock, it also had the following objectives:

- Food self-sufficiency
- Raw material for local industries
- Foreign exchange from export of produces
- Soil and water conservation
- Cooperative organization
- Rural roads

E. Peasants Agricultural Development and Extension Project (PADEP)

It was introduced in 1986 (Tesfaye, 2003) as a follow up and replacement of MPPII to be
implemented in surplus producing districts. It also gave attention to lowlands through specifically
designed livestock development projects. PADEP aimed at increasing national food production,
promoting cash crops production, expanding rural cooperatives and employment opportunities, and
preventing soil erosion. It specifically emphasized on: strengthening linkages with the national
research system; stratifying the country into eight development zones based largely on agro-
ecological characteristics, prevailing farming systems and natural resources endowment; and
decentralizing the planning and implementation power to units at the levels of development zones
so that each zone would have tailored program to meet its own development objectives.

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F. Participatory Demonstrations and Training Extension System (PADETS)

The modified T&V system was continued as the national extension system in the early 1990s as
well. At national level, the National Extension Intervention Program was designed and government
financing for extension significantly increased and the newly established Regional National States
were given full autonomy in the planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation of extension
programs. In the mean time, Sasakawa Global 2000, also known as SG-2000, after having made
inventory of available technologies with the support of the national agricultural research and
extension systems, initiated an extension strategy in 1993, which was later known as Participatory
Demonstration and Training Extension System (PADETES)1. PADETES was proposed as a remedy
to rectify drawbacks observed during the implementation of package programs.

PADETES emphasized on better research-extension linkage, encouraged aggressive work in

technology transfer to smallholders, and made efforts to strengthen the capacity of the extension
system to disseminate research-proven pre-and post-harvest technologies mainly in food crops
(Quiñones et al., 1997). Farmer participation was promoted through planning and implementing
on-farm trails and demonstrations, establishing rural development committees at various levels
from the development center to regional level, and assisting farmers to organize them. Note that
organizing farms was clearly set to be part of the extension task. In addition focusing on women
and the youth was also emphasized. In 1995 the rural centered agricultural development program,
using PADETES and modified SG-2000 approaches, came into being under the name of the new
extension intervention program (Tesfaye, 2003). Accordingly, as of the 1995/96 cropping season,
the government decided to widely replicate the program and PADETES became the major
extension management system in all Regional States.

7.2 Agricultural Extension Approach

Agricultural Extension approach: refers to the dominant guide & style of action of an extension
system or organization to achieve the systems goals and objectives most effectively. It is the
philosophy or the doctrine for the system, which informs stimulates and guides such aspects of
the system as its structure, its leadership, its program, its resources & its linkages.

It is the dominant factor in extension management & administration. It influences:

- Planning
- Subject matter coverage
- Choice of methods
- Targeting & participation of clientele
- Determining resource requirements & resource allocation
- Monitoring & evaluation of extension activities

An extension system: refers to an organization i.e. a group of people who share a purpose, &
whose relationships with each other are agreed up on & generally accepted. It usually assigns
specific functional roles & status to each individual or such group with in the hierarchy or the
organization.

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Extension Strategy: refers to the operational design by means of which a national government or
other sponsoring organization, implements its policies.

Example: A forestry extension organization may want an increase in the number of wood lots, as
its main objective by communities.
Its strategy for achieving this may be in five stages:

1. Involve local community in the assessment of local forest resources

2. Persuade village authorities to make land available for communal wood lots
3. Identify local groups & organization, which could establish tree nurseries
4. Establish management committee
5. Train people in tree planting & wood lot management.

When the strategy as been translated in to defined plans for carrying out these five stages, we can
speck of an extension program.

Extension program: A plan of the goals and target groups an extension organization or unit it
tries to reach, and the ways it will try to reach them.

7.2.1 Types of Extension Approaches

Over the past three decades, many different approaches have been used to develop or improve
the different national agricultural extension systems. Familiarity with these approaches is
important in order to understand extension as well as to recognize the advantages &
disadvantages of each approach.

No single extension approach can be promoted as more appropriate than the other. Each has
certain advantages & disadvantages depending on the problem to be solved. In actual practice,
any agricultural extension system, at a particular time, will emphasize one approach or another
but it will usually have some characteristics of other types. Thus the approach is the starting
place for a particular style of action, not the ending place. It is the essential ideology, which
differentiates that particular approach from the other.

There are eight different approaches to agricultural extension. These are:

1. The General agricultural extension approach

2. The Commodity specialized agricultural extension approach
3. The Educational institution based agricultural extension approach
4. The Project based agricultural extension approach
5. The Train & Visit agricultural extension approach
6. The Farming Systems Research agricultural extension approach
7. The Cost sharing agricultural extension approach.
8. The Participatory agricultural extension approach

[Link] The General Agricultural Extension Approach

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It is the most common extension approach in the world. It is found in government organization
responsible for agricultural development in almost every country.

The key factor that distinguishes this approach from the others is its identification with broad
agricultural & rural development goals. This is reflected on its general focus on the entire farm &
home improvement. I.e. it embraces the general improvement of the farm family. So, such
programs as farm management, home economics, and rural youth work, soil conservation, etc.
are included under it.

a) Assumption
The basic assumption of this approach is that technology & information are available which are
not being used by farmers. If the knowledge of these could be communicated to farmers, farm
practices could be improved.

b) Purpose
It is to help farmers increase their production. It is assumed that, if farmers increase their
production, the nation will be better off, and also that farm families will be better off.

c) Program planning
Planning an extension program requires decision making about the work of an extension
organization. Program planning is controlled by government, and changes in priority from time
to time are usually made on a national basis, with some freedom for local adaptation.

The program is often concentrated on the recommendations of professional agriculturists. The

seed varieties to be used, what depth & spacing is best, how much & what kind of fertilizer to
use, etc. are decided by the professionals. This type of central control of program planning is
characterized as ‘top-sown.’

d) Implementation
Is usually done by a large field staff assigned to political divisions throughout the country. They
are managed by the centers, which may specify the particular methods & techniques to be used.
The methods used are demonstrations, visit to farmers, conducting meetings, tours, sometimes
these activities are supported by radio, posters & other publications.

e) Measure of success
Success is measured by the increases in national production of the commodities emphasized. A
direct relation is assumed (expected) between the agricultural extension approach and national
production of certain crops.
 Advantages of General Agricultural Extension approach
It is considered as classical & common approach to extension in most countries.
1. It can interpret national government policies & procedures to rural people. It can be used by
both those in political power & by top professional officers in government, to assist in
implementation of national agricultural development programs.
2. Usually covers the whole nation. There are officers & staff in every political division; this
ensures the advantage of continuity in the extension program.
3. Relatively easy to control by central government.

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4. When it works well, it provides for rapid communication from ministry level to rural people.

 Disadvantages the advantages of General Agricultural Extension approach

1. It lacks ‗two-way communication.‘ Communication about ‗farmers‘ problems, needs, and
interests tends not to flow up through the extension channels when this approach is used.
National goals & target, fail to adjust the message for each different locality. This will result in
trying to encourage farmers to adopt practices which do not ‗fit‘ the types of farming systems, or
the current needs of their clientele.

2. Field staffs are not accountable to the rural people. They may ignore the priorities of local
people while trying to satisfy supervisory personal.
3. It is expensive & inefficient since messages are inappropriate, the impact is low and cost
of personnel is very high.

[Link] The Commodity Specialized Approach

Institutions & persons concerned with one particular crop or commodity have sometimes become
impatient with the general agricultural extension approach, and have organized an approach
which is highly specialized. This approach tends to focus on one export crop such as coffee,
sugar, tobacco, cotton or rubber.

Because a parastatal‘s (commodity) aim is to increase productivity & production of the

commodity of interest, it normally carries out support functions such as research, input supply, &
output marketing.

The objective of this approach is to produce & market relatively high value commodities
efficiently & effectively. These commodities are generally produced for export, as they generate
foreign exchange. Successful systems encourage farmer participation by profit sharing which
increases farm income & by continuing to reinvest in technology development & transfer, thus
ensuring continued improvement

a) Assumption
The assumption here is that the way to increase productivity & production of a particular
commodity is to concentrate on it. It is also assumed that grouping extension with such other
functions as research, input supply, out put marketing, credit & sometimes price control will
make the whole system effective.

b) Purposes
The purpose of this approach is usually to increase production of a particular commodity &
sometimes it is to increase utilization of a particular agricultural input. Generally, it is used to
produce more of the desired quality.

c) Program planning
Program planning is controlled by the commodity organization
-The goals of the extension program
- The extension message
- The timing of activities

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- People who should participate in the program are decided by the organization.
d) Implementation
Tends to be in the form of instructions given to cultivators by the extension staff. This is often
done by word of month in face- to-face communication. Demonstration & printed media may
also be used.
Generally, financial & marketing situation require farmers to follow the instructions given, if
they fail to do so they may be subject to lower prices or refusal of the commodity organization to
provide future inputs.

e) Resources required
Resources tend to be provided by the commodity organization for which agricultural extension is
considered a sound investment.

f) Measures of success
The measure of success is usually the total production of a particular crop.

 Advantages of the Commodity Specialized approach

1. The technology tends to ‗fit‘ the production problems & therefore the messages tend
to be appropriate.
2. Agricultural extension tends to be efficient & effective since extension activities tend
to be coordinated with both input supply & marketing of output.
3. Better coordination with research & marketing, messages tend to be delivered timely.
4. Focus on narrow range of technical concerns, closer management &
supervision, fewer farmers for a given extension worker.
5. Being smaller & more focused, it tends to be easier to monitor, evaluate & relatively
more cost effective.

 Disadvantages of the commodity specialized approach

1. Interest of farmers may have less priority
2. When there is convergence of interest things go well. But when conflicts arise, there are
usually difficulties.
3. It does not provide advisory service to other aspects of farming in the case of farmers who
produce more than one commodity. e.g. Soil conservation, food production, livestock
production etc....
4. Farmers may be forced with several extension workers from different agencies, with
competing advice or demands.
5. Needs & potentials of the whole farm may not be considered.
6. Its narrow focus means that environmental factors may be ignored.
7. Extension objectives are determined by agency needs & priorities not those of farmers.
8. Only minority farmers (with particular type of soil, proximity to processing plants, above
average land holding or identified by some criteria) may be potential beneficiaries
9. In areas where governments use marketing boards (to catch both the surplus produce &
foreign currency) farmers' incentives could be killed.

[Link] The Educational Institution Extension Approach

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This involves participation by agricultural schools, colleges & universities in agricultural

extension activities. For these institutions, agricultural extension is not typically their major role.
It is an adjunct which improves the quality & relevance of everything else they do, and also
supports other agricultural extension institutions for which agricultural extension ‗role‘ is the
major role.

a) Assumption
Colleges or schools of agriculture have technical knowledge which is relevant & useful to farm
people. And teaching staff need interaction with ‗real farmers‘ in order to be good teachers of
agriculture.

b) Purpose
On the one hand the purpose is to help rural people learn about scientific agriculture and on the
other hand to help teachers & students at schools learn about actual farming practice in their
locality.

c) Program planning
Tends to be controlled by those who determine the curriculum of the educational institution.

d) Implementation
Implementation is usually through non-formal instruction in groups, with individuals and with
other methods & techniques. Sometimes, university personnel perform an intermediary or
subject matter role, having the field offices of the agricultural extension system as their
‗students‘ & learning regularly from research personnel at their own institutions. When the
system works is at its best, the learning flows in both directions. i.e. Researchers learn from
school extension personnel who in turn learn from extension personnel who in turn learn from
farmers. Some times institutions of agricultural education have supported agricultural extension
through mass media. e.g. booklets, radio, T.V products, etc....

e) Measures of success
The size of the evidence & the extent of participation by farm people in the institution‘s
extension activities. High rates of adoption of recommended practices and technologies by the
target farming population.

 Advantages Educational Institution Extension Approach

1. It can help the schools in providing real world relevant examples to their academic teaching
materials (builds practical into class room)
2. The relationship of scientists to field extension personal is good training for both.
3. Instead of an agricultural extension system having to maintain personnel as part of their own
professional staff, they are borrowed from educational institution (more efficient use of
human resource).

 Disadvantages Educational Institution Extension Approach

The tendency for instructors as trainers of field extension staff to speak too academically. Their
lecturers & demonstration may not be as practical and useful from a farmer‘s perspective. If the
agricultural extension system also has its own trained specialized personnel, sometimes there is

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competition. (i.e. competition which may develop between personnel from ministry of
agriculture & personnel of ministry of education).

[Link] The Project Approach

a) Assumption
It assumes that the large government bureaucracy featured in some other approaches is not likely
to have impact up on agricultural production & that better results can be achieved in a particular
location, during specified period of time, with large infusion of outside resources.

The project operates within a specified time frame & therefore its continuity is not anticipated.
However, sometimes it is assumed that successful methods & techniques demonstrated inside the
‗project‘ will latter be replicated in other locations. Usually, the project operates within a
particular time period & is also confined to limited location.

b) Purpose
In some projects, the purpose is to demonstrate with in the project, area what can be
accomplished in a relatively shorter period of time. In others, the purpose might be to test a
variety of alternative extension methods, so as to learn which are most appropriate for a
particular setting.

c) Program planning
Control of program planning is usually outside the village, with government, the donor agency or
some combination.

d) Measures of success
The measure of success is usually short run changes. i.e. If those rural people within the project
area make the changes recommended in the projects extension program & particularly if the
production of crops featured by the project increase, it is judged to be success.

o Advantages of Project Approach

1. It can give quick results
2. Novel techniques & methods can be tested & experimented.

o Disadvantages Project Approach

1. Time too short
2. Anticipates a flow of the ‗good ideas‘ in the project area to other places.
3. When the supply of money ends, so does the project. i.e. The assumption of continuity seems
usually to be un warranted. Once project termination looms, there is a running down as staff
leave and the field unit straggles to become reintegrated in to a larger national system.
4. A tendency to consume a large proportion of resources on baseline surveys & the
establishment of a temporary logistic base.
5. Staff both local & expatriate tends to become the immediate beneficiaries.
6. Pressures to show immediate results leading to fictitious reporting.
7. Innovations introduced under an external project will be seen by the host government as the
outsiders' responsibility and often are quickly abandoned once external funding ceases.

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[Link] Training & Visit (T & V) Extension approach

The particular approach to agricultural extension by means of the training & visit system is but
one of the many ways in which extension services may be organized along effective professional
lines.

The T & V system of extension has been widely adopted in many countries. One reason for the
rapid spread of the system has been the impressive increase in agricultural production that have
been associated with its introduction especially in irrigated agriculture such as India etc…

It was developed into a coherent system only in the mid- 1970s. The principles underlying the
system are basically simple & can be widely applied in different situation. The approach contains
few, if any, new ideas, but involves the systematic appreciation of well known management
principles.

The methods to achieve this may change from place to place to suit particular agricultural, social,
and administrative conditions. But the essential features are: Continuous training & regular, fixed
visits by staff solely occupied with agricultural extension, in built supervision, continuous
upgrading of staff, monitoring & evaluation of all extension activities and minimal office &
paper work must be closely followed every where.

a) Assumption
The assumptions of this approach are similar to those of the general agricultural extension
approach. It further assumes that extension field personnel are poorly trained not-up-to-date, and
tend not to visit farmers, but to stay in their offices. It further anticipates that management &
supervision is not adequate.

It also assumes that a two-way flow of information (communication) between research &
extension & between extension staff & farmers can be achieved through this discipline.

b) Purpose
Is to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops. It is highly patterned &
disciplined; there is a fixed schedule of the training of the village extension workers by subject
matter specialists & fixed schedule of visits to farmers.

c) Program planning
Control of program planning is centralized. Decisions about what should be taught, and when it
should be taught tend to be made by professionals & then the program is ‗delivered down‘ to the
farmers. It follows cropping pattern of priority crops, & tends to feature rigid scheduling of
extension activities, particularly the training, the visit & the supervision.

d) Implementation
Relies basically on visits by village level extension workers to small group of farmers or to
individual contact farmers.

e) Measures of Success

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Success is measured by increase in yields & total production of crops being emphasized.

 Advantages of T & V Extension approach

1. Puts pressure on government to organize a large number of small agricultural extension units
into one more integrated service & the pressure it puts on agricultural extension officers
to get out of their offices & meet with farmers.
2. Because of regular training, VEWs are assumed to be more up-to-date with information &
technology.
3. Field staff receives greater technical supervision.
4. Logistical support to extension staffs are more available.

 Disadvantages of T & V approach

1. T & V cannot operate effectively in the absence of an effective research program. The system
is designed to transfer technology not to create it.
2. T & V cannot increase production unless the contemporary parts of the small farmer
development package like input supply & credit, market mechanisms & price incentives
are in place.
3. Local pressure & staff preferences often tend to bias the selection of contact farmers in favor
of the richer or more powerful.
4. How much participation? It is often criticized as top-down & supply driven. Recommendation
are not prompted by farmers‘ expressed needs but by the bureaucratic & academic imperatives
5. The high long term costs to governments.
6. Lack of actual two-way communication.
7. Lack of large supply of simple, low-cost technology which is relevant to farmers.
8. Lack of flexibility to change programs as needs & interests of farming people change from
place to place & from time to time.

[Link] The Farming systems Research (FSR) approach

Problem solving in that FSR teams seek researchable problems and opportunities to guide
research & to identify ways for making local services and national policies more attuned to the
farmers needs.

Comprehensive because FSR team consider the whole farming activity (consumption as well as
production to learn how to improve the farmers output & welfare, to identify the flexibility for
change in the environment & to evaluate the results in terms of both farmers & society‘s
interests.

Interdisciplinary: in that researchers & extension staff with different disciplinary back grounds
work with farmers in identifying problems & opportunities searching for solutions implementing
the results.

Complementary: because it offers a means for using the outputs of other research & development
organization and for giving direction to others‘ work. Interactive in that FSR teams use the
results from research to improve their understanding of the system & to design subsequent
research & implementation approaches.

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Dynamic: in that often team introduce relatively modest changes in the farmers‘ condition first &
the favorable results encourage more significant changes latter.

Responsible: to the society in that FSR team keep the long-run interests of the general public -
both present & future in mind as well as those of the farming groups immediately affected.

a) Assumptions
Too often, agricultural extension efforts have failed because the technology available to field
extension personnel did not ‗fit‘ the local farming systems. So, if such technology is not
available, it needs to be generated locally.

b) Purpose
The main purpose of FSR approach is to generate more appropriate technologies for farmers and
where possible to improve policies & support services for farm production, to raise farm families
welfare & to enhance society‘s goals. Specifically FSR aims at increasing the productivity of
farming systems by generating technologies for particular groups of farmers & by developing
insight into which technologies fit where & why.

To provide extension personnel with research results to meet the results to meet the needs &
interests of local farming system conditions.

c) Program planning
Program may be different for each agro-climatic system since the program must take a holistic
approach to the plants, the animals & the people in each particular location.

So control of program is shared jointly by local people, agricultural extension & agriculture
researchers. i.e. The program is different in different parts of the country.

d) Measures of success
It is the extent to which people adapt the technologies & continue to use them over time.

FSR activities
The basic FSR activities are target & research area selection, problem identification &
development of research base, planning on-farm research, on-farm research analysis & extension
of results.

a) Target & Research area selection

Using national & regional objectives, FSR team selects one or more target areas, then the team
divides the target area into sub areas with relatively uniform characteristics & selects a research
area representative of the selected areas. The team continues by choosing the target group
farmers who have common environments & common production patterns & farming practices.

b) Problem identification & development of research base

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The team identifies and ranks problems & opportunities according to such criteria as short-run &
long-run significance to farmers & society, availability of suitable technologies & ease of
implementation.

c) Planning On-farm Research

On farm research emphasizes alternative cropping & livestock patterns, management practices,
and other activities of the farm household.

The team incorporates the farmers‘ condition into the design procedure by working closely with
them. I.e. through meeting them in their fields & learning farmer terms, how the farmer
household divide activities that controls which resources. Farmers in turn take part in the
research experiment & evaluate the results.

The team designs record keeping systems, special studies, climate monitoring & surveys to
provide additional information about the farmers & their environment.

 Advantages of FSR
1. The messages & the technologies are ‗fit‘ to the realities of people.
2. Linkage between research & extension

 Disadvantages of FSR
1. It is a team approach, so costs are usually too high.
2. It takes time & patience to study the farming system.
3. Reporting & administrative control is difficult
4. Bias to agriculture, crops, marginal change
5. Despite the rhetoric of systems research efforts tend to focus on marginal change to cropping.
6. Bias to households .The farm household seen as the focus & the prime mover in
the rural economy, with corresponding lack of attention both to intra-household & inter-
household relations.
7. FSR not cost effective
9. How much participation?
10. How much does technology matter in any case?
Much of the time farmers‘ main concerns are prices and quantities of outputs & inputs, &
the terms of access to resources (land, labor, capital)

[Link] The cost sharing approach

It is an extension approach where the cost of agricultural extension is supposed to be shared
between the clients & agricultural extension system.

a) Assumption
The assumption with this approach is that an extension system is more likely to achieve its goal
if those who benefit from it share same part of the cost. It is assumed that the program is more
likely to fit local situations and personnel are more likely to serve the interests of the clientele of
the program if the costs are shared between the ‗outside‘ sponsors of the program & the ‗inside‘
target groups for the program.

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It also assumes that farm people are too poor to pay the whole cost. So, central and regional
government typically provides most of it. E.g. Cooperative extension service in the USA is
carried out by cooperation between the national government, the states & the local community.
Though its roots are in the USA we can also find local farmer associations who normally employ
their own extension workers in other countries.

b) Purpose
Helping farm people learn those things they need to know for self-improvement and increased
productivity. It is for this purpose that local people are willing to pay part of the cost to make
funding of Agricultural extension affordable & sustainable both at the central & local levels. It is
therefore considered as one of the most promising approaches to financing agricultural
extension.

c) Program planning
Control of program planning is shared by the various levels paying the costs but must be
responsive to local interests in order to maintain ‗cooperative‘ financial arrangements. i.e. Local
people tend to have a strong voice in program planning.

d) Measures of success
Success is measured by farm people‘s willingness and ability to provide some share of the cost.
In addition, to agricultural extension systems which use cost sharing approach there are many
very small village groups that carry on the non-formal education function of extension without
any cost sharing from outside.

In some areas they are secret organization in other they are user groups all of which might have
the function of giving assistance to their members in ―learning what they need to know about
agriculture‘. The challenge is how extension strategies discover them, link them to government
agricultural extension systems.

 Advantages cost sharing approach

1. Some measures of local control of program planning, which usually accompanies this
approach, increase the relevance of the program content & methods to the needs &
interests of clientele. This results in higher adoption rates.
2. Local influence on personnel selection, contributes to their ability to communicate effectively,
& to win the confidence of rural people.
3. Lower cost to central government.

 Disadvantages cost sharing approach

1. More difficult for central government to control either program or personnel
2. Reporting financial management and other aspects of administrative concerns tend to be more
complex & difficult.

[Link] Participatory approaches in Extension

Participation of the people involved in development programs is often seen as a way to make
these programs more successful specially for solving problems of poor people.

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a) Assumption
Farming people have much wisdom regarding production of food from their land, but their levels
of living & productivity could be improved by learning more of what is known outside. There is
an indigenous knowledge system and while it is different from ‗scientific knowledge system‘
there is much to be gained by the interaction of the two.

b) Purpose
It helps to increase the production of farming people & to increase the consumption & enhance
the quality of life of rural people.

d) Measure of Success
Success is measured through continuity of local extension organizations & the benefits to the
community (e.g. When the extension groups dissolve say after a year it is considered as
unsuccessful). Since programs are planned locally the extent to which program goals and
objectives are achieved is also a measure of success.

 Advantages of Participatory approaches in Extension

1. Relevance of the messages, the content of the extension program, and of the methods &
communication channels used.
2. Mutually supportive relationship which develops many participants.
3. Increased confidence, awareness, and activity among farm people

 Disadvantages of Participatory approaches in Extension

1. Difficult to mange, central reporting & accounting

CHAPTER EIGHT: EXTENSION METHOD

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Extension methods comprise the techniques of communication between extension workers and
target groups with the aim of motivating and enabling them to find ways of solving their
problems.

Extension organization whether it is governmental or non-governmental employs a variety of

methods either individually or in combination. The choice of any of the methods available
extension will depend on:
 The appropriateness of the content or technology,
 The extension organization's goals,
 The circumstances in which the extension service delivered
 The type and volume of information to be delivered
 The capacity of the extension service
 The problems to be solved.

8.1 Principles of Selecting Extension (teaching) Method

1. No single extension (teaching) method is better than another
The extension worker should choose those technique (s) best cited to the situation
None technique is considered superior to another.

2. Use a number of teaching methods

Experience in extension work has shown that the more the number of ways new information is
presented the faster an individual learns.

3. Methods will overlap

For instance, if a demonstration stimulates group discussion, two methods are utilized which will
reinforce the information considered in the demonstration.

4. Use visual aids and written materials when possible.

Teaching can be reinforced and supported by use of visual aids and written materials because
they facilitate understanding.

8.2 Types of Extension Methods

Broadly speaking extension methods are categorized as:

 Individual extension methods

 Group extension methods
 Mass extension methods

8.2.1 Individual Methods of Extension

Individual or face-to-face methods are probably the most universally used extension methods in
both developed and developing countries. The extension agent meets the farmer at home or on
the farm and discusses issues of mutual interest, giving the farmer both information and advice.
The atmosphere of the meeting is usually informal and relaxed, and the farmer is able to benefit
from the agent's individual attention. Individual meetings are probably the most important aspect
of all extension work and invaluable for building confidence between the agent and the farmer.

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The personal influence of the extension worker can be a critical factor in helping a farmer
through difficult decisions, and can also be instrumental in getting the farmer to participate in
extension activities. A farmer is often likely to listen to the advice given by the extension agent
and will be grateful for this individual attention.

i) Farm visits
Farm visits are the most common form of personal contact between the agent and the farmer and
often constitute over 50 percent of the agent's extension activities. Because they take up so much
of the agent's time, it is important to be clear about the purpose of such visits and to plan them
carefully.

Farm visits can:

Build up the agent's knowledge of the area, and of the kinds of problems which farmers
face;
Permit him to explain a new recommended practice or follow up and observe results to
date;
Arouse general interest among the farmers and stimulate their involvement in extension
activities.

At times, the extension agent will make a farm visit spontaneously if he happens to be passing by
and it is convenient to drop in. Such informal visits may have no specific purpose but are a
useful way of maintaining contact and gradually building links with farmers. Even if the agent
just drops into greet the farmer and his family, this short visit can do a lot to foster mutual
respect and friendship. Usually, however, farm visits will be part of the agent's general plan of
work and will be programmed into his monthly schedule of activities.

Planning the visit

How do we plan farm visit?
One may need to consider the following major issues before conducting farm visit:
- Making an appointment if possible.
- Deciding the purpose of the visit.
- Reviewing previous records and information.
- Preparing specialist subject matter that might be required.
- Scheduling the visit into the overall work plan.
- Making the visit

The agent must always remember the basic educational purpose of extension and his role in this
process. The agent's role is not just one of transmitting new knowledge or recommendations; he
must also devote time during visits to building up the farmer's confidence and interest.

Check-list for conducting farm visit (the following may help as to procedures of conducting farm
visit):

Be punctual for the visit.

Greet the farmer and this family.
Praise the farmer's work.

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Encourage the farmer to explain and discuss any problems.

Provide any technical or other information required.
Record the details of the visit.
Plan with the farmer the time and purpose of the next meeting.

Recording and follow-up

After each visit, the agent should record the date, the purpose, the conclusions or
recommendations arising from the visit, as well as any other additional information or
observations, on an individual card kept at the extension office.

It is vitally important that the agent follow up on any issues or problems that he was not able to
deal with in person. Failure to do so will disappoint the farmer and lessen his confidence in the
agent. It is very important to maintain the confidence and trust that can often take years to build
up. He should also schedule his next visit to the farmer in his work programme.

Check-list
Record purpose of and decision resulting from visit.
Arrange for any follow-up information or advice to be sent.
Schedule the next visit to the farmer.

Despite its importance, farm visits take up a lot of time and only a few farmers can be reached.
Farm visits are, therefore, a costly extension method and for this reason they must be carefully
thought out and planned. The visits must make an impact and must lead to positive agricultural
development if they are to justify their cost. Finally, the agent should beware of visiting some
farmers repeatedly. This would not only severely limit the range of his activities, but could also
arouse the resentment of other farmers who might feel excluded.

ii) Office calls

Just as the extension agent visits the farmer, so he/she can expect that from time to time the
farmer will visit him/her at his/her office. Such a visit is often a reflection of the interest, which
the agent may have aroused among the local farmers. The more confidence local farmers have in
the extension agent, the more likely they are to visit him. Such office visits are less time
consuming for the extension worker, and offer some of the advantages of a farm visit. While no
extension agent would wish to be overwhelmed by such visits every day, he should encourage
farmers to drop in if it is convenient for them to make the exchange of visits two-way.

As with farm visits, office visits similarly have to be prepared. Although the agent may not know
when a farmer is likely to drop in, he can at least arrange the extension office in such a way that
the visitor feels at ease and can understand the activities of the office. The arrangement could
include:

Ensuring that access to the extension office is adequately posted and the agent's name
displayed;
Having a notice-board clearly displayed upon which useful, up-to-date information can
be pinned;
Having one or two chairs where visitors can wait for appointments;

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Displaying any bulletins, circulars or other written extension literature that the visitor can
read

For some farmers, a visit to the extension office may be a difficult experience. The agent should,
therefore, try to put the farmer at ease, asking a few questions in order to get the farmer to
explain his problems. The agent should be polite but purposeful, and try to find out the reason for
the visit as quickly as possible. When he feels that the matter has been adequately discussed, the
agent should tactfully terminate the interview in order not to let it drift aimlessly on. The agent
should always escort the visitor out, and say goodbye.

A note on these office visits should also be added to the farmer's record card, and any follow-up
implemented. The layout of an extension office is important

iii) Letters
Occasionally, the extension agent will correspond with a farmer by letter. Letters can be a
follow-up inquiry resulting from an agent's farm visit, or sent because a farmer is unable to make
a personal office visit. Drafting and replying to letters are very important skills for the extension
worker and he should give every thought to them. Problems can arise with the use of words or
complex technological language, or if the letter has been badly typed or written. In writing a
letter to a farmer, the extension agent should try to put himself in the farmer's shoes. The letter
should be in the local language, preferably not on impressively headed writing paper, and should
always contain some personal greeting to the farmer. Often, farmers will show such letters to
their neighbors and thus it is important to create a favorable impression. The following points are
important:

Letters should be clear and concise, so as not to confuse the reader;

The information in the letter should be complete and relevant to the issues raised;
Where possible, letters should be answered promptly. If time is needed to collect
information for the reply, a short letter of acknowledgement should be sent;
A copy of the letter must always be made and entered in the office file.

iv) Telephone calls

Telephone calls and office visits serve a very similar purpose. It is improbable that the extension
worker will deal with many of the farmers in his area (if at all) by telephone. If the telephone is
used, however, it will not be for long discussion but for passing on specific advice or
information. Whatever the reason, it is important for the agent to speak clearly, to note the main
points discussed and to enter them on the farmer's record.

v) Informal contacts
Informal contacts will occur continually during the agent's stay in a particular area. Market days,
holiday celebrations or religious events will bring him into contact with the farmers with whom
he is working who will inevitably talk about their problems. By attending such events, the agent
can become well acquainted with the area where he works and with the farmers and their
problems, and he will be able to pass on ideas and information on an informal basis.

Advantages of individual extension

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a) Immediate feedback
b) Freedom of speaking is high and this method is more important for:
_ solving problems of investment decision,
_ Integration of Extension agents' information with the farmer and
_ Building trust between the two parties.

Disadvantages of individual extension

1. Costs are very high in terms of travel resource, etc.
2. Small proportion of a target group could be reached.
3. It is seldom a solution for promotion of collective interests

8.2.2 Group Extension Methods

In group extension work, several members of the target group who are linked by formal or
informal ties are addressed at the same time.

Advantages of group methods

Group extension methods have the following advantages:
A large number of farmers can be reached, even if the material and staffing provision of
the extension service is limited.
Extension costs per head of the target group are reduced.
Group methods permit more participation by the target groups.
Techniques of group dynamics can be used to accelerate the spread of information and
increase the willingness of the farmers to make decisions.

Further advantages of Group methods

1. Coverage
The group method offers the possibility of greater extension coverage, and is therefore more
cost-effective. Using the group method, the extension worker can reach more farmers and in this
way make contact with many more farmers who have had no previous contact with extension
activities.

2. Learning environment
Extension groups offer a more reflective learning environment in which the farmer can listen,
discuss and decide upon his involvement in the extension activity. The support of the group helps
an individual farmer to make decisions and determine a course of action. The group creates a
supportive atmosphere, and individual farmers can gain greater self-confidence by joining others
to discuss new ideas and try out new practices.
3. Action
The group method brings together farmers with similar problems. Often, these problems demand
concerted action (tackling the erosion of a hillside, for example), and such action can be taken
more effectively by a group rather than by an individual, who may be overwhelmed by the
enormity of certain problems.

Important issues in-group extension

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To form structure and develop a group of farmers for extension purposes is a complex process,
and such groups do not appear overnight. It is not sufficient for the extension agent merely to
bring the farmers together for a particular activity. He must give time and thought to the fact that
the farmers will constitute a group, will function as a group and will display characteristics
associated with groups. Experience in different parts of the world has shown that there are four
sets of important issues that the agent will have to bear in mind:

1. Purpose
The agent should be aware of two main purposes in his work with groups. First, he should try to
develop the group, to encourage its members to continue to meet and to establish the group on a
permanent basis. Second, the agent should use the group to transmit new ideas, information and
knowledge that will assist the farmers in their agricultural activities.

2. Size
The most suitable size for groups in rural extension is between 20 and 40 members. If the group
is too large, it becomes unwieldy and many farmers may feel lost and bewildered. Smaller
groups allow closer contact, a better chance of involvement and more opportunity for
strengthening bonds of friendship and support among members. One common determinant of
group size is geographical location: its membership will be restricted to those living within a
particular area.

3. Membership
Since the extension agent's job is to help farmers identify and tackle problems, it is better to have
groups of farmers with common problems.

4. Agent's relationship with group

The agent should give considerable thought to his relationship with the group. Ideally, he will
want to encourage the group's formation and help to strengthen it. The agent should try to avoid
being directly responsible for setting up the groups and should try to ensure that they are based,
where possible, upon existing social or cultural community groups. The agent should strive to
encourage an element of independence in the group, by encouraging the group to take the
initiative in extension activities and to decide for itself in what way the agent can be of
assistance.

Types of group extension methods

i) Group meetings: calling the members of a group or the inhabitants of a local community
together for a meeting is the commonest group extension method. Indeed, there is a whole range
of purposes for such community or group meetings:

 Information meeting: the agent calls the group or community together to communicate a
specific piece of new information, which he feels, will benefit them and upon which he
seeks their advice.
 Planning meetings: the main purpose is to review a particular problem, suggest a
number of solutions and decide upon a course of action.

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 Special interest meetings: topics of specific interest to a particular group of people

(example, horticulture, bee keeping, or dairy farming) are presented and discussed in
detail at a level relevant to those participating.
 General community meetings: men, women and young people of a community are
invited to attend to discuss issues of general community interest.

Whatever the case, however, the agent should only call a meeting if he thinks that it can be
useful. If farmers feel that their time has been wasted in coming to a meeting, they may refuse to
come to subsequent meetings and thus frustrate the agent's work.

Form of the meeting

Depending upon the nature and purpose of the meeting, the agent must decide the most
appropriate form for the meeting and how it can best be conducted.

 Smaller meetings are more likely to meet the specific needs of those who attend. When
plans are to be made or decisions taken, a small number of representatives will usually
achieve more than a large gathering of all community members.
 A formal meeting, with chairman, agenda and written record of proceedings, is
appropriate when specific business has to be dealt with or decisions reached. The
chairman keeps the meeting to the central issues, and the decisions of the meeting are
recorded accurately so that they cannot be disputed later.
 In an informal meeting, people feel more able to express their own point of view and less
dominated by the structure and formality of the proceedings.
 A lecture or talk allows the agent (or other speaker) to convey a detailed, well-prepared
message to his audience on a specific issue; for example, a new piece of technology can
be presented in this way, and illustrated by visual aids. It should be remembered,
however, that the lecture is a particularly tedious approach to meetings and care must be
taken to ensure that people will not get bored.

Planning the meeting

There are two important decisions to make regarding the time and location. The time should be
convenient to all concerned and should avoid clashes with other events or activities. The
meeting-place should be well known, easy to get to and appropriate for the form of meeting. The
meeting-place should also be comfortable and have the facilities necessary for the meeting. An
extension agent would never hold a meeting at midday, on a very hot day, in the open sun. Such
a meeting could be disastrous, as well as cause considerable discomfort.

After the above two issues have been considered, it may be useful for the agent to draw up a list
of other arrangements to be made in preparation for the meeting. Such a checklist could include:

- Publicity for the meeting

- Seating arrangements
- Audio-visual equipment and material, or other educational aids
- Agenda, and order of events
- Guest speakers or other specialists who will contribute to the meeting
- Chairman to take charge of the meeting, who should be elected by the community

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- Refreshments for speakers and, where necessary, other participants.

Conducting the meeting

The agent must be conscious that he is dealing with adults who do not want to sit for hours
listening to a speaker talk endlessly. The agent should try to vary the agenda of the meeting: for
example, a short talk, accompanied by visual aids, followed by comments and questions.

Variety of content, as well as a chance for the farmers to participate, will be important. In
addition, the meeting must not go on too long. One-and-a-half hours are probably sufficient for a
group or community meeting. It is better to have a highly productive, short meeting than one,
which rambles on and loses effect.

The agent's role in the meeting should also respond to the circumstances. He should encourage
the community to appoint a chairman and should allow the chairman to conduct business. The
agent's role should basically be to inform and support, and he should not dominate the meeting.
Furthermore, the meeting should not resemble a classroom with the agent as teacher and the
farmers as pupils. The agent should make every effort to ensure that during the proceedings the
community members feel that it is their meeting and that they have a part to play.

As a guide to the proceedings of the meeting, the agent should keep the following points in mind.
He should start the meeting on time. Then he should welcome community members and special
guests, explain the purpose of the meeting and the programme to be followed, and begin the
programme. Later, the agent should encourage questions and discussion, and be prepared to
summarize the main points and note important decisions. The meeting should be closed with
thanks to all concerned.

As the most commonly used form of group extension method, the group or community meeting
will be most effective if carefully thought out and planned. After each meeting, the agent should
make a brief record of the proceedings and the principal decisions taken. He should also take any
prompt follow-up action that has been decided.

ii) Demonstrations
Farmers like to see how a new idea works, and also what effects it can have on increasing their
crop production. Both purposes can be achieved by means of a farm demonstration. The
demonstration is a particularly powerful method to use with farmers who do not read easily. A
demonstration will give such farmers the opportunity to observe, at first hand, the differences
between a recommended new crop practice and traditional practices. The strength of the
demonstration should lie in its simplicity and its ability to present the farmers with concrete
results. There are two principal types of demonstration used by extension agents - method
demonstration and result demonstration.

a) Method demonstration
Method demonstrations basically show farmers how to do something. In the method
demonstration, the farmer is shown step by step how, for example, to plant seeds in line, to use a
mechanical duster to control insects, or to top tobacco. The agent will probably be dealing with

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farmers who have already accepted the particular practice being demonstrated, but who now
want to know how to do it themselves.

b) Result demonstration
The main purpose of a result demonstration is to show local farmers that a particular new
recommendation is practicable under local conditions. Comparison is the important element in a
result demonstration: comparison between compost and no compost, between poor seed and
selected seed, or between use of fertilizer and no fertilizer. "Seeing is believing" is an age-old
expression, but one appropriate to a result demonstration. Until a farmer has actually seen the
results of, for example, the application of a fertilizer, he will not be convinced by the agent's
recommendation. By showing tangible results of a new practice recommended by the extension
service, the agent can help to create confidence among the farmers and can greatly encourage
them to try the practice themselves.

Its major limitation is that it takes a long time to mature and is thus a costly use of extension
resources. If, in the end, for whatever reason, the new practice should fail, it could have
disastrous consequences. Often such failures (for example, because of lack of rain) are outside
the control of the agent.

Both method and result demonstrations are extension activities that require a lot of thought,
careful planning and efficient execution. Although the two demonstrations differ somewhat in
their purposes, they share a lot of common points and, in terms of their preparation and
execution, they can be considered together.

Basic principles for demonstrations

Before the agent begins to plan and prepare for a demonstration, he should be clear about a
number of key points that will guide his preparation and handling of the demonstration.
 Participation. Where possible, demonstrations should be carried out on local farms with
farmers' participation rather than on an extension plot or research station. Farmers will
have more confidence if a demonstration is held on a neighbor‘s land, or if a new practice
is shown by a fellow farmer, than if it is carried out by agents on extension land.
 Simplicity. Simple, clear-cut demonstrations of a single practice or new idea will be far
more effective than ambitious and over-complex demonstrations that demand too much
of the farmer. It is better to proceed step by step with a number of demonstrations than to
try do to everything at once.
 Learning. The demonstration is a learning environment and should be run in such a way
that the farmers do in fact learn something. A demonstration is a type of classroom, and
the agent must be conscious of classroom requirements in terms of space, time,
equipment and the teaching method to use.
 Preparation. An extension agent should never contemplate holding a demonstration
without careful planning and preparation. A demonstration hastily given could have
disastrous consequences.

Planning the demonstration

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When the agent decides that a demonstration would be useful at a particular time, he must then
dedicate some time to planning and preparing for it. In this respect, he must ask himself a
number of questions.

What is the objective of the demonstration?

Why is the demonstration the most suitable extension method, and what would be the
usefulness of the new idea to be demonstrated?
When is the most convenient date and time both for the farmers and in terms of the
application of the new idea?
Where is the demonstration to be held? Which suitable location is the most convenient
for the farmers?

Preparing the demonstration

The more carefully the agent can prepare all the details of the demonstration, the more chance he
will have of it running smoothly. The following are the key areas of preparation.

Consult the local people and seek their help and advice in the preparation of the
demonstration.
Prepare a detailed plan of the demonstration, the main issues to be covered, the sequence
of events, the resources needed and the contributions required from other people.
Collect information and material available on the new idea or practice to be
demonstrated, and make sure that the topic is familiar and that questions can be
answered.
Check that all the support material is ready (e.g., audio-visual aids, implements).
Select those farmers who will take part in the demonstration and brief them on the outline
of events.
Ensure that the demonstration has been publicized and that the farmers know exactly
when and where it is to take place.
Visit the demonstration site beforehand to make sure that all is in order and that the site is
appropriate.

Follow-up
It is important that any interest generated by, or decisions taken at, the demonstration be
followed up. Farmers will feel let down if the agent does not do so. Demonstrations can often
result in good contacts with local farmers, and the agent may be able to enlist their support for
future activities. It is also important that the agents reflects upon the demonstration and evaluate
its effectiveness. The agent should, therefore, write a report and prepare a record of the
demonstration, noting the names of the participants, the effect achieved and personal impressions
of the usefulness of the demonstration.

vii) Field days

Field days are usually opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a slightly larger
scale, and are usually run in a more informal and less highly structured manner. The purpose is
often to introduce a new idea and a new crop, and to stimulate the interest of as many farmers as
possible. Experimental stations or other government centers may be used for field days, but it is
more usual and profitable for them to be held on the land of a local farmer. There is a greater

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chance of making an impact if the field day is held on a farmer's land, and if the farmer plays a
part in running it and explaining the purpose.

Field days can range in size from a small group to annual events attracting hundreds of farmers.
Since the aim is a general introduction to some new idea, there is less need to be concerned about
limiting the numbers. The extension agent's role on the field day is to support the farmer on
whose land it is being held, to offer general guidance to ensure that things run smoothly and to
be available to answer questions and queries. It is probably better not to over organize the field
day but to try to create an atmosphere in which visiting farmers can inspect, inquire, question and
generally get to know what is available.

Although the agent will try to encourage an open and informal atmosphere for the field day,
there is still a considerable amount of preparation needed to ensure that it runs well. The issues,
which the agent must consider are very similar to those, noted under demonstrations and will not
be repeated here. It may be useful, however, to bear a few additional points in mind.

Limit the numbers to the capacity of the field, to avoid overcrowding.

Ensure a good layout of field-day activities, with easy access and facility of movement
around the field.
Encourage the demonstrator farmer to take most of the initiative; give him support but do
not take over the field day from him.
Provide suitably large visual material and also, if necessary, a loudspeaker, to ensure that
all can hear. Check that extension literature and other material are available for
consultation.
Conclude the field day by bringing all the participants together, reviewing the day's
proceedings and the main items seen and discussed, and explain any future relevant
extension activities.

A field day is a day out for farmers and is often a welcome relief from their daily hard work. The
agent should, therefore, provide an interesting and well-presented exhibition, suitable
refreshments and points of rest, and generally create an atmosphere in which the farmers will feel
at ease and will be eager to know what is going on.

viii) Tours
Farmers like to visit farms in other districts to see how they work, what they grow and what
kinds of problems the farmers there are facing. A tour is a series of field demonstrations on
different farms, or at different centers, and can often attract a lot of interest from local farmers.
The tour should give local farmers a chance to see how other farmers cultivate their land, and to
exchange ideas and experiences with them. It is important, therefore, that the area to be visited
be in some way similar agriculturally to that of the visiting farmers.

As with all other forms of extension, tours have to be well thought out, planned, prepared and
conducted. The five stages of determining the objective, planning the content, preparing the
arrangements, conducting the tour and arranging for appropriate follow-up will be a guide to the
extension agent. However, it may be useful to add these points:

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Visit the area first to become familiar with local conditions, the farms to be visited, and
the route and road conditions.
Limit the tour to what is possible. It is better to do a short tour in which visitors can have
a good look at local farms than to arrange an ambitious tour and be pushed for time.
Don't tire the visitors out.
Encourage the host farmers to do all the explaining and to take charge of the tour.
Arrange for food and drink during the tour.
Conclude the tour with a short summary of the main events and note any comments or
conclusions.

A field tour is an ideal method of involving farmers and of stimulating genuine interest in
extension activities. It is also very useful in bringing farmers together to discuss common
problems, and to gain useful experience of other areas.

8.2.3 Mass Extension Methods

Mass extension method involves the use of mass communication system that exposes relatively
large number of people to the same information. When we plan the use of mass communication
system in extension, we must understand or recognize the role it plays in extension programme
and how they can be effectively utilized. Before we decide to spread extension message via mass
extension methods the following questions are worth important to be considered:

1. What are the goals to be achieved? (Example, awareness raising, knowledge transfer,
imparting skills, behavior or attitude change)
2. Which topics are found to stimulate interest?
3. Who is targeted for the programme? What is the educational background of the target group?
4. How much do the target groups know about the topics?

Classification of mass extension methods

Audio media: it is a sound media. It is best media to disseminate information via sound to large
number of audience. E.g. radio, cassette recorder

Factors constrained the use of audio media:

Time of broadcasting
Physical access to the media
Repair and spare part facility
Feedback
Information type and amount

Audiovisual: combine audio and vision to convey information. E.g. TV, Video, VCD, Mobile
film

Print media: they combine words, pictures, and diagrams to convey information. It can be
referred repeatedly but applicable only where literacy level is high.

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The use of mass extension methods in agricultural extension programme

1. Awareness creation
2. Giving timely information about outbreak of disease, pest and weather report
3. It also helps to multiply the effect and impact of extension programme
4. Answer questions raised by farmers
5. Reinforcing information given by other extension methods

Precondition for mass extension methods

Access
Exposure
Attention
Clarity
Advantage of mass extension methods:
They reinforce individual and group contact methods by complementing or
supplementing them.
They reach large and varied audiences
They save time and expense in reaching large numbers.

Limitation of mass extension methods:

Less intensive and less effective than individual and group contact methods in bringing
about changes in practices.
Lack the advantage of ―social contacts‖ or ―personal touch‖
The information provided may not apply to special situations or individual needs.
Difficult for the result to be evaluated.
One way flow of information
Little ability to overcome selective process
o Selective attention
o Selective perception
o Selective remembering
o Selective acceptance
Possibility to adjust message to audience is very low
Possibility to ignore the message is high

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CHAPTER NINE: TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION

Adoption and diffusion process of an innovation

There is often an extended delay between the introduction of an innovation and it adoption by
potential users. This has created a concern with technology developers and those who take part in
technology dissemination to its user. Differences between people who adopt innovations and
those plays a waiting game are interesting topics for investigation.

This concern leads to the birth of diffusion and adoption research. In diffusion and adoption
research the following questions are investigated:

1. What decision-making pathways do individuals follow when considering whether to

adopt or not an innovation? Which sources of information are important?
2. What are the differences between people who adopt innovations quickly and slowly?
3. How do the characteristics of innovations affect the rate of adoption?
4. How do potential users communicate among themselves about these innovations? Who
plays the important role of opinion leader in this communication process?
5. How does an innovation diffuse through society overtime?

9.1 Definition of Concepts

Innovation: is an idea, practice, methods or objects that is perceived as new by an individual
or other unit of adoption. Innovation is not always the result of recent research or invention.
Example, fertilizer is an innovation in some remote parts of Ethiopia but it is not an
innovation or new technology for many who have been used it for many years.

Diffusion: the spread of an innovation into the social system from one decision making unit
(individual, household, organization) to the next overtime.

Adoption: the decision to apply an innovation and continue to use it for relatively long
period of time. An individual who use a technology for a single time and discontinue using it
can not be regarded as adopter. Similarly an individual who adopt a part of the recommender
package of practice can not be considered as adopters. To deal with such issue instead of
categorizing individuals as dichotomous adopter or non-adopted innovation adoption index is
developed. An innovation adoption index indicates the proportion of adoption by an
individual from the set of recommended practices or technologies.

Social system: defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem-
solving to accomplish a common goal. In another word, the member of a social system may
be individuals, informal groups, or organizations who worked towards a common goal.
Culture within the social system and the individuals who make-up the social systems can
affect the diffusion of new ideas.

Social systems are referring to the group or groups of people that an innovation diffuses
through.

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Are modern societies more active in adopting technology than traditional societies? Let us first
see the difference between traditional and modern norms.

According to Rogers traditional norms are characterized by:

A less developed or complex technology
Low levels of literacy and education
Little communication between the social system and outsiders
Lack of economic rationality
One-dimensional in adapting and viewing others

He also indicated that modern norms are characterized by:

A developed technology with complex jobs
Strong importance placed on education
Acceptance of free thought and new ideas
Strong preparation and high importance on economic considerations
Ability to see and understand other peoples situations

We have to be clear that it is not necessarily being traditional or modern that contribute to
adoption or rejection, or faster and slower in adoption of innovation. There are a number of
factors that hinder adoption processes.

The concept of innovation is relative. Something common to people in one region may be
unknown to those in another. This is unrelated to education or culture; a professor in physics
may be ignorant of rabbit breeding techniques. Or a highly skilled Ethiopian chef may be
unaware of the methods used to prepare food from temperate ingredients.

Most agricultural innovations are private goods because they benefit the farmers who adopt
them. An improved road is a common good because it benefits an entire community, although at
different levels: traders may move more quickly and safely, becoming the first ones to gain from
this change, but transaction costs might decrease, and the people living along the road may
benefit.

Classifications of change:
Individual innovations are innovations which require the decision of one person;
Collective innovations are innovations which demand the cooperation of more people, in
some cases the majority, in others the totality of the people involved.
Another classification considers the ―distance‖ between the present situation and the desired new
situation. Consequently it distinguishes the following three categories:
Continuous innovations, whenever the distance between the current practice and the
desired practice is minimal, and the individuals or the communities only have to make
small changes in their habits;
Semi-continuous innovations, when only a fraction of the present practice and knowledge
is applicable to the desired, future situation;
Discontinuous innovations, when radical change is required.
Another useful classification is between process and product innovations. The first refers to
changes introduced in the techniques for producing a given item. It can be in agriculture,

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manufacturing or in services; example a new plowing technique for avoiding soil erosion, a new
processing method for reducing water consumption in coffee-bean processing, a new simplified
procedure for facilitating small credit applications. Since most of these innovations are
continuous or semi-continuous, they do not include much risk and are relatively easy to propose.

The second category includes all the changes that occur when entirely new products are
introduced to people who were previously unaware of their existence; example, extension agents
propose that farmers grow a new vegetable which can attract a higher price, or new foods are
introduced to consumers. These modifications are more difficult and require a longer time and a
more labor-intensive approach to communicate.

A final classification distinguishes between soft and hard innovations; the first category includes
changes based on local resources and knowledge. In agriculture, this could mean animal
tracking, local varieties and breeds, the use of green manure, local processing, fair trade, etc. The
second category includes external inputs such as tractors, seeds, chemical products, etc. It is
important to emphasize that, from a communication point of view these two categories present
similar difficulties. Some soft technologies, such as solar energy or biological pest control, might
be even more difficult to explain and to teach than hard innovations, which are sometimes easier
to use.

Genesis of innovations
In the past, especially in agricultural projects, most innovations were conceived at public or
private research centers and were transmitted to producers via traditional top-down agricultural
extension services. This approach still prevails in the private sector, where input suppliers of
seeds, pesticides, fertilizers, machinery, etc. promote their products by an extensive array of
communication activities. To some extent, the same top-down approach exists in many
commodities, where contract farming covers an important role; the buyer of the commodity
imposes a given production technique on the producers, who are taught by advisors and are
constantly monitored.

In recent years, at least in some public research centers, a growing number of experts have begun
to question this approach, and more attention has been given to closer cooperation between
farmers, extension agents and scientists—which has consequently changed the type of
communication required.

Moreover, emphasis should be given to the role of farmer-to-farmer communication for

disseminating innovations which are developed by the producers. These so-called endogenous
innovations surely play an important role in many parts of the world, especially in low input
agriculture such as organic farming. If we consider the definition of innovation itself, i.e.
something that is perceived as new by a given person or community, it is evident that most
changes, either of a technical or socio-economic nature, are exogenous, coming from the
―outside‖. Even in Community Driven Development, which by definition should be based on
decisions made by the community, it is often necessary to introduce changes in production
techniques, in the social organization itself, and in the relationships between the community and
the surrounding social systems. All of these innovations are normally based on experiences from
elsewhere.

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Innovation packages
Changes rarely occur in isolation. Rather they are an integrated package of interdependent and
consequential modifications that should be adopted as a whole, if they are to achieve the best
possible results.

A simple example can be taken from conventional agriculture: An innovation might include a
combination of new plowing techniques, new high yield variety seeds, different seed density per
acre, new fertilizers distributed in a new manner, new pesticides distributed at different times,
new weed killers given with new machinery, and a new contract with an agro-food company.
Unfortunately, in most cases, stakeholders (from the national government to the individual
farmer) only partially adopt complex innovations, and consequently the results are less than
expected. This apparently illogical behavior is sometimes due to poor communication (the
combination of innovations was not properly explained), but, in most cases, it is due to other
causes such as politically unfeasible measures, input unavailability, a perception of unreasonably
high prices or difficult practices, lack of resources, poor enforcement of some legislation, etc.

Again, properly planned communication activities should include all relevant aspects. Follow up
should be properly planned in order to verify the full adoption of the entire package. It is
important to establish a two-way communication system in order to obtain information from the
stakeholders regarding the obstacles to full implementation and their suggestions for removing
them.

Innovation diffusion process

Research studies have clearly demonstrated the extensive delays that often occur between the
time farmers first hear about favorable innovations and the time they adopt them. Research
workers are very keen to find out what happens during this time. The following two models are
used to analyze the diffusion process.

Model one
1. Awareness: first hear about the innovation; the person begins to be aware that the present
situation is not good, or that there are some problems;
2. Interest: seek further information about it; the individual searches for more information about
the pros and cons of some feasible changes;
3. Evaluation: weigh up the advantage and disadvantage of using it; different hypotheses are
compared with the present situation
4. Trial: test the innovation on a small scale for yourself; the most promising option or options
are tested on a small scale;
5. Adoption: apply the innovation on a large scale in preference to old methods; if the person
finds that the trial was successful, the innovation is adopted.
The adoption process does not always follow this sequence in practice. Fore example it is not
feasible to test a new farm building on a small scale. Interest may precede awareness when a
farmer is looking for a method to control what for him is a new and unknown crop disease. The
final decision may not be always adoption as outlined in this stage. Rejection can also be one
possible option.

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Model two
1. Knowledge: individuals are exposed to an innovation and an initial idea that something might
change;
2. Persuasion: more information and experiences cause the individual to develop either a
positive or negative attitude about the innovation itself;
3. Decision: an individual decides whether and how to act. A decision could be to not adopt, or
to wait and watch the results obtained by somebody else;
4. Implementation: people decide to adopt the innovation, even on a small scale. Sometimes the
proposed change cannot be implemented as proposed and needs to be refined and modified; this
is the so called re-invention;
5. Confirmation: if the results are positive as expected, the innovation is definitively accepted,
but if the contrary happens, the innovation may be rejected.

9.2 Adopter categories (individual innovativeness)

It is understandable that not everyone adopts innovations at the same rate. Some people accept
new ideas years before others. If we plot the percentage of people who adopt innovations against
time we normally get an S-shaped curve.

The S-shaped curve shows the total percentage of those who have adopted the innovation at any
one point in time. The bell shaped curve shows the percentage of social members who adopt
innovation in a certain year. The combined results of many studies suggest that the bell shaped
curve usually has a nearly normal distribution.

Adopters

X-2sd X-1sd X X+1sd

[Link]

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People are often divided into five categories according to their score on an adoption index. It is
expressed in percentage. Classification of people in the adopter categories by definition depends
on the degree to which the whole group has adopted the innovation and on the distribution of
adoption overtime being normal.

Categories percentage

1. Innovators 2.5
2. Early adopters 13.5
3. Early majority 34
4. Late majority 34
5. Laggards 16

9.2.1 Characteristics of people in the different categories

The innovators include a small minority of people (about 2–3 percent of the population), who,
by education, economic situation and/or personal psychological attitude, are comfortable in
taking risks. They like to try new things and do not have a fear of failure, or their economic
situation is such that they can risk a partial loss of income. Innovators are normally more
advanced than the average local advisors or change agents. They introduce innovations into their
farms, households, and lifestyles even before institutions begin to consider such changes. The
communication behavior of innovators is quite open. They travel extensively, have direct
relationships with other innovators, read foreign journals, and participate in fairs and exhibits.
Because of their status and behavior, they can be somewhat isolated from the local community,
tend to have few social relationships, and are often viewed by community members as
extravagant;

The early adopters have more or less the same characteristics as the innovators: good education
and higher economic status. However they are more risk-adverse. They represent about 10–15
percent of the population and seek to emulate the innovators, but also desire the support of local
advisors. They hesitate before experimenting with an innovation, but they are open to change.
They have a good relationship with those around them in the community or workplace. To some
extent, they could be considered informal leaders, because they enjoy the respect of their peers,
and their behavior is taken as an example by the majority;

The majority, by definition, includes most of the people concerned with the proposed change.
They comprise almost two-thirds of the population and, by comparison, are even less willing to
take risks than the early adopters. The majority have a lower level of education, read less than
the previous categories, and participate less in meetings. They wait to see the results achieved by
the early adopters, want to be assured that almost no risk is involved in the proposed change, and
slowly adopt the new behavior;

Early majority
Deliberate before adopting new idea
Adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social system
Interact frequently with peers

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Rarely hold positions of opinion leadership

Provide interconnectedness in the system‘s interpersonal networks
Late majority
Approach innovation with caution and skepticism
Adopt new ideas just after the average member of a system
Adoption may be due to economic necessity or peer pressure
Unwillingness to risk scare resources
Uncertainty about innovation must be removed before adoption

The laggard are again a small minority of individuals, generally with limited or no formal
education, low income and few resources, sometimes old, poorly informed or entirely
uninformed, and economically extra-marginal. They fear change and have almost given up any
hope in the future. The laggards have contacts almost exclusively with people of the same group
and refuse to expose themselves to new ideas. This briefly outlined categorization, although
criticized by many scholars, has been proven valid in various situations, rural and urban alike, for
several different categories of innovations. Consequently, what are the implications for the
communication activities in a rural development project? First, not all people can be reached
with the same methods or media: laggards tend not to participate in events or to read printed
materials. Consequently, in some cases it has been suggested that most of the labor-intensive
activities (group methods and individual contacts) should concentrate on the early adopters,
using them as multipliers of the action. In other cases, special units have been set up with the
specific purpose of helping the so-called ―laggards‖, who are normally at risk of being ignored
entirely.

9.3 Perceived attributes of an innovation

An innovation always has two components- the hardware and software. This is clear in the case
of computer where the machine (hardware) is useless without the programme which instructs it
what to do (software). It is also true for a plant variety where we have the plants (equivalent to
the hardware) and the techniques for growing them (equivalent to software). It is possible that
the same software can be used for a new variety as for the old variety, but we often need new
techniques also for cultivation, fertilizer application, seeding rate etc. to ensure optimal
production by the new variety.

Farmers often play an important role in developing the right kind of software. Scientists who
develop new hardware in their research station should take into account the software which
might be available to farmers. However, they often fail to do so. Some innovations are adopted
more rapidly than others because the farmers perceive them to have different characteristics. It is
not the objective characteristics that are important, but how the farmers perceive them. What
really matter are the changes this innovation will require in management of the farm and
behavior of the farm family, and hence in software.

A number of studies have analyzed the relation between characteristics of an innovation and its
rate of adoption. They indicate that the following characteristics are important:

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1. Relative advantage: the more advantageous the change appears to be, the more will it be
adopted. The advantages, as well as the disadvantages, should be communicated clearly;
individuals and groups can then ponder costs and benefits and make up their minds, even before
beginning to participate in the process.

2. Compatibility: with socio-cultural values and beliefs, with previously introduced ideas or
with farmers felt needs. E.g. it is very difficult to introduce pig husbandry in Christian/Muslim
society even if it is very profitable enterprise.

3. Complexity: refers to the level of real or perceived difficulty of the innovation. It is related to
the concept of continuity or discontinuity seen above. For some people, a certain change could
be very difficult to understand or to manage, while others might find it easy. There are cultural,
generational and gender aspects that make the same innovation appear to be more or less
complex to different groups of stakeholders; innovation often fails because they are not
implemented correctly.

4. Trialability: a farmer will be more inclined to adopt an innovation which he tried first on a
small scale on his own farm and which he proved to work better than an innovation he has at
hand. This trialability may be related to ‗divisibility‘ as with fertilizers, for example. Although
large machines cannot be ‗divided‘, some-times they can be hired before they are purchased.

5. Observability: a crop variety planted in a field is observable than a bookkeeping or financial

management techniques.

Resistance to change
With few exceptions, most people do not like change. Innovations are often traumatic:
Farmers are skeptical about new varieties or new products, mayors do not like to impose local
taxes, public officers do not like to modify old, inefficient procedures. Several factors coincide
with this resistance to change, some of which can be prevented with proper communication
activities before and during project implementation.

Psychological factors are values and attitudes that may block behavioral change. For example,
some ranchers believe that agriculture is a lesser activity than animal breeding, or that the agro-
tourism business is beneath their dignity. Some hunters believe that killing endangered species is
a ―masculine‖ act, while some older people think they are too ignorant to learn new concepts and
simply refuse to open their minds to new information;

Situational factors are linked to the physical environment where the stakeholders operate: soil
types, size of land holdings, size of families, shortage of labor, unclear land tenure mechanisms,
complex social regulations, or distance from the processing plants or market, etc. These factors
are obstacles to people who would like to change and are aware of the positive consequences of
the innovations, but simply cannot adopt what is proposed by the project;

Institutional factors are external to the people and their personal situation; e.g. prices are too
low, credit rates are too high, conditions are too difficult to comply with, etc.

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Many of the limiting factors listed above can be identified as early as the project formulation
stage through opinion polls, expert consultations, or focus groups and they should be considered
in the project design. Strategic communication, with its attention to participation and
empowerment, not only limits the negative consequences of the psychological factors, but also
prevents the project from traveling down the wrong path. Participatory monitoring and
evaluation, another important aspect of communication for development, provides continuous
feedback for adapting the project to meet local challenges as they arise.

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