THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 4. FREE VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Any single d.o.f. linear vibratory system can be represented as one of the following
translational and rotational (torsional) systems

𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒𝑞 (𝑡) 𝐼𝑒𝑞 𝜃̈ + 𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑞 𝜃̇ + 𝑘𝑡𝑒𝑞 𝜃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑞 (𝑡)

In general

̃ 𝑥̈ + 𝑐̃ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘̃𝑥 = 𝐹̃ (𝑡)
𝑚

where either 𝑥 is a translational variable and 𝑚 ̃ , 𝑐̃ , 𝑘̃ and 𝐹̃ are 𝑚𝑒𝑞 , 𝑐𝑒𝑞 , 𝑘𝑒𝑞 and 𝐹𝑒𝑞 , or 𝑥 is a
rotational variable and 𝑚̃ , 𝑐̃ , 𝑘̃ and 𝐹̃ are 𝐼𝑒𝑞 , 𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑞 , 𝑘𝑡𝑒𝑞 and 𝑇𝑒𝑞 , respectively.

For free vibrations 𝐹̃ (𝑡) = 0 (no external forcing)

⇒ ̃ 𝑥̈ + 𝑐̃ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘̃𝑥 = 0
𝑚
In this case vibrations are initiated as a result of initial energy given to the system, which are
expressed in terms initial conditions. Since the ordinary differential equation is second order
we have the following two initial conditions.
I.C.: 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑣𝑜
Nonzero 𝑥(0) means initial PE and nonzero 𝑥̇ (0) means initial KE given.
The initial conditions for some problems can be specified by observation. On the other hand
for some problems determination of initial conditions require a static or dynamic analysis.

Example.
Consider the pendulum shown. Determine initial conditions for 𝜃, if moment 𝑀 is statically
applied and then removed.

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

At static equilibrium, the bar is subject to M and gravity.

𝐿
∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0 : −𝑚𝑔 2 sin 𝜃(0) − 𝑀 = 0
𝐿
For small motions −𝑚𝑔 2 𝜃(0) − 𝑀 = 0
2𝑀
⇒ 𝜃(0) = − 𝑚𝑔𝐿 , 𝜃̇ (0) = 0

Example.
In the system shown 𝑚1 drops from a distance ℎ on the block that has mass 𝑚 and sticks (i.e.
coefficient of restitution 𝑒 = 0). Then 𝑚1 and 𝑚 start vibrating together. Find initial
conditions on 𝑥 which is measured from the equilibrium position of the resulting system.

𝑚𝑔
∆1 = = static deflection of the spring at previous equilibrium position
𝑘
(𝑚1 +𝑚)𝑔
∆2 = = static deflection of the spring at new equilibrium position
𝑘

At the start of vibration (time, 𝑡 = 0), the combined mass (𝑚1 + 𝑚) is above its static
𝑚 𝑔
equilibrium position by ∆2 − ∆1. Therefore 𝑥(0) = −(∆2 − ∆1 ) = − 𝑘1 .
1
When mass 𝑚1 hits the block, its velocity is equal to 𝑣1 = √2𝑔ℎ . (This is because, 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 =
𝑚1 𝑔ℎ.) To find the initial velocity of (𝑚1 + 𝑚) due to the impact at 𝑡 = 0, consider the fact
that linear momentum of the system is conserved during impact.

∆𝐺 = 0 ⇒ 𝐺𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐺𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 ⇒ 𝑚1 √2𝑔ℎ = (𝑚1 + 𝑚)𝑥̇ (0)

𝑚1 √2𝑔ℎ
Therefore 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑚1 +𝑚

4.2 FREE VIBRATIONS OF UNDAMPED SINGLE D.O.F. SYSTEMS

Now we have the following motion equation

̃ 𝑥̈ + 𝑘̃𝑥 = 0 with I.C.: 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜

𝑚

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

where 𝑥 is the generalized coordinate measured from static equilibrium, the generalized mass
̃ is 𝑚𝑒𝑞 or 𝐼𝑒𝑞 and the generalized stiffness constant 𝑘̃ is either 𝑘𝑒𝑞 or 𝑘𝑡𝑒𝑞 .
𝑚

̃ > 0, and since we have positive restoring effect 𝑘̃ > 0.

In a mechanical system 𝑚
Exponential solution is assumed: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐵𝑒 𝛼𝑡
Substitution into the differential equation yields

̃
𝑘
̃ 𝛼 2 + 𝑘̃)𝐵𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0
(𝑚 ⇒ ̃ 𝛼 2 + 𝑘̃ = 0
𝑚 ⇒ 𝛼1,2 = ±𝑖 √𝑚̃

where 𝑖 = √−1 . Since two solutions are obtained for 𝛼, there are two solutions for 𝑥. Total
solution is summation of them,
̃
𝑘 ̃
𝑘
𝑖√̃ 𝑡 −𝑖√̃ 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 𝑚 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝑚

Using Euler’s equation: 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥(𝑡) is written as

̃
𝑘 ̃
𝑘
𝑥(𝑡) = (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 ) cos √𝑚̃ 𝑡 + (𝐵1 − 𝐵2 )𝑖 sin √𝑚̃ 𝑡

This means that the motion is composed of harmonic (sinusoidal) oscillations with frequency
̃
𝑘
of oscillations √𝑚̃ . Therefore 𝑥(𝑡) becomes

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

̃
𝑘
where 𝜔𝑛 = √𝑚̃ is the undamped natural frequency (rad/s) and 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are real constants.
Note that 𝜔𝑛 is a system property, it does not depend on initial conditions.
𝑥̇
Substituting initial conditions 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜 , we find 𝐶1 = 𝑥𝑜 and 𝐶2 = 𝜔𝑜 .
𝑛

𝑥̇
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑛

These two terms can be combined to give

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙)

where 𝐴 is the amplitude of the harmonic oscillation and 𝜙 is phase angle (indicates how
much 𝑥(𝑡) leads or lags a pure sine function). 𝐴 and 𝜙 can be found in terms of the initial
conditions as
𝑥̇
𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝐴 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑛

𝑥̇
⇒ 𝐴 sin 𝜙 = 𝑥𝑜 and 𝐴 cos 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑜
𝑛

Therefore

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥̇ 𝑜 2 𝑥̇ 𝑜
𝐴 = √𝑥𝑜2 + ( ) , 𝜙 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( , 𝑥𝑜 )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

sin 𝜙 𝑥𝑜
[𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛2 function: tan 𝜙 = cos 𝜙. Taking positive value of 𝐴, 𝜙 = tan−1 𝑥̇ gives two
𝑜 /𝜔𝑛
solutions (one solution is the one given by the calculator, the other is 180𝑜 + that angle). Then
looking at sign of sin 𝜙 (or sign of cos 𝜙), choose the correct solution.]

Plot of 𝑥(𝑡) versus time:

𝜔𝑛 is used for the frequency in rad/s.

𝜔𝑛
𝑓 denotes frequency in cycles per second, 𝑓 = cyc/s.
2𝜋
1 2𝜋
Period of one cycle, 𝑇 = 𝑓 = 𝜔 sec
𝑛

If 𝑥𝑜 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙=0 ⇒ 𝑥 is pure sine

𝜋
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙= ⇒ 𝑥 is pure cosine
2

Time elapsed from initial position to first equilibrium position:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ∗ + 𝜙) = 0 ⇒ 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ∗ + 𝜙 = 0, 𝜋
Take the smallest positive 𝑡 ∗ :
𝜋−𝜙
If 𝑥𝑜 > 0 then sin 𝜙 > 0, i.e. 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑡∗ = 𝜔𝑛

−𝜙
If 𝑥𝑜 < 0 then sin 𝜙 < 0, i.e. −𝜋 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑡∗ = 𝜔𝑛

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 THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

The differential equation can be written in standard form as

̃
𝑘
𝑥̈ + 𝑚̃ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥̈ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0

̃ and 𝑘̃ are not separately needed.

This means that if we know 𝜔𝑛 , we know the solution. 𝑚

PROBLEM:
A box full of eggs is dropped on a massless platform from a distance h. The box sticks to the
platform. The eggs are packed in such a manner that they crack if they are subject to an
acceleration larger than 1.5𝑔. 𝑚 = 4 kg and 𝑘 = 400 N/m.
a) Find the maximum value of ℎ for which the eggs don’t crack.
b) For that h, find the time that the box moves to the lowest position after it drops on the
platform.

Solution:
Vibration starts (𝑡 = 0) when the box hits and sticks on the platform. The velocity of the box
when it hits the platform is √2𝑔ℎ. Conservation of linear momentum during impact yields

𝐺𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐺𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 ⇒ 𝑚√2𝑔ℎ = 𝑚 𝑥̇ (0). Therefore 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜 = √2𝑔ℎ

∆ is static deflection of spring after the box sticks on the platform.

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
∆= . Therefore, initial position is 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 = −∆= − .
𝑘 𝑘

So initial conditions are

4(9.81)
𝑥𝑜 = − = −0.0981 m
400

𝑥̇ 𝑜 = √2𝑔ℎ (numerical value is not known because ℎ is unknown)

𝑘 400
a) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙) where 𝜔𝑛 = √𝑚 = √ = 10 rad/s
4

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 THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝜔𝑛 cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑥̈ (𝑡) = −𝐴𝜔𝑛2 sin(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑥̈ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔𝑛2 = 1.5𝑔

𝑥̇ 2 𝑥̇ 2
𝐴 = √𝑥𝑜2 + (𝜔𝑜 ) = √(0.0981)2 + 100
𝑜
𝑛

𝑥̇ 𝑜2 1.5𝑔 1.5(9.81)
√(0.0981)2 + = 2 = = 0.147
100 𝜔𝑛 100

𝑥̇ 𝑜2
(0.0981)2 + = 0.0216
100

𝑥̇ 𝑜 = 1.097 m/s = √2𝑔ℎ

ℎ = 0.06 m (This is maximum h where acceleration = 1.5𝑔)

b)

To find 𝑡 ∗ , set 𝑥(𝑡) = 0 ⇒ 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ∗ + 𝜙 = 0, 𝜋 (a)

𝑥̇
𝜙 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜔𝑜 , 𝑥𝑜 )
𝑛
−1 𝑥𝑜 −0.0981
tan = tan−1 = −41.8𝑜 , 138.2𝑜
𝑥̇ 𝑜 /𝜔𝑛 0.1097
𝑥𝑜
We know that sin 𝜙 = is negative (because 𝑥𝑜 is negative). Since sin(−41.8𝑜 ) is
𝐴
𝑜)
negative and sin(138.2 is positive, then the correct solution is 𝜙 = −41.8𝑜 = −0.73 rad

Choose smallest positive value for 𝑡 ∗ in equation (a):

0−𝜙 0.73
𝑡∗ = = = 0.073 sec
𝜔𝑛 10
2𝜋 6.28
𝑇=𝜔 = = 0.628 sec
𝑛 10
𝑇 0.628
𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠. = 𝑡 ∗ + 4 = 0.073 + = 0.230 sec
4

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

4.3 FREE VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE D.O.F. SYSTEMS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

̃ 𝑥̈ + 𝑐̃ 𝑥̇ + 𝑘̃𝑥 = 0
𝑚 with I.C.: 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜
𝑐̃ ̃
𝑘
𝑥̈ + 𝑚̃ 𝑥̇ + 𝑚̃ 𝑥 = 0

Assumed solution: 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐵𝑒 𝛼𝑡

Substitution into the differential equation yields
𝑐̃ ̃
𝑘 𝑐̃ ̃
𝑘
(𝛼 2 + 𝑚̃ 𝛼 + 𝑚̃) 𝐵𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 2 + 𝑚̃ 𝛼 + 𝑚̃ = 0 characteritic equation

𝑐̃ 𝑐̃ 2 ̃
𝑘
𝛼1,2 = − 2𝑚̃ ± √(2𝑚̃) − 𝑚̃ (a)

Total solution for 𝑥 is summation of the two solutions,

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝛼2 𝑡
̃ > 0, 𝑐̃ > 0 and at stable equilibrium 𝑘̃ > 0.
In a mechanical system 𝑚
Physical nature of the solution for 𝑥(𝑡) depends on whether the roots 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are real or
complex, i.e. whether the term in square root is plus or minus.

̃ and 𝑘̃, the value of 𝑐̃ which makes the term in square root zero is called critical
For given 𝑚
damping 𝑐̃𝑐 .
𝑐̃ 2 ̃
𝑘
𝑐
(2𝑚
̃
) − 𝑚̃ = 0 ⇒ 𝑐̃𝑐 = 2√𝑘̃𝑚
̃

Damping ratio 𝜉 is defined as the ratio of actual damping 𝑐̃ to critical damping 𝑐̃𝑐 :
𝑐̃ 𝑐̃
𝜉 = 𝑐̃ =
𝑐 ̃𝑚
2√𝑘 ̃

𝑐̃ ̃𝑚
2𝜉 √𝑘 ̃ ̃
𝑘
Substitute into equation (a) ( 2𝑚̃ = ̃
= 𝜉 √𝑚̃ = 𝜉𝜔𝑛 )
2𝑚

𝛼1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √𝜉 2 − 1
Standard form of differential equation becomes
𝑥̈ + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0
If 𝜉 < 1 : roots 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are complex conjugate (underdamped)
If 𝜉 = 1 : two equal negative real roots (critically damped)
If 𝜉 > 1 : two distinct real negative roots (overdamped)

Case 1: 𝝃 < 𝟏 (Underdamped Free Vibrations)

𝛼1,2 = 𝜔𝑛 (−𝜉 ± 𝑖√1 − 𝜉 2 ) : two complex conjugate roots with negative real part
2 2
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝛼2 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝐵1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑛√1−𝜉 𝑡 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑛√1−𝜉 𝑡 )

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 [𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 𝑡]

1
So motion is oscillatory. Due to the exponential decaying term, 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 the amplitude
of the oscillations decrease with time.

Frequency of oscillations: 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 (damped natural frequency)

𝜔𝑑 < 𝜔𝑛
𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
Apply I.C.s 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜 , to find 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 : 𝐶1 = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝐶2 = 𝜔𝑑

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
𝜔𝑑

Combining the two terms we obtain the alternative form

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )

𝐴 and 𝜙𝑑 can be found in terms of the initial conditions as

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (sin 𝜙𝑑 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + cos 𝜙𝑑 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
𝜔𝑑

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
⇒ 𝐴 sin 𝜙𝑑 = 𝑥𝑜 and 𝐴 cos 𝜙𝑑 = 𝜔𝑑

Therefore

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝐴 = √𝑥𝑜2 + ( ) 𝜙𝑑 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( , 𝑥𝑜 )
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑

Since −1 ≤ sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) ≤ 1 ⇒ x changes between

−𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 ≤ 𝑥(𝑡) ≤ 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (upper and lower envelopes)

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

Energy level, hence maximum deflection is continuously decreasing.

1 1
System energy at any instant: 𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑘̃𝑥 2 + 2 𝑚
̃ 𝑥̇ 2

Period of one cycle is

2𝜋
𝑇𝑑 = 𝜔 sec (damped period)
𝑑

Time elapsed from initial position to first equilibrium position:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) = 0 ⇒ sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) = 0

⇒ 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 = 0, 𝜋 (Take the smallest positive 𝑡.)
𝑇𝑑
Time elapsed from initial position to first min. or max. position (not plus time of first
4
equilibrium):

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 [𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) − 𝜉𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )] = 0

𝜔
⇒ 𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) − 𝜉𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) ⇒ tan(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) = 𝜉𝜔𝑑
𝑛

(Among the two solutions of inverse tangent take the one which gives smallest positive 𝑡.)

Energy Ratio Between Successive Cycles:

One measure of how fast the oscillations decay is the ratio of energies between successive
cycles.

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 [𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) − 𝜉𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )]

1 ̃ 2
𝑚 1 1
𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑘̃ (𝑥 2 + ̃
𝑥̇ ) = 2 𝑘̃ (𝑥 2 + 𝜔2 𝑥̇ 2 )
𝑘 𝑛

1
𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑘̃𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 [(1 + 𝜉 2 ) sin2(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) + (1 − 𝜉 2 ) cos 2 (𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) −
2𝜉√1 − 𝜉 2 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 ) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )]

9
THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

1
𝐸(𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) = 2 𝑘̃𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝜉𝜔𝑛(𝑡+𝑇𝑑 ) [(1 + 𝜉 2 ) sin2(𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 ) + (1 − 𝜉 2 ) cos 2 (𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 +
𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 ) − 2𝜉√1 − 𝜉 2 sin(𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 ) cos(𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 )]

Note that sin(𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 ) = sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 + 2𝜋) = sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )

cos(𝜔𝑑 (𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ) + 𝜙𝑑 ) = cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 + 2𝜋) = cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )
Therefore
4𝜋𝜉
2𝜋
𝐸(𝑡) 𝑒 −2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑡 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 √1−𝜉2
= = 𝑒 2𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑇𝑑 = 𝑒 𝜔𝑑
=𝑒
𝐸(𝑡+𝑇𝑑 ) 𝑒 −2𝜉𝜔𝑛 (𝑡+𝑇𝑑 )

4𝜋𝜉
𝐸(𝑡) √1−𝜉2
)
=𝑒 Energy ratio between successive cycles is constant and depends only on ξ.
𝐸(𝑡+𝑇𝑑

𝐸(0)
Example: Find for a) 𝜉 = 0.8, b) 𝜉 = 0.1
𝐸(𝑇𝑑 )
4𝜋𝜉
𝐸(0) √1−𝜉2
a) For 𝜉 = 0.8 : =𝑒 = 𝑒 16.755 = 18906000
𝐸(𝑇𝑑 )

1
This means that after one cycle 18906000 of initial energy is left. (0.0000053% is left)
𝐸(0) 1
b) For 𝜉 = 0.1 ∶ = 𝑒 1.26 = 3.536. So 3.54 of initial energy is left. (28.2% is left)
𝐸(𝑇𝑑 )

Ratio of energy at time 𝑡 to energy after 𝑛 cycles:

4𝜋𝜉 𝑛 4𝑛𝜋𝜉

𝐸(𝑡) 𝐸(𝑡) 𝐸(𝑡+𝑇𝑑 ) √1−𝜉2 √1−𝜉2

= ∙ ⋯ = (𝑒 ) =𝑒
𝐸(𝑡+𝑛𝑇𝑑 ) 𝐸(𝑡+𝑇𝑑 ) 𝐸(𝑡+2𝑇𝑑 )

Logarithmic Decrement:
𝑥(𝑡)
Another measure of how fast the oscillations decay in one cycle is the ratio 𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 ).
𝑑

Natural logarithm of this ratio is called logarithmic decrement, 𝛿.

𝑥(𝑡) 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡+𝜙𝑑 ) 2𝜋
𝛿 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 ) = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑒 𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑇𝑑 ) = 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝑑 = 𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝜔
𝑑 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛 (𝑡+𝑇𝑑 ) sin(𝜔 𝑑 (𝑡+𝑇𝑑 )+𝜙𝑑 ) 𝑑

2𝜋𝜉
𝛿=
√1−𝜉 2

In practical applications 𝛿 can be obtained by experiment. Then ξ of the system can be found
as
𝛿
𝜉 = √4𝜋2
+𝛿 2

If we consider 𝑛 cycles

10
THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 ) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 )

𝑙𝑛 𝑥(𝑡+𝑛𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 ) ∙ 𝑥(𝑡+2𝑇𝑑 ) ⋯ ) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥(𝑡+𝑇 ) + 𝑙𝑛 𝑥(𝑡+2𝑇𝑑 ) + ⋯ = 𝑛𝛿
𝑑) 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

1 𝑥(𝑡)
𝛿 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥(𝑡+𝑛𝑇
𝑑)

If we take 𝑡 as time of the peak at the 𝑚 th cycle, then for 𝑥(𝑡) we consider 𝑋𝑚 (amplitude at
𝑚 th cycle), and for 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇𝑑 ) we consider 𝑋𝑚+𝑛 (amplitude at (𝑚 + 𝑛)th cycle). This
yields
1 𝑋𝑚
𝛿 = 𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑋
𝑚+𝑛

Example:
Consider a damped single d.o.f. system. Amplitude of oscillations fall by 50% after 5
complete cycles, and period of oscillations is 1 second. Find ξ and 𝜔𝑛 .
1 𝑋 1 𝑋
𝛿 = 5 𝑙𝑛 𝑋1 = 5 𝑙𝑛 0.5𝑋
1
= 0.2 𝑙𝑛2 = 0.139
6 1

𝛿
𝜉 = √4𝜋2 = 0.022
+𝛿 2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇𝑑 = 𝜔 = ⇒ 1= ⇒ 𝜔𝑛 = 6.285 rad/s.
𝑑 𝜔𝑛 √1−𝜉 2 𝜔𝑛 √1−(0.022)2

PROBLEM.

𝑘 =1000 N/m , 𝑚 =16 kg , 𝑐 =30 Ns/m.

a) If the mass is displaced 37.5 mm from equilibrium, find the time for the mass to pass
through equilibrium position.
b) After how many cycles, more than 99% of initial energy is lost?
Solution:
𝑥𝑜 = 0.0375 m, 𝑥̇ 𝑜 = 0
𝑥̈ + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 )

𝑘 1000
𝜔𝑛 = √𝑚 = √ = 7.906 rad/s
16

𝑐 30
𝜉 = 2√𝑘𝑚 = 2√1000×16 = 0.1186

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 = 7.845 rad/s

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 THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 2
𝐴 = √𝑥𝑜2 + ( ) = 0.0378 m
𝜔𝑑

𝑥̇ 𝑜 +𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 𝑥 0.0375
𝜙𝑑 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( , 𝑥𝑜 ) tan−1 𝑥̇ 𝑜+𝜉𝜔𝑜 𝑛𝑥𝑜 = tan−1 0.0045 = 83.18𝑜 , 263.18𝑜
𝜔𝑑
𝜔𝑑

𝑥𝑜
Since sin𝜙𝑑 = is positive, we find 𝜙𝑑 = 83.18𝑜 = 1.452 rad
𝐴

To find the time for the mass to pass through equilibrium position
𝑥(𝑡) = 0 ⇒ sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 ∗ + 𝜙𝑑 ) = 0 ⇒ 7.845𝑡 ∗ + 1.452 = 0, 𝜋
𝜋−1.452
First positive 𝑡 ∗ is 𝑡 ∗ = = 0.215 sec
7.845
4𝜋𝜉

𝐸(𝑡) √1−𝜉2
b) )
=𝑒 = 4.486
𝐸(𝑡+𝑇𝑑

4𝑛𝜋𝜉
𝐸(𝑡) √1−𝜉2
=𝑒 = (4.486)𝑛
𝐸(𝑡+𝑛𝑇𝑑 )

𝐸(0) 100 2
= = (4.486)𝑛 ⇒ log 100 = 2 = 𝑛 log 4.486 ⇒ 𝑛 = 0.652 = 3.067
𝐸(𝑛𝑇𝑑 ) 1

The energy ratio equation is valid only for complete cycles. So we cannot say that after 3.067
cycles 99% of energy is lost. We can only say that after 4 cycles more than 99% energy is
lost.
1
After 3 cycles: (4.486)3 = 90.28 ⇒ × 100 = 1.11% of energy is left
90.28
⇒ 98.89% of energy is lost.
1
After 4 cycles: (4.486)4 = 404.98 ⇒ × 100 = 0.25% of energy is left
404.98
⇒ 99.75% of energy is lost.

Case 2: 𝝃 = 𝟏 (Critically Damped)

𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = −𝜔𝑛 two identical real negative roots
In this case, in addition to 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡𝑒 𝛼𝑡 also satisfies the differential equation.
So the total solution is
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑡)
Apply initial conditions 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜 : 𝑐1 = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑐2 = 𝑥̇ 𝑜 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑥𝑜 + (𝑥̇ 𝑜 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 )𝑡)
So the solution is not oscillatory, but an exponential decay.
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 [𝑥̇ 𝑜 − 𝜔𝑛 (𝑥̇ 𝑜 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 )𝑡]
To see maximum and minimum positions, set 𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 0

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑥̇ 𝑜
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 0 ⇒ 𝑡∗ = 𝜔
𝑛 𝑜 +𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 )
(𝑥̇

Hence there is only one minimum or maximum. One can find 𝑥max 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 by substituting 𝑡 ∗
into 𝑥(𝑡).

For 𝑥𝑜 > 0:
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 > 0 , 𝑥(𝑡) reaches a maximum at 𝑡 ∗ , then decays to zero.
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 = 0 , 𝑡 ∗ = 0.
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 < 0 , there are two subcases
if 0 > 𝑥̇ 𝑜 > −𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑡 ∗ is negative (no min or max, 𝑥(𝑡) continuously decays to zero
if 𝑥̇ 𝑜 < −𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥(𝑡) makes a minimum at 𝑡 ∗ , then decays to zero. In this case zero line
−𝑥
is cut at 𝑡 = 𝑥̇ +𝜔𝑜 𝑥
𝑜 𝑛 𝑜

For 𝑥𝑜 = 0:
1
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 > 0 , 𝑥(𝑡) reaches a maximum at 𝑡 ∗ = 𝜔 , then decays to zero.
𝑛

1
If 𝑥̇ 𝑜 < 0 , 𝑥(𝑡) reaches a minimum at 𝑡 ∗ = 𝜔 , then decays to zero.
𝑛

For 𝑥𝑜 < 0: the above figure is symmetric wrt t-axis.

Case 3: 𝝃 > 𝟏 (Overdamped)

𝛼1,2 = 𝜔𝑛 (−𝜉 ± √𝜉 2 − 1) : two distinct real negative roots

2 −1𝑡 2 −1𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝛼1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝛼2 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑐1 𝑒 𝜔𝑛√𝜉 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛√𝜉 )

Apply initial conditions 𝑥(0) = 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑥̇ (0) = 𝑥̇ 𝑜

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THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 𝑥̇ 2 −1𝑡 𝑥̇ 2 −1𝑡

𝑥(𝑡) = {[𝜔𝑜 + 𝑥𝑜 (𝜉 + √𝜉 2 − 1)] 𝑒 𝜔𝑛√𝜉 + [− 𝜔𝑜 + 𝑥𝑜 (−𝜉 + √𝜉 2 − 1)] 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛√𝜉 }
2√𝜉 2 −1 𝑛 𝑛

Response is similar to the critically damped case and again there is only one min or max,
which is at
𝑥̇ 𝑜 2
∗ 1 𝜉−√𝜉 2 −1 𝜔𝑛 +𝑥𝑜 (𝜉+√𝜉 −1)
𝑡 = − 𝑙𝑛 [ 𝑥̇ ]
2𝜔𝑛 √𝜉 2 −1 𝜉+√𝜉 2 −1 𝑜 +𝑥𝑜 (𝜉−√𝜉 2 −1)
𝜔𝑛

For 𝑥𝑜 > 0 :

Effects of Damping on Free Vibration:

Consider a single d.o.f. system. Given m, k and initial conditions, compare the response for
different case of damping. Let 𝑥𝑜 > 0 and 𝑥̇ 𝑜 > 0.

In general, larger damping slows the return to equilibrium. A critically damped system
approaches to eqyuilibrium position quicker than the overdamped case. In an underdamped
system equilibrium position is reached in short time but there are oscillations. So critically
damped case represents fastest return to equilibrium without oscillations.

14
 THEORY OF MACHINES II CHAPTER 4

PROBLEM:

Railroad car impacts the breaking system with velocity 𝑣𝑜 and remains coupled with it. Neglect mass
of braking system. Damping constant 𝑏 is so adjusted that the car returns to equilibrium fastest but
without oscillations.
a) Write equation of motion in terms of 𝑥. Roughly sketch 𝑥 versus 𝑡.
b) Find maximum displacement of spring after impact.
Solution:

Fastest response without oscillations: 𝜉 = 1.

Initial conditions: 𝑥𝑜 = 0, 𝑥̇ 𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜

a) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (𝑥𝑜 + (𝑥̇ 𝑜 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜 )𝑡) = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

b) To find 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 , set 𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 0

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑜 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 − 𝑣𝑜 𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (1 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑡) = 0
1
1 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔
𝑛

Substituting into 𝑥(𝑡):

1
1 −𝜔𝑛 1 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝜔 𝑒 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜 𝜔 = 0.368𝑣𝑜 √ 𝑘
𝑛 𝑛𝑒

15