Environment Class 01

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT CLASSES (09:09 AM)

 1. Module 1: Basics of Ecology
 2. Module 2: Biodiversity
 3. Module 3: Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, Land Degradation, etc.
 4. Module 4: Pollution and related issues
 5. Module 5: Sustainable Development
 Sources:
 Any Value Added Materials
 The Hindu
 Monthly Magazine
 Our Planet Documentary
 Down to Earth
 Annual Reports of MoEFCC and Down to Earth
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY (09:20 AM)
 Evolutionary Biology:
 Studies the diversity of life and its origins.
 Explores mechanisms of change and adaptation.
 Integrates genetics, ecology, and paleontology.
 Investigates how species evolve and diversify over time.
 Darwin's Idea:
 Proposed natural selection as a mechanism for evolution.
 Emphasized the importance of variation and adaptation.
 Argued for descent with modification.
 His work laid the foundation for modern evolutionary theory.
 Genetic Differences within Species:
 Variations exist due to genetic diversity.
 Arise from mutations, gene flow, and genetic drift.
 This can lead to phenotypic differences.
 Form the basis for natural selection and evolution.
 Natural Selection:
 A process where traits beneficial for survival are favored.
 Acts on heritable variations within populations.
 Leads to adaptation and evolutionary change.
 Results in the survival of the fittest individuals.
 Four Principles:
 Variation exists within populations.
 Some variations are heritable.
 More offspring are produced than can survive.
 Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
 Adaptation:
 Traits that enhance an organism's fitness.
 Result from natural selection.
 Allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their environment.
 Can be behavioral, physiological, or structural.
 Mutation:
 Source of genetic variation.
  Involves changes in DNA sequence.
 Can be caused by errors in replication or environmental factors.
 Provides raw material for evolution and adaptation.
 Ecology:
 It is a subject that aims to understand the relationship of living organisms with each
other and with their natural surroundings.
 This term was coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
 It is derived from two words, Eikos which means home, and Logos which means
study.
 Natural Environment encompasses all other and non-living things occurring
naturally.
 The components of the environment can be divided into:
 i. Lithosphere
 ii. Hydrosphere
 iii. Atmosphere
 iv. Biosphere
 The biosphere refers to all the regions of Earth where living organisms exist.
 Species are defined as genetically related organisms that can reproduce and have
fertile offspring.
 Impact of Humans on Evolution: Peppered moth evolution, Different Dog Breeds
ECOSYSTEM (10:19 AM)
 An ecosystem is a geographical area where plants, animals, and other organisms
(Biotic Factors), as well as landscape and weather (abiotic factors), work together
to form a bubble of life.
 Ecosystems can be small or large. The whole surface of the earth is a series of
connected ecosystems.
 Every factor in an ecosystem directly or indirectly depends upon other factors.
 Habitat: It is a physical environment in which an organism lives, each organism has
a particular set of requirements for its survival habitat provides those
requirements.
 Biotic and Abiotic Factors:
 We can divide biotics into three groups:
 Producers:
 The green plants manufacture food for the entire ecosystem through the process of
photosynthesis.
 Also called Autotrophs.
 Consumers: Also called heterotrophs.
 Decomposers:
 These are mostly bacteria and fungi that decompose dead organic matter and play
a very important role in the recycling of nutrients.
 They are called Saprotrophs.
 Even abiotic components can be grouped into three categories:
 Physical Factors:
 This includes Sunlight, Temperature, Rainfall, and Humidity.
 Inorganic Factors:
 Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, etc.
 Organic Compounds:
 This includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc.
LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS (11:06 AM)
 Individual - Population - Community - Ecosystem - Biome - Biosphere
 At the level of organism, we aim to understand how organisms are adapted to their
environment in terms of survival and reproduction.
 Abiotic conditions of Many habitats may drastically vary in time. Species cope with
these changes sing following mechanisms.
 1. Regulate:
 Many species have evolved to have a relatively constant internal environment such
as optimal temperature, and concentration of salts in the body.
 This is called Homeostasis. For example, mammals are capable of
thermoregulation in almost constant temperatures.
 2. Conforms
 The majority (99%) of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a constant
internal environment. Their body temperature changes with ambient temperature
or bodily fluid changes with the water concentration of surroundings.
 These species are called conformers.
 If the stressful conditions are localized, they remain only for a short duration.
 Organisms have two other alternatives:
 Migrate: They can temporarily move away from stressful habitat, to a more
hospitable area and return when the stressful period is over.
 Suspend: If unable to migrate, species can survive by skipping time.
 Hibernation- Some species go into winter sleep.
 Their metabolic speed reduces. Example: Bears in winter.
 Some snails and fish reduce their metabolic activity to avoid summer-related
stress.
 This is called Aestivation.
 Diapause: Under unfavorable conditions, many zooplankton in lakes and ponds
are known to enter diapause, a state of suspended development.
 Adaptation:
 It is an attribute of an organism that enables it to survive and reproduce. Many of
these adaptations have evolved over long evolutionary times and are genetically
fixed.
 We can further divide adaptation into three groups:
 1. Physiological adaptation:
 This refers to changes in organisms' internal functions which are not necessarily
visible.
 These changes occur at tissue, cell, and organ levels.
 2. Morphological adaptation:
 This involves changes in the physical form which are usually visible enabling an
organism to better survive.
 3. Behavioural Adaptation: Something an organism does in response to external
factors to survive.
EXAMPLES OF ADAPTATION- 1:20 PM
 1. Kangaroo rats in North American deserts are capable of meeting their water
requirements through the internal oxidation of fat.
 2. It also urinates in concentrated form to reduce water losses.
 3. Many other desert animals such as camels are nocturnal, have long legs can
survive at 45 degrees Celsius without sweating, and have massive ears.
  4. Many desert plants have thorns instead of leaves to reduce transpiration
extensive root systems to find moisture, and succulent stems to reduce water loss,
seeds can remain dormant for long until they get water.
 5. Many polar animals have dense fur, a blubber of fat below the skin, small limbs,
and ears (Alen's rule), but generally a large body size (Bergmann's rule).
 Ears and limbs are small because of less surface area thus less heat loss similarly
body size is large because compared to the volume of large animals surface area is
less.
 Accimilitization- Process in which an individual animal adjusts to a change in its
environment such as attitude, temperature, etc.
POPULATION ECOLOGY- 1:39 PM
 A population is a group of organisms belonging to the same species that live in the
same area and interact with one another.
 In population, we study how and why population changes over time and
population distribution over others.
 Population growth -
 There are two models of population growth-
 1. Exponential growth - If there are unlimited resources in a habitat then there can
be unimpeded growth of population in a very short time enormous population
number will emerge.
 2. Logistic growth- No population has unlimited resources at its disposal and
species compete for resources because of this a given habitat has enough resources
to support the maximum possible number for a particular species.
 This is called the carrying capacity for that species in that habitat.
 All the factors that control the population size are called limiting factors.
 For example- Availablity of food water, essential nutrients etc.
R vs K selection-
 R-selected species have a high growth rate but low survivability.
 This reproductive strategy often occurs in unstable environments, the offspring
require little parental care.
 K-selected species- have a low growth rate but high survivability, this strategy pre-
dominates in stable environments.
 There are few offspring, more parental care, and thus low mortality.
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY- 2:20 PM
 Community is all of the population of different species that live in the same area
and interact with one another.
 The study of community ecology is called synecology.
 In this, we can study the interaction among species, and the composition of the
community among others.
 In contrast, the study of individuals and populations is called Aut ecology.
 In this, we study the habitat requirement of species, and population dynamics
among others.
 Ecological niche-
 It can be defined as sum total of all the ecological requisites and activities of a
species, it encompasses both the physical and environmental process it requires
and the interactions it has with other species.
 Niche requirements can be further divided into -
 1. Habitat niche- Where it lives, food niche
  2. Reproductive niche
 3. Physical and chemical niche
 Competitive exclusion principle-
Gauss's Law-
 Two species can't co-exist if they occupy exactly the same niche.
 Two species whose niche overall may evolve by natural selection to have distinct
niches resulting in resource partitioning.
 For example, when Darwin studied Galapalgo finches he found there are
differences in their morphology and behaviors.
 He concluded that when similar species are in habit in the same area natural
selection may favor divergence in characteristics for better resource partitioning.
 This revolutionary change is called character displacement.
BIOTIC INTERACTION- 2:54 PM
 Mutualism-
 Example- Bees and flowers- Plants need the help of pollinators such as Bees in
pollination, these are rewarded with nectar.
 Lichens - They represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and photosynthesis algae.
 Mycorrhizae association between fungi and roots of some plants.
 Fungi help in the absorption of nutrients, plants provide them with carbohydrates.
 Legume crops- Rhizobium bacteria, Coral and Zoothanzalee.
Commensalism-
 Example- Remora and shark, whales and barnacles.
 Epiphytes- Small plants living on the surface of larger trees for sunlight and
shelter.
 These are most commonly found in tropical rainforests.
Predation-
 In this interaction predator captures, kills, and eats prey in a large ecological
context.
 Herbivores are not very different from predators.
 Predation is very important in an ecosystem because -
 1. They help in maintaining species diversity by reducing the intensity of
competition among prey species.
 2. A Predator can also help in controlling the spread of diseases.
 In the absence of natural predators, some alien species can become invasive.
 Prey species have evolved various defences to lessen the impact of predation, often
predators and prey can co-evolve.
 If a predator is too efficient and over-exploits its prey, then the prey might become
extinct following it so does the predator.
 Predators in nature are prudent because of this reason.
OTHER INTERACTIONS- 3:31 PM
 Parasitism-
 Parasites are usually small-sized animals living in endoparasites or living on
ectoparasites on another living species which is called the host.
 Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific, some parasites have complex life
cycles, and they can depend upon one or two intermediate hosts before infecting
the primary host.
  Examples are flees and Ticks on animals, Tapeworms in vertebrates, and Mistletoe
a parasitic plant that is attached to tree branches, they penetrate the branches to
draw water and nutrients from the host tree.
 Brood parasitism- A bird laying eggs in the nest of other birds.
Amensalism-
 Examples- Large animals crumble in their path as they move - elephants in
Savannah grasslands, shaded by large plants
 Large trees inhibit the growth of smaller plants by absorbing most of the sunlight.
 Penicillium mold is a fungi that secretes an enzyme called Penicillium which
inhibits the growth of bacteria.
 Allelopathy- Some plants secrete chemicals in the surroundings inhibiting the
growth of other plants- Black walnut
 Competition- Both species are harmed to some extent.
 Neutralism- True neutralism may be an ideal scenario.
 Symbiosis is a broader term that encompasses intimate association between
organisms but such association can be mutualistic, commensalistic or even
parasitic.
ECOTONE (09:18 AM)
 An ecotone is a transition area between two different ecosystems.
 It's where the edges of two adjacent ecosystems overlap and integrate.
 These areas often exhibit high diversity and unique species composition. It is called
as edge effect.
ECOLINE
 It represents a gradual continuous change in plants along an environmental
gradient.
 Thus ecotone represents a transition area that can be properly demarcated.
 Ecoline represents a continuous change where marking a boundary is difficult.
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM (09:30 AM)
 Primary Production
 Energy flow through the food chain/web
 Nutrient cycle
 Ecological Succession
 Homeostasis of Ecosystem
 Ecosystem Services
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
 It is the storage of energy through the formation of organic matter from inorganic
compounds.
 It is done by autotrophic organisms.
 Gross Primary Productivity:
 It is defined for an ecosystem as the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.
 It is measured in Kg m-2 yr-1
 Productivity depends on the availability of water, and sunlight.
 Plants use 400-700nm wavelength of light for photosynthesis.
 This is photosynthetically active radiation.
 A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.
 Net Primary Productivity is defined as gross primary productivity minus
respiration losses.
  This is the available biomass for the consumption of heterotrophs.
 Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter
by consumers.
CHEMOSYNTHESIS (10:00 AM)
 Certain microbes can produce energy-rich molecules from chemicals present in
their environment typically in the absence of sunlight.
 Deep-sea bacteria use Hydrogen Sulphide that rises from deep-sea hydrothermal
vents.
 Hydrothermal vents are the result of sea water percolating down in the ocean crust.
 The cold seawater is heated by hot magma and re-emerges to form this vent.
 Chemosynthesis can also occur in cave ecosystems.
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH FOOD CHAIN/WEB
 The transfer of food energy from producers/plants through a series of organisms,
that consume and are consumed is termed as food chain.
 It shows a movement of energy by indicating the path of food from producer to
final consumer.
 Based on the source of nutrition, organisms occupy a specific place in the food
chain, which is known as the Trophic Level.
 Within any ecosystem, there are two major food chains.
 a. Grazing Food Chain
 b. Detritus Food Chain
 The distinction between these two is the source of energy for primary consumers.
 In the grazing food chain, it is plant biomass. In the detritus food chain, it is dead
organic matter.
 The detritus food chain includes detrivores and decomposers.
 Detrivores are organisms that consume Detritus by breaking it into smaller pieces.
 E.g. Earthworm, Millipeds, Woodlice, etc.
 Bacteria and fungi decompose at the molecular level into simple inorganic
molecules.
 Note: In aquatic ecosystems, the grazing food chain is a major conduit for
energy flow, and in terrestrial ecosystems, the detritus food chain is a major
conduit for energy flow.
 Ecological Efficiency:
 It represents the percentage of energy in the biomass produced by one trophic level
that is incorporated into the biomass produced by the next higher trophic level.
 On average, this efficiency is about 10 percent. This is called Lindeman's rule.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID (10:37 AM)
 Ecological pyramids are graphic representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem.
 The producer makes the base of the pyramid and subsequent tiers represent
herbivores, carnivores, and top carnivores.
 We can draw three types of pyramids:
 i. Pyramid of Number
 This represents several organisms at each trophic level. Generally, this pyramid is
upright but in some cases, it can be inverted.
 There can be inverted pyramids. E.g. Big tree as an ecosystem. We can see many
insects and parasites.
 ii. Pyramid of Biomass
 This represents biomass at each level.
  It is measured in kg m-2.
 In most terrestrial ecosystems, it is upright, in an aquatic ecosystem it is inverted.
 iii. Pyramid of Energy
 It represents the total amount of energy at each level.
 The energy pyramids are never inverted.
BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION (11:07 AM)
 Bioaccumulation occurs when pollutants build up in a single organism's body over
time.
 E.g. Mercury Poisoning in Fish.
 Biomagnification occurs when the concentration of toxins increases as these toxins
are passed up the food chain.
 E.g. Poly-Chlorinated biphenyl can be observed by phytoplankton, zooplankton
eats large quantities of phytoplankton, and fish eats large quantities of
zooplankton, thus the concentration of PCB further increases up the food chain.
 For biomagnification to occur, pollutants should be long-lived, and soluble in fat,
mobile, and biologically active.
NUTRIENT CYCLING (11:29 AM)
 Gaseous Cycle: Water, Carbon and Nitrogen
 Sedimentary Cycle: Phosphorus and Sulfur
CARBON CYCLE
 Carbon is a vital component of life.
 It is found in all organic molecules.
 The atmosphere contains a significant amount of carbon in the form of CO2 and
CH4.
 Plants and animals store carbon in their tissues.
 Dead organic matter and soil also hold significant amounts of carbon.
 Oceans absorb atmospheric CO2. Marine organisms utilize carbon to build shells.
 Carbon is also stored in the earth's crust as fossil fuel and sedimentary rock layers
such as limestone.
 Processes in the carbon cycle:
 1. Photosynthesis
 2. Respiration
 3. Decomposition: It releases CO2 in the air. In the absence of oxygen, organic
matter decomposes into methane.
 4. Burning of organic matter or fossil fuels such as coal petroleum natural gas
releases CO2 in the atmosphere.
 Fossil fuel burning is the biggest reason for the recent build-up of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
 5. Ocean uptake and release:
 Oceans constantly absorb CO2 and release it slowly.
 All the places where carbon is stored are called carbon sinks.
 The process by which carbon is stored is called carbon sequestration.
 Marine organisms dissolve CO2 to form limestone shells, when these organisms die,
shells accumulate on the sea floor forming carbon-rich sedimentary rocks.
Environment Class 02
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS- 1:11 PM
EXAMPLES OF ADAPTATION- 1:20 PM
  1. Kangaroo rats in North American deserts are capable of meeting their water
requirements through the internal oxidation of fat.
 2. It also urinates in concentrated form to reduce water losses.
 3. Many other desert animals such as camels are nocturnal, have long legs can
survive at 45 degrees Celsius without sweating, and have massive ears.
 4. Many desert plants have thorns instead of leaves to reduce transpiration
extensive root systems to find moisture, and succulent stems to reduce water loss,
seeds can remain dormant for long until they get water.
 5. Many polar animals have dense fur, a blubber of fat below the skin, small limbs,
and ears (Alen's rule), but generally a large body size (Bergmann's rule).
 Ears and limbs are small because of less surface area thus less heat loss similarly
body size is large because compared to the volume of large animals surface area is
less.
 Accimilitization- Process in which an individual animal adjusts to a change in its
environment such as attitude, temperature, etc.
POPULATION ECOLOGY- 1:39 PM
 A population is a group of organisms belonging to the same species that live in the
same area and interact with one another.
 In population, we study how and why population changes over time and
population distribution over others.
 Population growth -
 There are two models of population growth-
 1. Exponential growth - If there are unlimited resources in a habitat then there can
be unimpeded growth of population in a very short time enormous population
number will emerge.
 2. Logistic growth- No population has unlimited resources at its disposal and
species compete for resources because of this a given habitat has enough resources
to support the maximum possible number for a particular species.
 This is called the carrying capacity for that species in that habitat.
 All the factors that control the population size are called limiting factors.
 For example- Availablity of food water, essential nutrients etc.
R vs K selection-
 R-selected species have a high growth rate but low survivability.
 This reproductive strategy often occurs in unstable environments, the offspring
require little parental care.
 K-selected species- have a low growth rate but high survivability, this strategy pre-
dominates in stable environments.
 There are few offspring, more parental care, and thus low mortality.
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY- 2:20 PM
 Community is all of the population of different species that live in the same area
and interact with one another.
 The study of community ecology is called synecology.
 In this, we can study the interaction among species, and the composition of the
community among others.
 In contrast, the study of individuals and populations is called Aut ecology.
 In this, we study the habitat requirement of species, and population dynamics
among others.
 Ecological niche-
  It can be defined as sum total of all the ecological requisites and activities of a
species, it encompasses both the physical and environmental process it requires
and the interactions it has with other species.
 Niche requirements can be further divided into -
 1. Habitat niche- Where it lives, food niche
 2. Reproductive niche
 3. Physical and chemical niche
 Competitive exclusion principle-
Gauss's Law-
 Two species can't co-exist if they occupy exactly the same niche.
 Two species whose niche overall may evolve by natural selection to have distinct
niches resulting in resource partitioning.
 For example, when Darwin studied Galapalgo finches he found there are
differences in their morphology and behaviors.
 He concluded that when similar species are in habit in the same area natural
selection may favor divergence in characteristics for better resource partitioning.
 This revolutionary change is called character displacement.
BIOTIC INTERACTION- 2:54 PM
 Mutualism-
 Example- Bees and flowers- Plants need the help of pollinators such as Bees in
pollination, these are rewarded with nectar.
 Lichens - They represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and photosynthesis algae.
 Mycorrhizae association between fungi and roots of some plants.
 Fungi help in the absorption of nutrients, plants provide them with carbohydrates.
 Legume crops- Rhizobium bacteria, Coral and Zoothanzalee.
Commensalism-
 Example- Remora and shark, whales and barnacles.
 Epiphytes- Small plants living on the surface of larger trees for sunlight and
shelter.
 These are most commonly found in tropical rainforests.
Predation-
 In this interaction predator captures, kills, and eats prey in a large ecological
context.
 Herbivores are not very different from predators.
 Predation is very important in an ecosystem because -
 1. They help in maintaining species diversity by reducing the intensity of
competition among prey species.
 2. A Predator can also help in controlling the spread of diseases.
 In the absence of natural predators, some alien species can become invasive.
 Prey species have evolved various defences to lessen the impact of predation, often
predators and prey can co-evolve.
 If a predator is too efficient and over-exploits its prey, then the prey might become
extinct following it so does the predator.
 Predators in nature are prudent because of this reason.
OTHER INTERACTIONS- 3:31 PM
 Parasitism-
  Parasites are usually small-sized animals living in endoparasites or living on
ectoparasites on another living species which is called the host.
 Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific, some parasites have complex life
cycles, and they can depend upon one or two intermediate hosts before infecting
the primary host.
 Examples are flees and Ticks on animals, Tapeworms in vertebrates, and Mistletoe
a parasitic plant that is attached to tree branches, they penetrate the branches to
draw water and nutrients from the host tree.
 Brood parasitism- A bird laying eggs in the nest of other birds.
Amensalism-
 Examples- Large animals crumble in their path as they move - elephants in
Savannah grasslands, shaded by large plants
 Large trees inhibit the growth of smaller plants by absorbing most of the sunlight.
 Penicillium mold is a fungi that secretes an enzyme called Penicillium which
inhibits the growth of bacteria.
 Allelopathy- Some plants secrete chemicals in the surroundings inhibiting the
growth of other plants- Black walnut
 Competition- Both species are harmed to some extent.
 Neutralism- True neutralism may be an ideal scenario.
 Symbiosis is a broader term that encompasses intimate association between
organisms b
Environment Class 04
NITROGEN CYCLE (01:06 PM)
 Nitrogen is a vital component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids in living
organisms.
 It is present in the atmosphere, and most organisms cannot use it directly.
 The nitrogen cycle involves several steps that transform nitrogen into various
forms.
 The major stages are:
 1. Nitrogen Fixation
 It includes the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium.
 There are three ways fixation can occur:
 a. Atmospheric Fixation: Lightning, Combustion, Volcanic Activity
 b. Bacterial Fixation:
 This includes:
 i. This includes symbiotic bacteria: Rhizobium in the root nodules of certain plants
can fix nitrogen.
 These plants are called leguminous plants. Examples: Beans, Chickpeas, Alfalfa,
etc.
 ii. These bacteria do not directly depend upon other living organisms.
 E.g. Azotobacter, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), Nostoc, etc.
 c. Industrial Fixation
 2. Nitrification:
 Conversion of Ammonia to Nitrite and then to Nitrate.
 This also occurs because microorganisms from Ammonia to Nitrite bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas, and nitrosococcus are involved and from nitrite to nitrate through
nitrobacter is involved.
  3. Assimilation
 Plants absorb nitrate and ammonium from the soil and use them to create amino
acids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 This involves plants directly. From plants, these nitrogen-based organic molecules
are passed on to other trophic levels.
 4. Ammonification:
 Decomposition of Organic nitrogen from dead organisms and waste products in
ammonia and uric acids.
 This is because of decomposers such as bacteria and fungi
 5. Denitrification:
 Conversion of nitrate and nitrite into gaseous nitrogen or nitrous oxide which is
released into the atmosphere.
 Anaerobic bacterias such as pseudomonas and bacillus.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE (01:41 PM)
 It is found in ATP, DNA-RNA, and phospholipids that form all cellular membranes.
 It is often the limiting nutrient, particularly in aquatic ecosystems because of
phosphorus scarcity and primary productivity in deep water bodies.
 This cycle does not include significant atmospheric components, given
that phosphorous and phosphorous-based molecules are usually solids at
typical room temperature and pressure.
 The major stages are :
 The weathering Process causes rocks to release phosphate ions and other
minerals.
 Plants convert inorganic phosphate into organic molecules and it is passed on to
higher trophic levels.
 Decomposition: When plants and animals bacteria and fungi break releasing
phosphorous back into the soil.
 Sedimentation: some of the phosphorus-based compounds can accumulate in
water and settle and get deposited as sediment at the bottom.
 Some of the phosphorus in water can settle and can lead to forming new
phosphate rocks.
 Geological uplift: Earth's geological forces can uplift the rocks from the land.
 This process is slow and the average phosphate ion can remain in the ocean
for 20k-30k years.
EUTROPHICATION
 It is the process whereby water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and coastal oceans,
receive excess nutrients.
 Primarily nitrogen and phosphorous leading to excessive algal growth.
 This begins when an external source introduces excess nutrients.
 Main sources include agricultural runoff and wastewater discharge.
 After rapid growth and bloom the algae eventually died and sank to the bottom
decomposing as bacteria and fungi started to break this organic matter.
 This process consumes dissolved oxygen in the water, reduction in dissolved
oxygen can cause the death of other aquatic organisms.
 Such regions are called dead zones.
SULFUR CYCLE (02:06 PM)
 It is essential in the synthesis of some amino acids and vitamins.
 The sulfur cycle has lithospheric and atmospheric phases.
  The major stages are:
 Release from sediments that are buried deep in the earth.
 This release can occur due to geological uplift or volcanic eruption.
 H2S (Hydrogen sulfide) and SO2
 H2S can be released because of volcanoes and geothermal activities.
 H2S quickly oxidizes into the atmosphere to form sulfur dioxide which can further
oxidize to form sulphate.
 This can combine with water vapor and form sulphuric acid which gets deposited
on the surface with rainfall.
 Lands take up sulfate from the soil or water and make organic molecules.
 Decomposition of organic matter by bacteria and fungi.
 This can release H2S.
 Return to sediments
 Acid rain:
 Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur can contribute to acid rains which adversely affect
plants, aquatic organisms, and heritage structures.
 The biggest anthropogenic source for these oxides is the burning of fossil fuels coal
petroleum, and natural gas.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION (02:27 PM)
 It is the process by which the composition and structure of communities constantly
change in response to changing environmental conditions.
 Initially, pioneer species colonize an area even when there is no soil like lichens
and mosses.
 These species break down rocks creating the first bit of soil, and small plants can
grow now.
 These small plans are succeeded by bigger plants and after several more stages, a
stable climax Forest community or grassland community is formed.
 The individual transitional communities are called serial communities
 Primary succession
 It begins in an area with no life where there is no soil, newly formed volcanic islands
areas exposed by retreating glaciers.
 Secondary succession occurs in an area that lost all living organisms that existed
there burnt forest flooded lands.
 The climax community may be similar in both primary and secondary succession.
 However, secondary succession is much faster because some soil is already
present.
AUTOGENIC AND ALLOGENIC SUCCESSION (03:04 PM)
 changes in the community structure brought about by the biological activities of
species themselves is called autogenic succession.
 This can include altering the pH value of soil, organic matter in the soil, and water-
holding capacity among others.
 changes driven by abiotic environmental factors is called allogenic succession
 for example: river sediment deposition
 Hydrarch and Xerarch succession
 Hydrarch succession begins in water-locked areas.
 The initial stages might involve species like phytoplanktons but in the final stage
climax community may be a forest.
  Xerarch succession starts in dry areas and eventually can lead to a climax
community of forest or grassland.
 Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
 This hypothesis predicts that the greatest diversity occurs at a moderate level of
disturbance.
 High levels of disturbance will wipe out most of the species. Very low levels of
disturbance will lead to superior competitors driving other species to extinction.
HOMEOSTASIS (03:23 PM)
 Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state of equilibrium.
 They can regulate their species' structure and functional processes
 This capacity of self-regulation is called homeostasis.
 In a homeostatic system, a negative feedback mechanism is responsible for
maintaining stability
 However, the homeostatic capacity of the ecosystem is not unlimited and not
everything is always well-regulated.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (03:39 PM)
 these are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems
 These benefits are grouped into four categories
 Provisioning services: products obtained from ecosystem food freshwater timber
medicinal resources
 Regulating services: Benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem
processes
 Temp regulation water regulation water purification, carbon sequestration
 Supporting services necessary for the production of all others from the ecosystem.
 Nutrient cycling
 Primary production
 Cultural services
 Non-material benefits from the ecosystem such as eco-tourism, spiritual and
religious values cultural heritage among others.
Environment Class 05
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (9:07 AM)
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM (9:09 AM)
 Natural and manmade.
 Terrestrial and Aquatic.
 Terrestrial ecosystem:
 Forests.
 Grasslands
 Mountains.
 Aquatic Ecosystem:
 Freshwater Ecosystems such as lotic and lentic.
 Saline water ecosystem.
 Brackish water.
 Wetland Ecosystem:
 Wetlands are ecosystems saturated with water either seasonally or permanently.
 They are characterized by the presence of standing water, saturated soil, and
vegetation adapted to such conditions.
 Many of the wetlands are ecotones where terrestrial and aquatic habitats meet.
  They can be divided into general categories coastal(tidal)wetlands and non-tidal
wetlands.
 Based on various characteristics they can be divided into:
 Marshes- Grassy areas, do not usually contain many trees.
 Swamps- Wetlands with the presence of woody plants and trees.
 Bogs- Known for acidic peaty soil. They accumulate peat a deposit of dead plant
material.
 Many bogs are dominated by sphagnum mosses.
 Fens-They are similar to bogs but are fed by groundwater.
 Peatland- These are terrestrial wetland ecosystems in which waterlogged
conditions prevent plant material from fully decomposing which results in a net
accumulation of peat.
 Significance of wetlands:
 They provide habitats for a vast range of plant and animal species, many of which
are rare and endangered and known for very high biodiversity
 Source of food. The well-managed rice-paddy system, fish, mollusks, crustaceans.
 They act as nature's water filter removing pollutants, sediments, and harmful
nutrients from water.
 They act as sponges absorbing excess rainfall and reducing flood peaks.
 Coastal wetlands such as mangroves reduce the impact of storm surges and
prevent coastal erosion.
 Wetlands store vast amounts of carbon and play a role in climate change
mitigation.
 They offer recreational opportunities like fishing boating and bird watching.
 Many wetlands are threatened because of:
 Drained to create agricultural lands.
 Land reclamation for urban expansion.
 Discharge of industrial, and agricultural pollutants.
 Overfishing.
 Water divergence projects such as Dams.
 Climate Change:- Rising Sea levels can inundate coastal wetlands.
RAMSAR CONVENTION (9:49 AM)
 Ramsar convention 1971:
 It uses a broad definition of wetlands which includes all lakes, rivers, underground
aquifers, swamps, marshes peatlands, Estuary, mangroves, Coral reefs, and also
human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddy, and reservoirs.
 The convention has three pillars:
 Work towards wise use of all wetlands.
 Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of international importance.
Also known as Ramsar sites.
 Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands.
 It's not a legally binding convention.
 India is a member of it.
 Wise use can be defined as the maintenance of the ecological character of wetlands
achieved through ecosystem approaches within the context of sustainable
development
 Convention also maintains the Montreux record a register of Ramsar sites where
changes in ecological character have occurred or occurring or are likely to occur as
a result of human interference.
 In India as of now there are 80 Ramsar sites, 2 sites are in Monteux Records
Keoladeo National Park aka Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, Loktak Lake Manipur.
 Chilka Lake of Odisha was part of the record but later removed.
 Fact about peatland:
 Peatlands cover only 3 % of global land surface but they store twice the carbon as
in all of the world’s tropical forests.
 The largest peatland is found in the Congo basin.
 The United Nations environment program has a dedicated mechanism called
the Brazzaville Declaration for better management of this peatland.
 The government of India started a national wetland conservation program in 1986
to designate wetlands and work for their conservation.
 As of now there is a legislative framework for wetland conservation and
management rules 2017 under Environment Protection Act 1986.
 The rules apply to all the wetlands notified by the central government, state
government, UTs, and Ramsar sites except:
 River channels, paddy fields
 Human-made construction for drinking purposes
 Salt production
 Aquaculture
 Irrigation
 Recreation
 Wetlands covered under Indian forest in 1927, Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Coastal
Regulation Zone notification
 Under the rules national wetland committee has been set up under the Ministry of
Environment Forest and Climate Change and state wetland authorities have been
constituted.
 Q. What is wetland? Explain Ramsar's concept of wise use in the context of
wetland conservation. Site two examples of Ramsar sites in India ( 2018 UPSC)
 Q. Comment on the National wetland conservation program initiated by the
government of India and name a few wetlands of international importance
included in the Ramsar sites. ( 150 words /10 Marks)
MANGROVE FORESTS (10:52 AM)
 Mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal, saline, or brackish water. They are
called halophytes.
 They are typically found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas along coastlines.
 They thrive at the interface between land and Sea.
 They are greatly influenced by tides.
 They bring nutrients and help in the disbursal of propagules (seedlings).
 Despite such tough conditions mangrove trees have adapted to these conditions
 Some of the adaptation mechanisms are:
 Prop roots- They give support in the soft mud and allow the plant to combat
erosion
 Pnuetophores- These are specialized root structures that stick up out of the soil
like snorkels and help in gas exchange because water-logged conditions restrict
water availability.
  Salt secretion- Some mangroves have dedicated glands that can excrete excess
salt through their leaves.
 Viviparity- rather than producing dormant resting seeds like most flowering plants
many mangroves have viviparous seeds, they start to germinate while still attached
to their parent.
 Mangroves help in coastal protection from erosion, storm surges, cyclones, and
carbon sequestration.
 High biodiversity.
 Food security for local people
 Etc
 Mangroves are threatened because of deforestation, pollution such as oil spills,
plastic waste, toxic chemical discharge, overfishing, urban development, and
climate change.
 In India largest mangrove forest in the world Sundarbans is located in West Bengal.
 2nd largest mangrove forest in India is Bhitarkanika.
 Gujarat, A& N also have large mangrove cover.
CORAL AND CORAL REEFS (11:13 AM)
 Corals are marine invertebrates of the phylum Cnidaria.
 They are small animals like polyps and typically form compact colonies of many
identical individual polyps.
 Each polyp has a soft body topped by a mouth with tentacles to protect soft bodies.
 Polyp secrete limestones which become its exoskeleton.
 Over many generations colonies thus create skeleton characteristics of the species
which can measure up to several meters in size.
 Coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals.
 These are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate
(limestone).
 Some corals can catch plankton and small fish using their tentacles.
 Most of the corals obtain the majority of energy and nutrients from photosynthetic
unicellular dinoflagellates commonly known as Zooxanthellae.
 The beautiful color of coral is because of zooxanthellae.
 Benefits of coral reef:
 They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world's Ocean area yet provide a home to at
least 25 % of all marine species
 Protects coastline from storms and erosion.
 They provide food, and medicinal resources to local people.
 They are one of the most famous tourist spots which contribute to the local
economy.
CORAL BLEACHING ( 11:40 AM)
 Whenever coral becomes stressed they expel the symbiotic algae and as a result,
they lose their color turning white. This is called Coral bleaching.
 Coral can survive a bleaching event, but when they are under more stress subject to
morality.
 Major causes of coral bleaching:
 Temperature stress, 1-2 % increase can induce bleaching
 Excessive sunlight, UV rays exposure
 Ocean acidification-> reducing pH value of seawater.
 Variation in salt concentration of seawater
  Chemical pollution, oil spills, and the release of toxins in seawater among others
RESTORATION OF CORAL REEF (11:47 AM)
 Biorock technology:
 This involves metal structures often made of steel, submerged in seawater.
 A low-voltage current is applied to this structure using solar panels or wind
turbines. This leads to an electrolytic reaction and precipitation of calcium
carbonate on a metal structure.
 Small fragments of live corals are transplanted onto the structure because of the
availability of calcium carbonate, corals grow rapidly and overall this can be more
resilient to environmental stress such as increased acidity.
BIOME (11:56 AM)
 Its bio-geographical unit consists of a biological community that has formed in
response to the physical environment in which they are found and the shared
regional climate.
 Biomes may span more than one continent.
 Some of the Most Prominent biomes of the earth are:
 Tropical rainforest.
 Temperate forest.
 Tropical grassland.
 Temperate grassland.
 Mediterranean biome ( chaparral biome)
 Tundra and taiga(Boreal forest).
Note 1- refer to the handout shared in this class for details of Biomes etc
Environment Class 06
THE CLASS STARTED WITH DISCUSSIONS OF PRELIMS PYQS AT: (01:10 PM):
BIODIVERSITY: (01:20 PM):
 Biodiversity is the total of all the variety and variability of animals, plants, fungi,
and even microorganisms that make up our natural world.
 Biodiversity is considered at 3 levels:
 i) Genetic Diversity: A single species might show high diversity at the genetic levels
over its distributional range.
 For example, India has 1000 strains of rice and 100 mangoes, if a species has more
genetic variation it can adapt better to the changing environmental conditions.
 Our agricultural practices focus on genetic varieties, such as homogeneity can be
desirable from the perspective of uniformity in grain and productivity.
 But it also restricts the adaptability of any species to environmental stress.
 ii) Species Diversity: They are the biological classification and hence species
diversity is the most commonly used in biodiversity.
 Worldwide about 1.75 million different species have been identified
 It can be measured in 2 ways:
 a) Species Richness: It refers to several different species present in a particular
area.
 b) Species Evenness: It measures the relative abundance of different species in a
given area.
 *Note: Evenness is often considered a better indicator compared to only relying on
the species richness.
  Species evenness often signifies a resilient community where the communities are
not overly dependent on a single species.
 If something were to happen to the dominant species, the entire ecosystem might
undergo significant changes.
 iii) Ecological Diversity:
 It refers to the presence of different types of ecosystems.
DOMINANT SPECIES & KEYSTONE SPECIES: (01:54 PM):
 a) Dominant Species:
 A species pre-dominates the ecosystem and exerts influence on overall community
structure because high biomass is known as the Dominant Species.
 For example, Oaks in the Temperate Forest, Pines in the Coniferous forest,
Mangroves tree in the Mangrove ecosystem, Bison in the Prairies regions, etc.
 b) Keystone Species:
 A species that has a disproportionately large impact on its environment, relative to
its abundance is called Keystone Species.
 Such keystone species play a critical role in maintaining the structure and diversity
& functions of an ecosystem.
 For example, top (apex) predators, elephants in the Savvanna, and Sea otters in the
Kelp forest (Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of Kelp that
covers a large part of the world's coastline, it is a habitat of many marine species,
Sea Urchin a spikey organism is eaten by otters preventing their overpopulation).
 c) Indicator Species:
 They are such organisms whose presence, absence, or abundance in an
environment can reveal health, quality, and pollution in a particular ecosystem.
 These species are sensitive to changes in the environmental conditions & provide
early warning signs of environmental disturbances.
 Examples of Indicator Species:
 i) Lichens are an indicator for Sulphur di Oxide.
 ii) Mosses respond to air pollution by changing shape, density, or disappearing.
 iii) Amphibians such as frogs, and salamanders have permeable skin making them
highly sensitive to changes in the water quality.
 iv) Certain birds indicate habitat quality like the Great Indian Bustard is an indicator
of the Dry Grassland ecosystem.
 v) Corals are indicators of the Coral Reef ecosystem.
 vi) Oysters and Other Feeder Filters, are sensitive to even small amounts of
pollutants in water.
 vii) Tubifex Warms, indicate oxygen-poor stagnant water and unfit to drink.
FLAGSHIP SPECIES AND UMBRELLA SPECIES: (02:22 PM):
 d) Flaghsip Species:
 They serve as popular Mascots for conservation issues.
 They are chosen for their vulnerability, and attractiveness to generate support from
the public at large.
 For example, Giant Panda is a Flagship Species for Captive Breeding.
 e) Umbrella Species:
 Species with habitat requirements are so large that their conservation helps many
other species together.
 They are not chosen because of popularity but because of habitat requirements.
 f) Foundation Species:
  They play a major role in creating or maintaining a habitat, such as Corals in Coral
Reefs and Kelp in Kelp forests.
 Other methods to measure biodiversity:
 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Diversity:
 Alpha Diversity: It represents Species richness within the habitat unit.
 Beta Diversity: It is an expression of diversity between the habitat.
 Gamma Diversity: It is the diversity of habitat within a larger landscape.
DIVERSITY INDEX: (02:55 PM):
 Types of Diversity Index:
 a) Simpson Index:
 It measures the probability that two individuals selected randomly from a sample
will belong to the same species.
 Thus, a higher Simpson Index means less diversity.
 1-Simpson Index is the Simpson Index of Diversity.
 b) Shannon Index:
 It measures the Species Diversity of a community based on the information theory.
 Greater diversity should correspond to greater uncertainty in picking a random
individual of a particular species.
 Patterns Of Bio-Diversity:
 Diagram of Patterns Of Bio-Diversity:


 1) Latitudinal Gradient:
 In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator to the
pole with a few exceptions.
 This is mainly because of:
 1. a) More availability of solar energy in the equatorial regions, hence higher
productivity.
 1. b) Tropical environments are relatively more constant and predictable.
 1. c) Temperate and polar regions have witnessed frequent glaciations.
 2) Altitudinal Gradient:
 Generally, species richness tends to increase with increasing altitude due to
harsher environmental conditions.
 Mountain areas often contain a high amount of endemic species.
 Mountain ranges act as a barrier to gene flow and lead to the isolation of the
population adapting to their specific environment.
 Mid-elevation diversity bulge suggests that the highest levels of species diversity
are not at the base but at a higher elevation on the mountain slope.
  Question: What are the benefits of biodiversity? Are these benefits abstracts in
nature or they can be quantified?
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES: (03:36 PM):
 Extinction is a natural process and an important part of evolution.
 many species that have lived on the planet Earth have become extinct, this is called
Background Extinction.
 Not all species are equally vulnerable to extinction,
 The following characteristics can make them more susceptible:
 a) Large body size.
 b) Low population size.
 c) low reproductive rate.
 d) High trophic levels.
 e) High endemism.
 Mass Extinction Episodes:


 In the last 450 million years the earth has witnessed 5 Mass Extinctions (mass
extinctions are not as same as background extinctions).
 The Extinction Rate for species in recent times has been much higher and many
scientists attribute this to anthropogenic activities.
 The term 6th Mass Extinction is used for this particular trend.
 Main Reasons for Biodiversity Loss:
 a) Changes in land and sea use including habitat loss due to habitat fragmentation.
 Habitat Loss refers to the modification of the species' living place by complete
removal.
 And fragmentation, mostly because of unsustainable agriculture, residential or
commercial development, energy production, and mining among others.
 b) Species Overexploitation: There are both direct and indirect forms of
overexploitation.
 Direct Overexplotation refers to unsustainable hunting, poaching, etc.
 Indirect overexploitation occurs when non-target species are killed unintentionally.
 c) Pollution: it can directly affect the species making the environment unsuitable
for survival e.g. oil spills
 It can also affect the species indirectly by affecting the food availability or affecting
the reproducing capabilities.
 d) Invasive Species: These species can compete with the native species for space,
food, and other resources and they can also transport new diseases presently not
present in the environment.
 e) Climate Change: It can directly affect species and a lot of effects are indirect e.g.
temperature changes can trigger seasonal events such as migration and
reproduction at the wrong time.
 f) Co-extinction: It refers to the loss of one species as a result of extinction of the
species it depends.
Environment Class 07
IUCN- 1:11 PM
 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)-
 It is a global NGO established in 1948 and the most remarkable work in the red list
of threatened species.
 IUCN has been fundamental to the creation of many global conventions such as
Ramsar, Convention on Biological Diversity, World Heritage Convention, and CITES.
 As of now, it has observer status at UNGA.
 IUCN has pioneered nature-based solutions, and actions to conserve nature, along
with fighting global challenges such as climate change, disaster, water, and food
security.
 Today IUCN is one of the world's largest and most diverse environmental
networks.
 IUCN red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely
understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction.
 It divided species into 9 categories based on five criteria.

Critically
Criteria Endangered Vulnerable
endangered
Population
size >80-90% >50-80% >30-50%
reduction

Geographic
range
< 20000 sq
a. Extent of
<100 sq km > 5000 sq km km
occurrence
< sq km < 500 sq km < 2000 sq
b. Area of
km
occupancy

Small and
declining
< 250 < 2500 < 10000
population
size.
Very small
< 50 < 250 < 1000
population
> 50% within 20% within 20
Extinction 10% within
10 years or 3 years or 5
risk 100 years.
generations generations
BIO-DIVERSITY HOTSPOTS- 2:08 PM
 In 1988 British ecologist Norman Myers introduced the concept of biodiversity
hotspots based on two strict criteria-
 1. It must contain at least 1500 endemic vascular plants.
 2. It must have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.
 This definition was adopted by Conservation International a global NGO.
 They have designated 36 such areas across the world.
 Four of these hotspots are found in India-
 1. Himalayas
 2. Western Ghats
 3. Indo Burma region- It covers Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos
areas around the Brahmaputra River and part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 4. Sundaland- This includes the islands of Java, Sumatra, Malay peninsula. Nicobar
islands is part od Sundaland.
 There are two more regions that fulfil the criteria but are not part of the official list.
 1. Sundarbans
 2. Terrai duar Savannah
GLOBAL CONSERVATION STRATEGIES- 2:18 PM
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)-
 CBD came into existence as a result of the Rio Summit or Earth Summit 1992.
 It entered into force in 1993.
 It has three main objectives
 1. Conservation of biological diversity.
 2. Sustainable use of components of biological diversity.
 3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of
biological resources.
 CBD is legally binding.
 India is a member.
NAGOYA PROTOCOL- 3:05 PM
 It is an international agreement that aims at sharing the benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.
 This was adopted in 2010 and entered into force in 2014.
 By helping to ensure benefit-sharing protocol creates incentives to conserve and
sustainably use genetic resources.
 A protocol also maintains access and benefit-sharing clearing house a tool to
facilitate implementation of the protocol by enhancing legal certainty and
transparency.
 Cartagena Protocol-
 It is an international agreement with respect to bio-safety.
 It aims to ensure the safe handling, transfer, and use of living-modified organisms
resulting from modern biotechnology.
 This protocol establishes a bio-safety clearing house to facilitate the exchange of
information on living modified organisms and assist countries in the
implementation of the protocol.
 Nagoya Kualampur supplementary protocol was adopted as a supplementary
agreement to the Cartagena protocol to redress the liability issues resulting from
living modified organisms (LMOs).
 Both the Nagoya Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol are legally binding.
  India is a party to both of them.
 In 2010 the convention adopted Aichi bio-diversity targets for 2011 to 2020 a set of
non-binding targets to be achieved by all the member nations.
 In COP -15, of CBD the convention announced a new set of targets for 2021 to 2030
known as Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
 These 23 targets are non-binding in nature.
CITES- 3:36 PM
 Convention on International Trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna.
 it is an international agreement between the governments to regulate trade in
specimens of flora and fauna.
 It was drafted by IUCN in 1963 and became a legally binding agreement in 1964.
 The species covered by CITES are listed in three appendixes.
 Appendix 1- it includes species threatened with extinction
 Trade is permitted in exceptional circumstances
 Appendix 2- Include species not necessarily threatened with extinction but trade
must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survivor.
 Appendix 3- Contains species that are protected at least in one country which has
asked other members for assistance in controlling the trade.
 In 1976 IUCN and WWF established TRAFFIC a leading NGO that works globally to
monitor trade in wild animals and plants.
 TRAFFIC has played a key role in bringing together South Asia countries to establish
the South Asia wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN).
Environment Class 08
DISCUSSION ON LAST CLASS & QUESTIONS (09:10 AM)
WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION, 1972 (09:46 AM)
 It is under UNESCO.
 It is the only convention which links together the concept of nature conservation
and preservation of cultural properties.
 Member nations of the convention identify potential sites and play a role in
protecting and preserving them.
 They are supported by the World Heritage Fund.
 A world heritage site can have environmental, cultural or both significance.
 In India, there are 7 Natural Heritage Sites, 1 Mixed Heritage Site and 34 Cultural
Heritage Sites.
 The natural heritage sites are:
 Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area (2014)
 Kaziranga National Park (1985)
 Keoladeo National Park (1985)
 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)
 Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (1988, 2005)
 Sundarbans National Park (1987)
 Western Ghats (2012)
 The only Mixed World Heritage Site is Khangchendzonga National Park.
 All member nations nominate certain places in the tentative list.
 In India, this includes:
 Namdapha National Park
 Wild Ass Sanctuary
  Neora Valley National Park
 Desert National Park
 Chilika Lake
 Satpura Tiger Reserve
 Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area, etc.
 Jingkieng Jri: Living Root Bridge.
 Belaghat and Lamet Ghat: They are often known as the Grand Canyon of India.
(Note: Gandikota Fort in Andra Pradesh is also called as Grand Canyon).
CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES (10:06 AM)
 It is also called as Bonn Convention.
 This convention aims to provide sustainable use of migratory animals and their
habitat. The agreement may range from legally binding treaties to non-legally
binding mechanisms.
 The convention maintains two appendices.
 Appendix 1: Migrrartory species threatened with extinction are listed here.
 Appendix 2: Migratory Species that will significantly benefit from global
cooperation are listed here.
 India is a party to the convention.
 Indian sub-continent is part of the Central Asian Flyway Network.
 Hundreds of migratory birds are found within this network.
THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES, 2001 (10:16 AM)
 This is under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
 The treaty aims to conserve and sustainably use all plant genetic resources used for
food and agriculture.
 It also aims at Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits, arising out of their use in
harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.
 Under the treaty, 64 most important crops are put into an easily accessible global
pool of genetic resources which is available freely to member nations.
 However, the treaty presents recipients of genetic resources for claiming IPR in the
form they receive genetic resources.
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA (10:25 AM)
 With 2.4 percent of land area, India accounts for 8 percent of recorded species.
 The entire country can be classified into 10 biogeographic zones.
 Biogeographic zones are regions of the earth's surface that have distinct patterns of
flora and fauna, due to a unique combination of environmental characteristics such
as temperature, precipitation, soil type, and geological history, climatic changes
among others.
 Zone 1: Trans-Himalayas
 It includes part of Sikkim, Ladakh and the Tibetan Plateau.
 The flora includes scanty alpine steppes, and some wild fauna such as Sheep,
goats, black bears, wolves, snow leopards etc.
 Zone 2: Himalayas:
 These are the youngest mountain sequences in the world.
 The flora can vary from grassy meadows to alpine forests and moist deciduous
forests.
 The region also includes some amazing fauna such as Hangul, Musk Deer, and
Snow Leopard.
 Zone 3: India Desert:
 This can be further divided into the Great Indian Desert in Thar, Rajasthan and
Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
 Thar desert is known for foxes, snakes, camels, gazelles, and a highly endangered
bird Great Indian Bistard.
 Runn of Kutch is known for some endemic animals such as wild ass, migratory birds
such as flamingos etc can be spotted here.
 Zone 4: Semi-Arid Areas
 It is characterized by discontinuous vegetation and soil which remains a deficit of
water.
 In Gir forest, the endangered Asiatic lion is found.
 Some large herbivores such as black buck, gazelles, etc.
 Zone 5: Western Ghats
 It is a Biodiversity hotspot, known for high endemism and evergreen forests.
 Zone 6: Deccan peninsula:
 It is known for its Deciduous forests and many river systems such as Narmada, Tapi,
Mahanadi, and Godavari.
 Trees of timber value such as sal and teak.
 Many species of deer and antelope such as Sambhar deer.
 Zone 7: Gangetic Plains:
 One of the most fertile regions of the world, known for deciduous forests with trees
of timber value.
 Fauna includes one-orned rhinos, Asian elephants, wild water buffalo, and swamp
deer among others.
 Zone 8: Northeast India
 One of the richest regions in terms of biodiversity, but also one of the poorest in
human development.
 This region is known for wild varieties of domesticated plants such as banana,
citrus, and mango among others.
 The fauna includes rhinos, wild buffalo, swamp deer, pygmy hog, and elephants.
 Zone 9: Islands
 This comprises two groups of islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
 known for high levels of endemism in both flora and fauna, beautiful corals, and
evergreen and mangrove forests.
 Zone 10: Coastline
 India has more than 7500 km of coastal line known for extensive deltas of Krishna-
Godavari and Kaveri, the region is known for Mangrove vegetation, coconut trees,
etc.
 Fauna includes Dugongs, Dolphins, etc.
CONSERVATION STRATEGIES (11:12 AM)
 Ex-Situ (Outsude Natural Habitat)
 Zoos
 Botanical Garden
 Cryopreservation
 Gene banks
 In situ (In natural Habitat)
 National Parks
 Wildlife Sanctuaries
 Biosphere Reserves
  Wetlands/Ramsar sites
 Reserved and Protected Forests
 Ecologically Sensitive Zones
 Sacred Groves
 Biodiversity Heritage Sites
 Important Bird Areas: Birdlife International and Bombay Natural History Society
(BNHS)
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972 (11:21 AM)
 The act laid down strict measures to prevent, hunting, poaching and trapping of
wild animals.
 The act also recognizes authorities, for implementation of the act.
 E.g. Every state has a Chief Wildlife Warden. They have the power to grant, refuse
or cancel permission to hunt wildlife and establish check posts.
 Protected Area Network Under the Act:
 This act recognizes National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Community Reserves and
conservation reserves.
 National Park:
 National Park as a concept was introduced by IUCN, and it has been adopted all
across the world.
 E.g. In India, there are 106 National Parks, which are declared to protect wildlife in
areas of ecological importance.
 Both central and state governments can declare it.
 In National Parks, human activity is not allowed, even grazing of livestock, the
private tenurial rights are not allowed.
 National Park cannot be downgraded to the status of a sanctuary, no alteration of
the boundaries of national park shall be made except on the recommendation of
the National Board for Wildlife.
 Any proposal to alter the boundary also requires approval by the state legislature.
 Wildlife Sanctuaries:
 The fundamental difference between a national park and a wildlife sanctuary is
the level of protection.
 Very similar to parks, sanctuaries are also the areas of ecological importance
known for wildlife.
 However, limited human activities are permitted such as the Grazing of animals, a
sanctuary can be created for a particular species whereas National Parks are not
focused on one species.
 Even sanctuaries can be declared by both National and State governments.
 In India, there are 565 wildlife sanctuaries.
National Park Wildlife Sanctuary
Areas of ecological Areas of ecological
importance are importance are
known for wildlife. known for wildlife.
Declared by both Declared by both
national and state national and state
govt. govt.
Human activity is Certain activities are
not permitted. permitted.
Cannot be
Can be upgraded to a
downgraded to a
national park.
wildlife sanctuary.
Focus on the entire Can be created for
ecosystem. specific species.
COMMUNITY AND CONSERVATION RESERVE (11:53 AM)
 They were categorized as per the amendment to the Act in 2002.
 They typically act as buffer zones to connector and migration corridors between
established parks and sanctuaries of reserved and protected forests of India.
 Areas are designated as conservation reserves if they are unhabituated and
completely owned by the government of India.
 If used for subsistence by communities, it is called a community reserve.
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (12:05 PM)
 It is essentially a space in the ocean where human activities are more strictly
regulated.
 They can have the status of park, sanctuary and reserve also.

Environment Class 09
INSTITUTIONS CREATED UNDER THE WPA 1972 (09:10 AM)
 1. National Board for Wildlife and State Wildlife Board:
 NBWL serves as an apex body for reviewing all wildlife-related matters and
approving projects in and around parks and sanctuaries.
 The board is advisory in nature and is chaired by the Prime Minister.
 2. Central Zoo Authority:
 It provides recognition to zoos and is also tasked with their regulation.
 The Union Environment Minister chairs it.
 3. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau:
 It collects intelligence related to organised wildlife crime and assists state
governments.
 4. National Tiger Conservation Authority:
 The Govt. of India launched 'Project Tiger' in 1973 to promote the conservation of
tigers.
 It has been converted into a statutory authority by an amendment to WPA in 2006.
 Under WPA, the area can be declared as a tiger reserve.
 The tiger reserve consists of a core area called 'Critical Tiger Habitat' and a buffer
area around the core.
 Currently, there are 54 tiger reserves.
 Schedules under the act:
 The original act has six schedules which have been rationalized into four
schedules in an amendment in 2022.
 Schedule I: Animals with the highest level of Protection.
 Schedule II: Lesser Level of Protection
  Schedule III: Contains a List of Plants which cannot be cultivated without prior
permission from the competent authority.
 Schedule IV: Specimens listed in the appendices under CITES.
 The power to declare animals as vermin rests with the union government.
 It can declare an animal vermin in an area for a specified period.
 In 2022 Amendment was also in controversy by allowing the use of elephants for
religious or any other purposes under specific regulations.
BIOSPHERE RESERVE (09:44 AM)
 Biosphere reserves are called learning places for sustainable development.
 They are places that provide solutions to many environmental challenges to
reconcile the conservation of biodiversity along with its sustainable use by human
beings.
 The BR are nominated by the National Government and remain under their
sovereign jurisdiction.
 UNESCO can designate some of these reserves, as part of the UNESCO-MAB
program.
 The biosphere reserve will have three main zones.
 Core Area: A strictly prohibited zone that contributes to the conservation of
ecosystems.
 Buffer Zones: They surround the core area and are used for activities compatible
with sound ecological practices.
 Transition Area: This is where communities foster in a sustainable economic way.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT 2002 (09:56 AM)
 It was passed by parliament to fulfil India's obligation towards the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
 It has the following features:
 Conservation, Sustainable Use and Benefit Sharing.
 The act restricts activities such as the transfer of Indian genetic material outside the
country.
 This act creates a three-tier structure:
 National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
 State Biodiversity Boards (SBB)
 Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC)
 Any foreign individual or entity needs the approval of the NBA, to obtain biological
resources and associated knowledge for commercial utlisation.
 An Indian company has to do the same but from the State Biodiversity Board.
 BMC register a 'People Biodiversity Register' which records local biodiversity and
traditional knowledge.
 Any entity first needs to obtain consent from BMC based on agreeable terms.
 Biodiversity heritage sites:
 Under this act, the state government can declare an area as a Biodiversity Heritage
Site.
 These are unique and ecologically fragile ecosystems with one or more following
characteristics.
 The richness of wildlife species
 High endemism
 Presence of rare and threatened species
 Species of evolutionary significance
  Wild ancestors of domesticated species.
 Having significant cultural and aesthetic values.
 The act was amended in 2023 following major features:
 It exempted Ayush Practitioners.
 The act has decriminalized all offences but the penalty has been increased from 1
lakh to 50 lakh.
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION (10:40 AM)
 Taxonomic classification is the hierarchical system used to organize and categorize
living organisms based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships.
 It consists of seven levels: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and
Species.
 This system helps scientists classify and understand the diversity of life on Earth.
 The taxonomic classification of Homo sapiens is as follows:
 Kingdom: Animalia
 Phylum: Chordata
 Class: Mammalia
 Order: Primates
 Family: Hominidae
 Genus: Homo
 Species: Homo sapiens
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE (11:08 AM)
 Mechanisms of Global Warming:
 Greenhouse effect: The earth's temperature depends upon the balance between
energy entering and leaving the planet's system.
 Sunlight comprises mainly UV (~10%), visible light (~43%), and infrared (~47%).
 However, the maximum intensity occurs around visible light. That is why, most of
the species have adapted to see in visible light.
 When sunlight reaches the Earth's surface, it can either be reflected into space or
absorbed by the Earth.
 The reflectivity of the earth's surface is called Albedo.
 The average albedo of the earth is about 30 percent.
 However, snow can have as high as 90 percent albedo.
 As the earth absorbs solar energy, it warms up and being a warm body it emits
radiation primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum called long-wave
radiation.
 Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of this outgoing radiation and
re-radiate it in all directions including towards the earth's surface.
 This phenomenon is called as greenhouse effect which is essential for maintaining
a temperature suitable for life without it earth can become much colder during the
night very fast.
 Any imbalances, even if small in energy coming in and going out will lead to a new
thermal equilibrium at different temperatures.
 The recent buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is contributing to this
heat imbalance causing an average rise in temperature called global warming.
 Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, wind
patterns, and other aspects of the earth's climate system.
 Apart from greenhouse gases, even changing the albedo of the earth's surface can
contribute to climate change.
  Climate Feedback:
 These are natural processes that respond to global warming by off-setting
(Negative Feedback) or further increasing the changes (Positive Feedback).
 Ice-albedo feedback is an example of a positive feedback mechanism.
 Water Vapour Feedback: Water vapour has high global warming potential and
Global warming leads to more water vapour.
Environment Class 10
IMPACT OF CLOUDS (09:09 AM)
 Clouds can have both warming and cooling effects on the climate.
 Climate change can lead to changes in the coverage altitude and reflectivity of the
cloud.
 These changes can either amplify or dampen the original change.
IMPACT OF AEROSOLS
 Aerosols are microscopic solid or liquid particles that are so small they remain
suspended in the air from days to weeks.
 The effect of aerosols varies, most of the aerosols can have a cooling effect as they
reflect more sunlight.
 But some aerosols such as black carbon (soot).
RADIATIVE FORCING
 It is defined as changing the earth's heat balance due to some external change.
 It is measured in watts/m2.
 E.g. The increased amount of CO2/CH4 has positive radiative forcing which means
more heat is incoming than outgoing.
 Some factors are negative radiative forcing aerosols in the atmosphere.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE (09:31 AM)
 In past also climate change has occurred.
 Many natural processes can contribute to climate change.
 i. Variation in solar activity: The measurements shown from the last few decades
do not point to any net increase in solar activities.
 ii. Milankovitch Cycle: Earth's orbit and its axis of rotation are not fixed. This cycle
includes:
 a. The shape of the earth's orbit is determined by eccentricity. This changes in
about 100,000-400,000 years.
 The axial tilt changes from 21.5 degrees to 24.5 degrees.
 These cycles cannot explain the rapid warming.
 Volcanic activity: They can release large CO2, but they also release SO2, aerosols
which can contribute to global cooling.
 This is why Scientists can say with high certainty that the current increase in
temperature is mostly anthropogenic.
 Global Warming Potential
 GWP of a gas refers to the total contribution to global warming resulting from the
emission of one unit of that gas relative to one unit of reference gas which is taken
as CO2 for a duration of time.
 The GWP of carbon dioxide is defined as 1.
 Baseline Year:
 Researchers calculate the average increase in temperature based on a baseline
year which is taken as 1850-1900.
  This represents pre-industrial temperature.
 Compared to pre-industrial temperature the average temperature increase has
been about 1.2 Degrees Celsius.
 Key Greenhouse Gases:
 CO2 Sources:
 Burning of Coal, Natural Gas, and Diesel.
 Industry: Many industrial processes emit CO2 for fossil fuel consumption. E.g.
Cement, Iron and Steel industry, etc.
 Mitigation:
 Renewable Energy Sources
 Afforestation
 Decarbonisation of the transportation sector.
 Behavioural Changes: Use of Public Transport
 Energy Efficient equipment
 Carbon Tax
 Carbon offset
 Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)
 The atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased from 280 parts per million (pre-
industrial level) to 421 PPM in 2022.
 Methane (CH4 ) Sources
 The average concentration of methane has increased from 720 ppm to 1900 ppm.
 It is emitted by natural sources also such as natural wetlands, termites,
volcanoes, and wildfires.
 About 60 percent of emissions are anthropogenic.
 Out of total anthropogenic emissions, 60 percent is because of agriculture and
livestock farming, 20 percent is because of waste and the remaining is mostly
because of the energy sector.
 Certain types of crops such as rice, are a large source of methane emission.
 Domestic livestock produce methane as part of the digestive process. These are
called ruminant animals.
 They have a large stomach within which microbial fermentation in anaerobic
conditions releases methane.
 The animal manure stored in holding tanks also released methane.
 Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes.
 Energy and Industry: These are a major source and it is emitted during production,
processing, storage and transmission of natural gas.
 Coal mining is another source of methane emission
 MItigation (10:38 AM)
 Change in cropping pattern.
 Modification to animal feeding practices.
 Upgrading the equipment to prevent leakages from the energy sector and
industrial emissions.
 Better manure management and waste management practices.
 Methane has a relatively smaller life and within a decade or two it oxidizes to CO2.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (11:03 AM)
 The average concentration of N20 has increased from 270 ppm to 330 ppm.
 It can be released naturally as part of the nitrogen cycle.
 About 50 percent is anthropogenic and major sources are:
  Use of Synthetic and Organic fertilisers
 Burning of agricultural residue.
 A byproduct of nitric acid and adipic acid production.
 Nitric acid is used to make synthetic fertilisers and adipic acid is used to make
fibres such as nylon.
 Fuel combustion can release nitrous oxide.
 Treatment of domestic wastewater.
 Mitigation
 Efficient use of Nitrogen-based fertilisers.
 Technological upgrades to prevent leakages from the industry.
 Selective Catalytic Reduction in Vehicles to reduce nitrogen oxide into nitrogen.
 N2O has a lifetime of more than 100 years.
CHLORINATED GASES (11:16 AM)
 a. CFCs - Chlorofluorocarbons
 b. HCFC - Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
 c. HFCs - Hydrofluorocarbons
 d. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
 e. Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
 HFCs - Hydrofluorocarbons:
 GWP can be 14800 and atmospheric life could be 270 years. They are used as
refrigerants.
 They are used as aerosol proponent, solvents, and fire retardants.
 Perfluorocarbons
 They are produced as a byproduct in aluminium production and they are also used
in semiconductors.
 It has an atmospheric life of up to 50,000 years.
 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
 GWP of 22800 and atmospheric lifetime of 3200 years.
 It is used in magnesium manufacturing, semiconductor manufacturing, insulating
gas, and circuit breakers.
 Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
 GWP of 17200, and atmospheric life of 740 years.
 This is used in semiconductor manufacturing.
 All of these are 100 percent anthropogenic in nature.
 Mitigation:
 Recycling
 Destruction of the gases
 Finding suitable alternatives
 In terms of emissions by country, china is the largest emitter followed by the US.
 In terms of per capita emission India's contribution is much less.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE (11:45 AM)
 The cryosphere comprises parts of the earth which is frozen. E.g. Snow, Ice
Glaciers, Ice sheets, Permafrost.
 The cryosphere is affected in many ways due to climate change.
 Because of accelerated melting, we are witnessing sea level rise and altered water
supply among others.
 Reduced Sea Ice: Both the extent and thickness of the Arctic Sea have decreased
river recent decades.
  Regulating planet's temperature because of high albedo.
 Because of Ice-albedo feedback, the Arctic is witnessing accelerated warming.
 Permafrost Thawing:
 Rising temperatures can cause permafrost to thaw releasing CO2, Methane which
can further accelerate global warming.
 The impact of global warming on the Arctic and the Antarctic is not the same.
 The Arctic has witnessed rapid warming and the western Antarctica ice sheet is
dintegrating because of global warming.
 Eastern Antarctica has shown resilience, the difference in the impact on the Arctic
and the Antarctic is because of the following:
 - The Arctic is an ocean surrounded by the continents.
 - The Antarctic is a continent surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
 -Thus the differential heating of land and water plays an important role.
 - The Antarctica central plateau is at a high altitude which means colder
temperature.
 While arctic sea level nature makes it more susceptible to warming.
 The antarctic circum-polar current, a cold current, flows around Antarctica and
somewhat isolates it from other ocean basins which limits the exchange of heat.
 The polar vortex at Antarctica is much stronger.
The topic for the next class: Impact on the Himalayas, Steps to tackle climate change

Environment Class 11
THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS TOPICS (01:07 PM)
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON OCEANS (01:11 PM)
 a) Sea level rise:
 The sea level rise occurs due to the melting of ice sheets, and global warming.
 b) Ocean Stratification:
 Melting glaciers and ice sheets release fresh water into oceans affecting its salinity,
this can lead to stratification where layers of water do not mix well.
 c) Ocean acidification:
 The ocean absorbs about 30% of CO2 released in the atmosphere, when CO2 reacts
with sea water it forms carbonic acid which releases hydrogen ions increasing the
ocean's acidity, this affects marine organisms particularly those with Calcium
Carbonate shells making it difficult for them to build and maintain these structures.
 d) Ocean warming:
 The upper layer of the ocean has been warming significantly causing more marine
heat waves in fact the increasing sea surface temperature can also lead to more
intense tropical cyclones and more frequency of tropical cyclones.
 e) Ocean deoxygenation:
 Warmer water holds less oxygen which causes some reasons to experience reduced
oxygen levels.
 It can be fatal to marine organisms leading to dead zones.
 f) Changes in ocean currents:
 Changes in temperature and salinity can influence as these currents are essential
for distributing heat around the planet, these changes can have implications for
weather patterns and marine ecosystems.
  There is also a concern that fresh water from melting glaciers could disrupt
thermohaline circulations (Ocean Conveyor Belt) potentially impacting global
climate patterns.
 g) Shifts in marine ecosystem:
 Warmer temperatures are causing marine species to move polewards or to deeper
water in search of cooler conditions.
 We are witnessing mass coral bleaching.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LAND (01:41 PM)
 Mountain areas such as the Himalayas may witness a Glacial Lake outburst flood, a
disaster that can destroy life and property.
 The melting glacier and glacial retreat can increase the amount of water in rivers
for a duration but gradually the availability of water may decrease because of more
glacial retreat.
 In coastal areas, rising sea levels can lead to saltwater intrusion, and in natural
aquifers reducing freshwater availability.
 We are witnessing more frequent, prolonged, and intense heat waves.
 Increased instances of heavy rainfall can result in flash floods damaging crops and
infrastructure, while many regions are also experiencing longer and more severe
droughts.
 Land degradation and desertification.
 Increased rainfall and flooding can cause more soil erosion adversely affecting
agricultural productivity.
 In general, Agriculture is adversely affected particularly in tropical regions.
 Changing climate can also allow agricultural pests and diseases to spread to new
areas.
 Increased heat waves can result in heat stroke and related illness.
 Many vectors such as mosquitoes can expand their range with warmer
temperatures and thus diseases such as Malaria and Dengue can spread to new
areas.
 Many scientists fear the melting of glaciers and thawing of permafrost may also
release dangerous pathogens which many animals, and plants may not have
immunity against them.
SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE (02:13 PM)
 Social Impacts:
 Heat-related illness.
 Food and Water security.
 Climate refugees and migration due to climate change.
 Cultural and identity loss.
 Many reports have highlighted the impact of climate change on gender relations for
Example in a patriarchal society men often have more resources available in case of
resource scarcity due to climate change.
 Women become more vulnerable.
 Economic impacts:
 Loss to agriculture and fishery industry.
 Increased cost of infrastructure because of floods and storms.
 Adverse impact on tourism, for example, coral reefs, Gulmarg, etc.
 Extreme weather events can disrupt the global supply chain.
 Political Impacts:
  Conflicts within a country regarding resource allocation such as water.
 Decreased water supply can also be a source of conflict between countries that
share water bodies.
 Migration due to climate change can create geopolitical tensions.
 Climate change necessitates global cooperation, however, there are conflicts
between developed and developing nations regarding responsibilities, transfer of
finance, and technology.
CLIMATE TIPPING POINTS (02:27 PM)
 It refers to thresholds in the earth's ecosystem where small changes lead to
significant and often irreversible changes in the state of the system crossing these
tipping points can have profound consequences for the planet's climate and
ecosystem.
 These are:
 a) Loss of Arctic sea ice.
 b) Greenland ice sheet disintegration.
 c) West Antarctica ice sheet disintegration.
 d) Drying of boreal forests and more susceptible to wildfire.
 e) Amazon rainforest dieback.
 f) West African Monsoon Shift.
 g) Indian Monsoon Shift.
 h) Permafrost loss.
 i) Atlantic meridional overturning circulation breakdown.
GLOBAL INITIATIVE TO TACKLE CLIMATE CHANGE (02:56 PM)
 1972: The UN Conference on Human Environment took place which marked a
turning point in international environmental politics.
 It is also called the 'Stockholm conference'.
 'UN Environment programme' came into existance.
 Montreal Protocol to restrict ozone-depleting substances a legally binding
agreement was adopted.
 1988: When the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up
under UNEP and WMO.
 It is an intergovernmental scientific body under the UN, that provides the world
with a clear scientific view of the knowledge regarding climate change, its potential
impacts, and possible solutions.
 These reports are called Assessment Reports.
 A first Assessment Report (AR1) was released in 1990.
 1992: Rio Summit (Earth Summit)
 It is also called the 'UN Conference on Environment and Development'
 Three legally binding agreements came into existence in Rio Summit:
 i) UNFCCC (United Nations Framework to Combat Climate Change)
 ii) UN CBD (United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity)
 iii) UN CCD.
 Some non-binding documents were also released such as:
 'Agenda 21': An agenda for sustainable development for the 21st century.
 Forest Principles: It is a set of guidelines to stop deforestation and increase the
quality of forest cover.
 1994: UNFCCC entered into force.
 COP-1 of UNFCCC occurred in 1995 in Berlin.
  1997: Kyoto Protocol:
 The first legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gases for developed
countries was adopted, It entered into force in 2005.
 2010: Cancun Agreement:
 A comprehensive package adopted by governments to assist developing nations in
dealing with climate change was adopted.
 Green Climate fund was established.
 In 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol occurred adding new targets
for participating countries (2012-2020)
 In 2013, a Mechanism was set up to address loss and damage known as
the 'Warsaw Mechanism'.
 Paris Agreement:
 The first universal agreement to tackle climate change was adopted.
 2023: COP-28 occured.
KYOTO PROTOCOL,1997 (03:26 PM)
 The protocol applies to 7 GHGs CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6 and NF3 (NF3 was
added in Doha Amendment)
 The protocol adopted common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities because it recognized that developed nations are largely responsible
for the current high level of GHG in the atmosphere and accordingly protocol was
binding for developed nations.
 UNFCCC divides the country mainly into three groups according to differing
commitments:
 a) Annex-1 Countries:
 These include industrialized countries which were members of the OECD, In 1992,
and Economies in Transition (EIT) which included Russia, countries of Eastern
Europe, central Europe, and Baltic countries.
 b) Annex-2 Countries:
 It consists of OECD Members of Anex-1 but not the EIT parties.
 c) Non-Anex Countries:
 These are mostly developing countries.
 Kyoto Protocol was applicable to Annex-1 countries.
 Annex-2 countries apart from reducing greenhouse gases are also supposed to help
non-annex countries.
 Least Developed Countries:
 A group of 49 small countries is given special consideration under the convention
because of their high vulnerability to climate change and limited capacity to
mitigate and adapt.
 Under the protocol countries must meet their targets primarily through national
measures however it also offers additional means to meet the targets via
three market-based mechanisms:
 a) International Emission Trading:
 This created a carbon market.
 Countries or industries within the countries that emitted less than their Kyoto
target could sell their excess allowance to countries that exceeded their targets.
 Carbon was now tracked and traded like any other commodity.
 b) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
  Carbon offset: It is the reduction or removal of emissions of carbon dioxide or
other greenhouse gases in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere.
 CDM allows developed countries to invest in sustainable development projects that
reduce emissions in developing countries this can include afforestation, solar panel
installation, and energy-efficient boilers among others.
 For Every one ton of CO2 reduction, the organization generated certified emission
reduction credits that can be used to fulfill its obligations under Kyoto targets, It
can also be traded.
 c) Joint Implementation:
 Similar to CDM but involves projects between Anex-1 countries.
 The Kyoto Protocol did not work properly because of limited participation (the US
and Canada withdrew from the protocol), Low ambition, double counting and
volatility in carbon markets.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION.
Environment Class 12
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (9:07 AM)
PARIS AGREEMENT, 2015 (9:24 AM)
 Limiting global temperature increase to 2 °C above pre-industrial level and
pursuing efforts to keep it below 1.5 °C.
 The agreement expects net zero emissions by 2050.
 The agreement to mitigate climate change expects all member nations to maintain
intended Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets which should be
updated every five years.
 A global stocktake i.e. to access collective progress towards achieving the purpose
of the agreement.
 The first stocktake was done in 2023 and will occur every five years thereafter.
 Carbon markets
 Addressing loss and damage.
 Framework for finance, technology, and capacity-building support to developing
nations.
 To facilitate implementation in a non-punitive manner (the Paris Agreement is
technically a legally binding agreement).
Carbon Market under the Paris Agreement
 Under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, there are mainly two mechanisms:
 1. Cooperative approaches:
 It allows countries to voluntarily cooperate in the implementation of their INDC
targets
 2. Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM):
 It is similar to the clean development mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol but
applicable to both developed and developing nations.
 It aims to make certain changes in the overall mitigation of global emissions.
 Parts of emission reduction achieved by SDM activities will not be used as offset
credits but will be automatically cancelled to achieve a net decrease in global
emissions.
 Avoidance of double counting i.e. if one country funds a reduction in another
country both countries cannot count that reduction towards their own target.
Climate Financing
  It refers to local, national, or transnational financing that seeks to support
mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage to address climate change.
 The main mechanisms are as follows:
 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
 It was established on the eve of the Rio Earth Summit 1992, a unique partnership of
UN agencies, multilateral development banks, and global NGOs that financially
supports five major conventions UNFCCC, UNCBD, UNCCD, Stockholm Convention,
and Minimata Convention.
 Green Climate Fund (GCF)
 It was established in 2010 with UNFCCC as an operating entity with a goal of raising
$ 100 million a year by 2020.
 NABARD is the operating entity of GCF in India.
 Special Climate Change Fund and Least Developed Countries Fund
 Both were established in 2001 under GEF.
 It aims to support developing nations and LDCs respectively.
 Adaptation Fund
 Established in 2001, it aims to help in adaptation projects.
 One of the funding mechanisms for this fund is 2% of the proceeds from the CDM
(Clean Development Mechanism) activities, similarly a certain percentage from
SDM activities.
 Loss and Damage Fund
 Conceptualized in 2013 under the Warsaw Mechanism, announced in COP 27 and
operationalized in COP 28.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON INDIA (10:17 AM)
 India's average temperature has risen by about 0.7 °C between 1901 and 2018.
 Extreme rainfall events have increased by 75% between 1901 and 2015.
 There is a 6% decline in summer monsoon rainfall between 1951 and 2015.
 1 °C rise in sea surface temperature between 1951 and 2015.
 1.3% increase in area affected by drought per decade between 1951 and 2016.
 The frequency of severe cyclonic storms has increased in both the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal.
 A 15% decline in glaciers in the Hindu Kush since the 1970s.
 Karakoram Anomaly: Glaciers in the Karakoram range are resisting glacial melt
defying the global trend that might be happening due to the revival of western
disturbances.
Steps taken by India
 INDC targets
 45% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030 from 2005 levels.
 50% of all electricity to be generated by non-fossil fuels by 2030.
 Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tons of CO2 through tree and forest cover
by 2030.
 At COP 26 India announced five targets known as Panchamrit:
 Achieve net zero emission or carbon neutrality by 2070.
 Non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW
 50% of energy from renewable sources by 2030.
 45% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030.
 Reduce total projected carbon emissions by one billion by 2030.
 The relative amount of carbon emitted per unit of some other variable which can be
per unit of energy or GDP, thus, it is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to
the intensity of some specific activity.
 National Action Plan on Climate Change
 The government of India 2008 launched the National Action Plan on Climate
Change which consists of eight missions:
 National Solar Mission
 National Mission for enhanced energy efficiency.
 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
 National Water Mission
 National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
 National Mission for a Green India
 National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
 National Mission for Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
What more can be done? (11:15 AM)
 Solar Geoengineering
 This technique aims to reflect a small proportion of the sun's energy back into
space, counteracting global warming due to a greenhouse gas increase in the
atmosphere.
 Some proposed techniques include:
 Space reflectors
 Stratospheric aerosols injection
 Marine cloud brightening
 Albedo enhancement of the Earth's surface
 Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS)
 This technique aims to remove CO2 and other greenhouse gasses from the
atmosphere through:
 1. Afforestation
 2. Ocean alkalization by adding substances like lime (CaO), and olivine (magnesium
iron silicate) to seawater to increase the pH of the ocean which leads to the
formation of carbonates and bicarbonates from CO2 and water.
 3. Enhanced rock weathering
 It involves spreading finely ground silicate rocks such as basalt over large areas of
land that will react with CO2 in the atmosphere and in the presence of water form
carbonate minerals.
 4. Use of biochar in soil.
 Biochar is a lightweight residue remaining after the pyrolysis of biomass.
 Burying biochar in the soil increases the carbon sequestration of soil and also
increases the fertility and water-holding capacity.
 5. Post-combustion capture
 These technologies capture CO2 emissions from flue gases after fossil fuel
combustion.
 Absorbents such as amines and ammonia are used to capture CO2 which can be
then compressed, transported, and stored.
 6. Pre-combustion capture
 7. Oxy-fuel combustion
 This involves burning fossil fuel in oxygen instead of air resulting in flue gases that
are mainly water vapor and CO2.
  Water vapor can be condensed leaving almost pure CO2 to be captured easily.
 8. Direct air capture
 This technology captures CO2 directly from the ambient air.
 9. Bioenergy along with CCUS
 This process combines biomass conversion to energy with carbon capture and
storage.
 Since plants absorb CO2 as they grow, capturing emissions from bioenergy
theoretically leads to negative emissions.
 After CO2 is captured it must be transported and stored.
 Some of the options for CO2 storage include injecting CO2 in geological formations
such as depleted oil and gas fields, unminable coal mines, deep saline aquifers, and
deep oceans where it is stored as a liquid under high pressure.
Environment Class 13
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION (09:11 AM)
 Tropospheric ozone is an air pollutant, a key ingredient of photochemical smog,
and a greenhouse gas.
 However, stratospheric ozone (ozone layer) is beneficial as it filters out dangerous
high-energy UVs.
 UV can be further divided into UV-A, UV-B and UV-C with increasing frequency.
 The ozone layers filter out dangerous UV-C and a large part of UV-B.
 The ozone layer is in the stratosphere because there is plenty of oxygen and UV
light, which leads to an equilibrium between the formation and destruction of
ozone.
 If this equilibrium gets disturbed because of anthropogenic factors more towards
ozone destruction, it will lead to ozone depletion.
 More exposure to UV light can cause skin cancer, cataracts, genetic defects, and
damage to a lot of materials.
 Dobson Unit:
 It is a unit of measurement of the ozone layer.
 1 dobson unit is several ozone molecules, that would be required to create a layer
of pure ozone 0.01 mm thick at zero degrees Celsius at 1 ATM.
 In terms of dobson units, the ozone layer's average thickness is about 300 dobson
units (3mm thick).
 The term ozone hole signifies the reduction of the ozone layer to less than 100
dobson unit
MECHANISM OF OZONE DESTRUCTION (09:37 AM)
 Ozone Depleting Substances:
 Human activities add substances to the atmosphere, that can potentially reduce
ozone concentration in the ozone layer.
 E.g. Oxides of Nitrogen (Mostly due to Jet Engine Exhaust), and CFCs.
 Originally thought to be an ideal industrial chemical, because of stability, non-
toxicity, very less reactivity and longer atmospheric lifetime.
 But it became a leading cause of ozone destruction.
 The chlorine of CFC can go on to destroy more than 100,000 ozone molecules
before being removed from the air.
 Interference Reactions: There are reactions which mitigate the destructive impact
of Chlorine.
  Nitrogen oxide can act as a catalyst in ozone destruction and at the same time, they
can produce the destructive capacity of chlorine.
 Polar Stratospheric Clouds: These clouds are formed in the higher stratosphere at
less than minus 80 degrees Celsius.
 They provide a surface which converts, benign forms of Chlorine into ozone-
destroying forms.
 It also interferes with interference reactions.
 Chlorinated molecules accumulate in the stratosphere and when the first sunlight
of the season reaches all of this chlorine becomes available for ozone destruction.
 Role of Polar Vortex:
 The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding both the
earth's poles.
 It exists throughout the year but strengthens in winter.
 This vortex creates some sort of barrier isolating the upper atmosphere from the
rest of the atmosphere for some time.
 Thus, Chlorine can remain in the stratosphere for a longer duration.
OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES AND THE SOURCES (10:07 AM)
 It is a measure of how much damage chemicals can cause to the ozone layer
compared to similar mass Trichlorofluoro methane.
 We assign an Ozone destruction potential of 1 to this molecule.
 CFCs: Used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronic
components, solvents, and insolation.
 Halons: Used in fire extinguishers,
 Bromochloromethane: ODP of 6
 Carbontetra Chloride: Used as raw material in the production of CFC and HCFCs.
ODP is 1.1.
 Methyl bromide: Used in fumigation of soil and food production facilities. ODP is
0.7.
 Methyl Chloroform: Used as a solvent in cleaners, and adhesives. ODP is 0.1.
GLOBAL INITIATIVES TO TACKLE OZONE DEPLETION (10:17 AM)
 Vienna Convention (1985):
 For the protection of the ozone layer.
 It paved the way for the Montreal Protocol.
 Montreal Protocol (1987):
 It became a legally binding agreement to reduce the production and consumption
of ozone-depleting substances.
 It is considered one of the most successful environmental agreements.
 Recent studies suggest that the ozone layer is being repaired and in a few decades
will be restored.
 The protocol has become successful because of many reasons:
 1. There were trade restrictions which limited signatories to trade only with other
signatories for CFCs and other substances.
 Thus many countries ratified the protocol, there was an approach of cooperation,
and a multilateral fund was set up to support developing countries.
 New scientific information was accommodated and incentives were given to the
industry to find alternatives to ODS.
 Kigali Agreement 2016:
  Montreal Protocol was amended under Kigali AGreement and signatories have to
phase out HFCs which were not ozone-depleting but have very high Global
Warming potential.
 India is a signatory to all of the above. Under EPA-1986, govt. notified the Ozone-
depleting substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.
 As of now, India has phased out CFCs and is phasing out HCFCs.
 India will start phasing down HFCs in four steps from 2032 onwards:
 10 percent reduction by 2032.
 20 percent by 2037
 30 percent by 2042
 85 percent by 2047
 The main replacement of HFCs is a group of refrigerants known as Olefines which
has much lower GWP.
 Some companies are also exploring Ammonia, CO2, and Hydrocarbon as
refrigerants.
LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIFICATION (10:56 AM)
 Land degradation can be defined as a negative trend in land conditions which leads
to the reduction or loss of at least one of the following:
 1. Biological Productivity
 2. Ecological Integrity
 3. Value to Humans
 Land degradation within dry land regions such as arid, semi-arid areas is termed as
desertification which can turn fertile land into desert-like conditions.
 There can be both natural and anthropogenic factors.
 Natural factors wind erosion, Water Erosion, Water logging and Wildfire.
 Anthropogenic factors: Agriculture and related activities, excessive agricultural
inputs, Use of pesticides, inventive livestock farming.
 Land Use Changes:
 Mining, Industrial Development, Deforestation, Municipal Solid and Platic Waste.
IMPACT OF LAND DEGRADATION (11:28 AM)
 The environmental impact includes biodiversity loss, extreme weather events,
further contribution to climate change, and disruption of ecosystem services.
 Socio-economic impact includes Food Security Issues, Water Scarcity,
Environmental Migration, and Zoonotic diseases.
GLOBAL INITIATIVES
 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
 Rio Summit: Entered in Force in 1994. It is the only legally binding agreement at the
International level which looks into the issue of sustainable land management.
 The convention is working towards land degradation neutrality (LDN).
 This includes the restoration of productivity of degraded land.
 Enhancing the livelihood of people, and mitigating the impact of droughts on
vulnerable populations.
 The convention can support countries with the LDN Fund.
 LDN will be measured by:
 1. Land Cover and Land Cover Change
 2. Land Productivity
 3. Soil Organic Carbon
 India is a signatory to UNCCD.
  Bonn Challenge:
 Launched by govt. of Germany and IUCN.
 It is a non-binding challenge to restore 350 million hectares of land by 2030.
 India is part of this challenge and has pledged to restore 21 million hectares.
 United Nations has declared the current decade as a decade for ecosystem
restoration.
 'Namami Gange' was one of the projects selected for this purpose.
Environment Class 14
AIR POLLUTION (09:10 AM)
 Air Pollution can be defined as any solid,
liquid or gaseous substances in such
concentration in the atmosphere that it may
be detrimental to human beings and other
living creatures including plants or property
or the environment.
 Primary and Secondary Pollutants:
 Primary pollutants are directly emitted by
some sources, and secondary pollutants are
not directly emitted but form when other
pollutants react in the atmosphere.
 Examples- Acid rain (oxides of nitrogen and
sulfur)
 Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility.
This was used in the early 20th century to
describe a mix of smoke and fog.
 Many cities in Western Europe and America,
suffered from classical smog during winter.
 In many such places, classical smog is
replaced with photochemical smog, it is a
mixture of pollutants that are formed when
nitrogen oxides, and VOCs.
 They react with sunlight and form other
pollutants such as ozone and peroxyacetyl
nitrate.
 This leads to a brown haze above cities often
in summer because this is when sunlight is at
its peak.
 Ozone as Pollutant:
 Tropospheric ozone is called bad ozone.
 It can cause respiratory problems, and it
adversely affects photosynthesis, thus
damaging plants and producing crop yields.
 It is also a greenhouse gas.
 Point and Non-Point Sources:
 Point sources: When sources of a pollutant
are localised.
 Non-Point Sources: When sources of

pollutants are distributed.
 Gothenburg Protocol, 1999
 To abate acidification, eutrophication, and
ground-level ozone.
 It aims to reduce SO2, NOx, VOC and NH3.
India is not a signatory.
 India is not a party to the Protocol.
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (09:52 AM)
 Prepared by CPCB, it aims to indicate the
levels of air quality necessary with an
adequate margin of safety to protect public
health, vegetation, and property.
 The following pollutants are part of the
program :
 1. SO2
 2. NOx
 3. PM10 (particulate matter with a size
equal to or less than 10 microns meter)
 4. PM2.5 (particulate matter with a size
equal to or less than 2.5 microns meter)
 5. CO
 6. NH3
 7. Lead
 8. Ozone
 9. Benzene
 10. Benzopyrene
 11. Arsenic
 12. Nickel.
 The top 8 pollutants are used for the
calculation of the National Air Quality Index.
 The concentration of these pollutants is
measured often in micrograms/m3.
 Based on a time-weighted average, which is
often taken as either a 24-hour average or an
annual average.
 For some pollutants such as ozone and
carbon monoxide, the time-weighted average
is taken for one hour and eight hours.
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INDEX (NAQI) (10:14 AM)
 NAQI aims to provide real-time data on air
quality and convey the information to the
public. It considers 8 pollutants- PM2.5, PM10,
NO2, SO2, CO, NH3 and Pb.
 There are 6 AQI categories.
  The sub-indices for individual pollutants at a
monitoring location are calculated using a 24-
hour average concentration value (8 hours for
O3 and CO). The worst sub-index is the AQI for
that location.
 It is calculated only if data are available for at
least 3 pollutants one of which must be PM2.5
or PM10.
 Government initiatives:
 Important institutions are CPCB and SPCB
created.
 National Clean Air Programme
 It is a comprehensive strategy launched in
2019 to improve air quality in 131 non-
attainment cities
 Cities that do not meet national ambient air
quality standards
 The goal is a 40 percent reduction in PM
concentration by 2026.
 It aims to achieve this by following
 Extensive plantation drive, technological
support to states, sectoral interventions such
as electric mobility, power sector emissions,
indoor air pollution, city-specific plans,
regional and transboundary plans
 2. knowledge and database augmentation
 an air quality monitoring network, impact of
air pollution on economy and health
 review of ambient air quality standards,
institutional strengthening
 partnership with technical institutions.
BHARAT STAGE VI (10:57 AM)
 To regulate vehicles, It is equivalent to Euro VI
emission standards, it reduces the allowable
levels of several air pollutants. particular
matter, hydrocarbons,
 Vehicles must be equipped with advanced
emission control tech such as particulate
filters, and selective catalytic reduction to
reduce NOx emission among others
 Electric Vehicles
 They use batteries rather than combustion
engines, thus running vehicles does not emit
greenhouse gases or air pollutants, and it also
does not cause noise pollution.
  It helps in the conservation of energy,
however, its environmental footprint
depends upon, the source of energy to charge
the batteries, and battery waste
management
 Emission norms for thermal power plants:
 CPCB has emission norm guidelines for
pollutants such as particulate matter, SO2
NOX, and Mercury.
 Thermal power Plants are divided into three
categories based on location:
 Category 1: Thermal power plants around
NCR and cities with more than 10 lakh
population They need to comply by 2024
 Category 2: Around non-attainment cities
by 2025
 Category 3: Rest of the plants by 2026
 Fly Ash Norms:
 Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal.
 The government notified fly ash notification
2021 under EPA 1986, which has made it
mandatory 100 percent utilisation of fly
ash in an eco-friendly manner.
CLASS TEST CONDUCTED (11:30 AM)
The topic for the Next Class: Water Pollution
Environment Class 15
REVISION OF QUESTIONS GIVEN IN THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:14 PM)
WATER POLLUTION (01:28 PM):
 Parameters used by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to measure
water pollution:
 a) Temperature:
 Many aquatic organisms can't survive if the temperature of the natural water body
increases, this issue is called thermal pollution.
 This can be due to the discharge of hot water from power plants, industrial
facilities, and the operation of boats, and other watercraft.
 b) Dissolved Oxygen.
 c) pH Value.
 d) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
 BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that is consumed by bacteria as they
break down organic matter in the water, thus a higher BOD means more organic
pollutants.
 COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that is required to chemically oxidize
organic matter or even inorganic matter, thus more amount of pollutant means
more COD.
 Both BOD and COD are measured in milligrams per litre (mg/L).
 For the water sample, COD is higher than BOD.
 This is because chemical oxidation is faster and such oxidizing agents can also
oxidize inorganic pollutants.
 Some important chemicals that are used in COD measurement are Potassium
dichromate, Potassium permanganate, copper sulfate, and Titanium Sulfate.
 e) Conductivity:
 Conductivity doesn't directly tell about a particular pollutant but can be used to
know about salinity and metallic pollutants.
 f) Nitrate and Nitrite:
 Nitrate is a soluble compound found in fertilizers, animal manure, and other
sources.
 Nitrite is less stable and produced when nitrate is reduced by bacteria.
 Water with high nitrate and nitrite can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood (Blue Baby Syndrome).
 g) Fecal Coliform and total coliform:
 Coliform bacteria are found in the feces of warm-blooded animals including
humans.
 The presence of coliform bacteria indicates the presence of other dangerous
microbes.
 Ground Water Pollution (02:07 PM):
 The major sources can be chemical pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers, leaks and spills of petroleum products, industrial waste from
manufacturing and mining, and landfills used for waste management.
 Some of the most important pollutants are:
 i) Arsenic - Arsenic contamination is mainly due to geological factors.
 ii) Lead, Cadmium, and Chromium - mainly due to industrial discharge and mining
activity.
 iii) Nitrate - Mostly due to agriculture.
 iv) Fluorides - Mostly due to geological factors.
 v) Salinity - Due to excessive irrigation.
 vi) Iron and Manganese - Due to geological factors.
 vii) Uranium - Due to geological factors.
 Sand Mining:
 Sand is a minor mineral as per the Mines and Mineral (Development and
Regulation) Act of 1957.
 Sand mining is a widespread and often illegal practice that involves the extraction
of sand from riverbeds, and beaches, used in construction and manufacturing.
 Unregulated sand mining has adverse consequences:
 i) Destruction of riverbed habitats.
 ii) Destabilising of river banks due to erosion.
 iii) Adverse impact on groundwater recharge.
 iv) Loss of biodiversity.
 v) Lowering the water table can cause water security issues.
 vi) Coastal sand mining can erode beaches which are important for tourism and
coastal protection.
 vii) It can also lead to saltwater intrusion.
 As per Government regulations, riverbed mining is not allowed in monsoon season,
all districts need to have a comprehensive mining plan, and an annual audit mining
lease must occur.
  Revision of the Previous Years Questions (02:25 PM):
SOUND POLLUTION (02:58 PM):
 As per the World Health Organization (WHO), the described sound limit is 45
decibels by day and 35 decibels by night.
 Anything above 80 decibels is hazardous, it can cause increased blood pressure,
loss of temper, anxiety, depression, decrease in work efficiency, and loss of hearing.
 In the Air (Prevention and Control) of Pollution Act 1981, sound pollution is
identified as an air pollutant.
 The Government has also notified Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules,
2000 under the Environment Protection Act of 1986 which provides guidelines for
the prevention and control of noise pollution.
 Radioactive Pollution (03:06 PM):
 Radioactive pollution is the result of nuclear explosions, testing of nuclear
weapons, mining of radioactive ores, accidents at nuclear power plants, and
handling and disposal of nuclear waste.
 Short-term exposure to high levels of radiation can cause immediate illness or
death and even exposure to short-dose for longer term increases the risk of cancer
and other diseases.
 Light Pollution (03:16 PM):
 Excessive or inappropriate use of outdoor artificial light is called light pollution.
 There are many types of light pollution:
 i) Glare - High intense light that can cause visual discomfort.
 ii) Skyglow - Brightening of the night sky due to scattering of artificial light.
 iii) Clutter - Excessive grouping of light sources.
 Nocturnal light interrupts sleep patterns and confuses circadian rhythm.
 It also affects the migration patterns of animals and habitat formation.
WASTE MANAGEMENT ISSUES (03:27 PM):
 Solid Waste:
 The total municipal solid waste generated in the country is more than 160
thousand tonnes per day.
 We don't have enough landfills to take care of all the solid waste which is being
generated.
 One of the most important things that can be done is to invest in waste to energy.
 The following methods can be adopted:
 a) Incineration (direct burning) - Best suitable for dry waste.
 b) Plasma gasification:
 An extreme thermal process using plasma that converts organic matter into syn
gas.
 c) Pyrolysis:
 It involves the application of heat with no added oxygen in order to generate a syn
gas.
 d) Bio-methanation:
 Organic material is microbiologically converted under anaerobic conditions to
make biogas.
 These techniques have the benefits of:
 i) Landfill usage and expansion can be greatly reduced.
 ii) Transportation of waste to long distances can be reduced.
 iii) Contributes to energy output.
  Challenges:
 i) Low calorific value:
 ii) Municipal solid waste is not segregated properly.
 iii) It has a very high biodegradable (wet) waste with high moisture content.
 iv) Incinerators develop toxic ash or slag and contribute to air pollution.
 v) To Produce, power is very expensive and distribution companies may not buy it.
 vi) Opposition from local people.
 Plastic Waste:
 India produces more than 3.5 million tonnes of plastic annually, and only about
50% is recycled.
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS - WASTE MANAGEMENT (TO BE CONTINUED.....) AND
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Environment Class 16

BIOREMEDIATION (09:12 AM)

 It is an environmentally friendly cost-effective method to treat and clean up
environmental pollutants such as pollutants in ground and surface waters, and
landfills, by utilizing, micro-organisms to degrade, remove or neutralize
pollutants.
 In-Situ Remediation:
 It involves the treatment of contaminated material at the site.
 E.g., bio-venting involves pumping air into the soil to stimulate microbial activity.
 Ex-Situ Remediation:
 It involves the removal of contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
 E.g. Biopiles, where excavated soil is mixed with nutrients, moisture, and controlled
aeration, for the degradation of pollutants.
 Phyto-Remediation:
 This includes plants to absorb, accumulate and detoxify pollutants.
 E.g. Poplar trees: Treat contaminated groundwater
 Sunflower: Extract toxic metals from the soil in the aftermath of Chernobyl.
 There are certain challenges in Bio-Remediation:
 The effectiveness depends upon environmental conditions such as temperature,
pH, presence of oxygen.
 Bio-remediation techniques are slower and may not be suitable for all types of
situations.
 The complete breakdown of pollutants, particularly heavy metal pollutants often
does not occur.
PLASTIC POLLUTION (09:30 AM)
 Plastic pollution is one of the biggest environmental issues we are facing.
 Most plastic does not bio-degrade, it harms marine life and accumulates in gyres.
 The breakdown of plastic waste leads to microplastics, and microbeads, which are
ingested by marine organisms entering the food chain and potentially impacting
human health.
 Many plastics also leech toxic chemicals such as Bisphenol-A into food and
beverages.
 To tackle plastic pollution, we need to:
  reduce its uses which should include minimizing or eliminating Single-use plastic.
 recycling and upcycling
 biodegradable compostable plastic
EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY (09:56 AM)
 It is based on the 'Polluters Pay' principle.
 All the stakeholders have a responsibility to tackle particular waste-related issues.
However, producers have the highest responsibility.
 This concept was introduced in Electronic Waste Management Rules, 2011 as of
now it is integrated into Electronic Waste Management Rules 2016, Plastic Waste
Management Rules 2016 and Battery Waste Management 2022.
 Under Plastic waste rules, they also introduced the concept of the Plastic Credit
Model, a market-based mechanism to implement EPRs.
 As per the amendment in 2022, single-use plastic has been banned and the
minimum thickness of plastic bags has been increased from 75 microns to 12
microns.
GLOBAL CONVENTIONS (10:17 AM)
 Basel Convention, 1992
 This aims to tackle the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste.
 Such movement can't occur without the Prior Informed Consent of the country
where the waste is being moved.
 It does not include waste from the shipping industry and radioactive waste.
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 2004
 It aims to eliminate or reduce persistent organic pollutants which are dangerous
chemicals with high lifetime, biomagnification and carcinogen.
 Started with the 12 most dangerous POPs called Dirty Dozens.
 As of now, many more chemicals can be added
 Many of these PoPs are pesticides or industrial chemicals.
 Rotterdam Convention
 it is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibility for the international trade
of hazardous chemicals.
 it promotes the open exchange of information which includes direction on safe
handling, possible dangerous impacts and any known restrictions or bans thus it
works on PIC.
 Minamata Convention 2013
 It is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the
adverse impact of mercury.
 It aims to phase out the use of mercury in several products.
 mercury can cause, Minamata disease, there is no safe pollutant limit for mercury
 MARPOL Convention, 1973
 The MARPOL Convention, 1973, aims to prevent marine pollution by regulating the
discharge of harmful substances from ships into the ocean.
 It sets standards for oil, chemicals, sewage, garbage, and emissions, promoting
environmental protection in maritime activities.
DISCUSSION ON PYQs (10:52 AM)
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES (11:25 AM)
 It includes all non-fossil fuel sources.
  Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
 Renewable: Ocean Thermal, Solar, Wind, etc.
 Non Renewable: Nuclear Energy
SOLAR ENERGY (11:43 AM)
 There are two ways to utilize solar energy :
 i. Solar Thermal Technology
 This includes
 a. Solar Water Heating: Capturing solar energy to heat water directly for
residential, commercial or industrial use.
 b. Concentrated Solar Power: This uses a Concave Mirror/Parabolic Mirror or
convex lens to concentrate sunlight onto a small area typically a heat-absorbing
fluid.
 Thus fluid is used to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to a generator
to produce electricity.
 This is used for large-scale power generation.
 ii. Solar photovoltaic
 Photovoltaic cells are dependent on sunlight and convert sunlight to electricity
using silicon.
 They generate direct current which can be converted into AC.
 Challenges Associated with Solar:
 Intermittency: Solar Energy is dependent on sunlight, making it an intermittent
energy source, it cannot be relied upon during bad weather conditions or the night.
 Such intermittent supply also makes the power grid unstable.
 Land and water use.
 High capital cost.
 For photo voltaic cells increasing efficiency remains a challenge.
 for PV recycling of panels is important otherwise it will cause another set of waste
problems.
Topic for the next class: Non Conventional Energy Sources (Continued)
Environment Class 17
NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION (09:07 AM)
 The target was to achieve 100 GW of installed solar energy capacity by 2022.
 It has been revised to 300 GW by 2030.
PM SURYODAYA YOJANA
 The centre will subsidize the cost of setting up a rooftop solar system for
households that consume less than 300 units of electricity per month.
 The target is to install rooftop solar panels on 1 crore houses.
 The household can become a supplier of electricity to the power grid if solar energy
supply is more than demand.
 Net metering is required to record energy flow in both directions and at the end of
the billing period net energy use is calculated
PM KUSUM YOJANA
 It has three components:
 Installation of stand-alone solar-powered agricultural pumps.
 Solarization of grid-connected agricultural pumps.
  10 GW of solar capacity through the installation of small solar power plants with
individual capacity up to 2 MW.
SURYA MITRA
 It is a skill development program considering the opportunities for employment
in growing solar energy power.
INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE
 On the sidelines of the Paris Agreement 2015, COP 21, India and France
conceptualized the International Solar Alliance.
 It is headquartered in Gurugram Haryana.
 All UN members can become part of this alliance.
 It is guided by the Towards 1000s strategy: which aims to mobilise 1000 billion
dollars of investment in Solar Energy by 2030 in developing nations.
ONE WORLD ONE SUN ONE GRID (09:33 AM)
 At the first assembly of ISA in 2018, the PM announced this initiative.
 It aims to connect different regional grids with common grids, that will be used to
transfer renewable energy power, particularly solar energy.
 It was officially launched at COP26 of UNFCCC.
 It aims to be implemented in three phases:
 1. Interconnection of Middle East, South Asia, and South East Asia.
 2. This grid is getting interconnected with the African Power grid.
 3. Global Interconnection
WIND ENERGY (09:40 AM)
 There are two types of Wind Turbines:
 1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine: The design and installation are complex, they
require larger space and depend upon wind direction but they have a higher power
coefficient.
 2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: They are simpler and movement is not dependent
upon wind direction but has a lower power coefficient.
 Challenges:
 Intermittency: Only efficient/functional when strong winds are blowing.
 High initial cost.
 Offshore wind turbines can adversely affect aquatic ecosystem
 Govt Schemes:
 National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy 2018:
 For efficient use of land, and transmission infrastructure, to reduce variability in
renewable power generation, and to achieve better grid stability.
 National Offshore-Wind Energy Policy 2015:
 To promote spatial planning and management of Maritime Renewable Energy
Resources in India's EEZ by boosting indigenization.
HYDROGEN AS FUEL (10:04 AM)
 Hydrogen is a great energy source with very high energy density, clean burning,
water vapour as the end product, and energy.
 It is also a reliable source of energy, unlike solar or wind.
 Even though hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, on Earth and
in the atmosphere, it is not available in free form, which allows industrial
extraction.
 Different methods of production are used for hydrogen and all these production
methods are assigned a color.
  Green Hydrogen:
 It is produced through the electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources
solar, wind, tidal, etc.
 Green hydrogen does not produce greenhouse gases during production.
 If we use nuclear energy for electrolysis, we can call it pink or purple hydrogen.
 Grey Hydrogen
 This uses a process called Steam-Methane Reforming.
 CH4 + H20 (steam = CO +3H2
 CO + H20 = CO2 + H2
 Brown Hydrogen:
 This uses a method called coal gasification.
 It involves the oxidation of coal to produce syngas.
 This follows the water gas shift reaction
 This process generates a large amount of CO2 and coal tar.
 It has certain benefits: even low-quality coal can be made into syngas and some of
the byproducts have utility in industrial processes.
 Turquoise Hydrogen
 It uses a process called methane pyrolysis.
 Environment friendliness depends upon the energy source.
 Blue hydrogen:
 This is similar to grey and brown hydrogen but includes the capture of carbon
dioxide.
HOW TO USE HYDROGEN (10:58 AM)
 There are two methods:
 i. Hydrogen Combustion Engine:
 It works by burning hydrogen in a combustion chamber similar to how petrol or
diesel engine operates.
 It requires air for combustion.
 Hydrogen is ignited in the presence of oxygen which leads to high temperature and
high-pressure explosion
 This explosion forces a piston in the engine to move, converting the energy of the
explosion into mechanical work moving vehicles or powering a generator.
 ii. Fuel Cell
 Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process similar to
batteries but with a continuous supply of fuels.
 The most common type is a proton exchange membrane fuel cell.
 In a fuel cell, there is an anode, where hydrogen molecules are split into electrons
and protons through a catalyst.
 A polymer electrolyte membrane allows protons to pass through but electrons are
forced through an external circuit to the cathode (oxygen side).
 Where electron combines and form H20 in the process, an electrical current is
produced which can be used to do work.
 Fuel cells have very high efficiency (more than 80 percent).
CHALLENGES IN HYDROGEN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
 About 95 percent of hydrogen produced is through steam methane reforming and
coal gasification.
 Green hydrogen production is a cleaner method but is very expensive and accounts
for less than 5 percent of hydrogen production on a global scale.
  Hydrogen is used to be stored at high pressure in transportation which requires
energy-expensive infrastructure
 Another storage can be cryogenic (minus 250 degrees Celsius), this is very costly
and energy-intensive.
 Moving hydrogen whether by pipeline road or other methods is challenging and
expensive.
 Fuel cells are very expensive due to the use of catalysts like platinum.
 Hydrogen combustion engines are less efficient and contribute to NOx emissions.
 Hydrogen is highly flammable it's also the smallest and lightest molecule making it
prone to leaks.
 The government of India has announced the National Green Hydrogen Mission
with the following Objectives:
 5 million metric tons of Green Hydrogen Production Capacity by 2030.
 125 GW of electricity using green hydrogen.
 Reduction in fossil fuel import over 1 lakh crore rupees.
 50 million metric tons of reduction of greenhouse gases.
 The mission has a financial incentive mechanism called Strategic Intervention for
Green Hydrogen Transition Program.
BIOFUELS
 Biomass is converted to energy through various processes including direct burning,
and chemical or biological conversion to a liquid or gaseous fuel.
 Biomass-based energy is considered renewable as inherent energy comes from the
sun and it can regrow in a relatively short time.
TYPES OF BIOFUELS
 Bioethanol: It is made from the fermenting and distillation of crops that are high
in carbohydrates such as corn wheat, and sugar cane among others.
 It is often used as an additive to Petrol which reduces CO2 emission.
 Biodiesel:
 It is made from vegetable oil and animal fats.
 It can be used as an additive to diesel fuel in vehicles.
 Biogas:
 It is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as agricultural waste
or manure.
 Bioethanol:
 Made from wood, organic waste, etc.
GENERATIONS OF BIOFUEL
 Ist Gen Biofuels: Made from feedstock such as Corn, Wheat, and Sugarcane,
among others.
 2nd Gen Biofuels: These are made from nonfood feedstock such as agricultural
waste, and rotting crops.
 3rd Gen Biofuels: Made from seaweed, algae, and others.
 4th Gen: This includes genetic engineering to enhance the growth of algae and
regeneration which can help further in biofuel production.
NATIONAL POLICY ON BIOFUEL 2018
 It divides biofuel into two categories basic and advanced.
 The viability gap funding scheme for ethanol refineries.
 MSP for nonedible oil.
  the target of 20 percent blending of ethanol in petrol and 5 percent biodiesel in
diesel by 2025.
 It is implemented by the National Biofuels Coordination Committee under the
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
 Expoer of biofuel will generally not be permitted except with the approval of NBCC.
Topic for the Next Class: Biofuel Continued
Environment Class 18
HYDROPOWER (09:09 AM)
 Hydropower is one of the oldest and most widely used sources of harnessing the
energy of flowing or falling water.
 They are of many types:
 Run-off River Hydropower:
 This generates electricity without significantly altering the flow of the river.
 It includes a small diversion of the river flows through a canal to a turbine which
drives a generator.
 Storage Hydropower:
 This involves the construction of a dam across a river to store water in the reservoir.
 The electricity is generated by releasing water from the reservoir through turbines.
 Pumped Hydrostorage:
 During low electricity demand, excess electricity is used to pump water from the
lower reservoir to the upper reservoir.
 When demand is high the water is released to produce electricity.
 In India, hydroelectric power projects are categorized based on installed capacity
 For Example, the installed capacity of up to 100kw is called Micro Hydropower.
 100kW - 2 MW: Mini Hydropower
 2MW -25 MW is a small Hydropower.
 More than 25 MW is called a large hydropower project
 Meg HPP has a capacity of more than 500 MW
 Benefits of HP:
 Renewable energy source
 No emission of greenhouse gases (for small hydropower it is negligible )
 Very high efficiency
 In the case of large projects, storage capacity allows better management of water
resources which can help in flood mitigation, water supply for irrigation, and
providing a means of balancing the grid, especially in regions with fluctuating
power demand.
 Challenges:
 It alters the river hydrology by obstructing the natural flow
 It leads to loss of biodiversity by submerging large areas also dams can obstruct
the migration route of aquatic organisms
 Dams trap sediments which degrade water quality and reduce reservoir capacity.
 Lack of sediments leads to loss of fertility of soil downstream.
 The decomposition of organic material in submerged forests can release methane.
 The immense weight of water in a large reservoir can induce seismic activities.
 Displacement of local communities leads to socio-economic and cultural
disruption.
OCEAN ENERGY (09:39 AM)
  There are four ways to utilise ocean energy:
 Tidal Energy:
 Produced by ocean water during the rise and fall of tides.
 In India, the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, Andaman and Nicobar have high
potential.
 Wave Energy:
 Using the kinetic energy of ocean waves to move a turbine to produce electricity.
 As per MNRE, India is estimated to have 12.5 GW of tidal power capacity and 41.5
GW of wave power capacity
 Current energy:
 Ocean currents are fairly constant in both speed and flow
 Ocean thermal energy:
 It harnesses the temperature difference between ocean surface water and deep
ocean water.
 It can be used to produce electricity and desalinate ocean water, warm surface
water is pumped through an evaporator containing a working fluid.
 Vaporised fluid drives the turbine and is turned back to liquid in a condenser cooled
with cold ocean water pimped from deeper into the ocean.
 If it uses sea water as a working fluid we can also produce fresh water.
GEOTHERMAL (09:59 AM)
 It harnesses the heat from the earth to generate electricity and for direct heating
purposes.
 The source of geothermal energy is the internal high temperature of the earth
which is the residual heat from planet formation and decay of radioactive material.
 Heat from the core naturally flows towards the surface and is conducted through
the earth's crust in some areas, particularly along tectonic plate boundaries heat is
closer to the surface and can be easily harnessed.
 There can be a few types of geothermal systems
 i. Hydrothermal Reservoir: The most common and easier to use and naturally
occurring stream of hot water.
 ii. Enhanced Geothermal System: engineers can create reservoirs by injecting
water into hot rock, and fracturing it to create pathways for water to circulate and
heat up.
 As per the geological survey of India, there are seven geothermal provinces in India.
 Himalayan Geothermal Province:
 Puga Valley, Manikarnika
 Sohana, Haryana
 West Coast Geothermal Province Parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra
 Cambay in Gujarat
 Son, Narmada and Tapi
 Godavari: Rajahmundry traps
 Peninsular India: This includes patches in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu
 Challenges:
 Geothermal energy is location-specific and can involve high upfront costs.
 There can be environmental concerns such as the release of CO2 and SO2.
 It can induce seismic activities.
INDIAS ENERGY BASKET (10:18 AM)
 Total installed capacity: 430 GW.
  Fossil fuel contribution is 56 per cent out of which lignite and coal contribute 50
percent of the total.
 Solar contribution is 17 per cent, wind 10.5 per cent, small hydropower 1.2 percent,
large hydropower 11 per cent, and nuclear is 1.7 percent.
 Renewable purchase obligations:
 Discoms are required to include certain promotions of renewable energy supply
under the Electricity Act 2003 and National Tariff Policy 2006.
 Renewable energy certificates:
 It is a market-based instrument to promote renewable sources of energy it is
equivalent to 1 MW hour of electricity injected into the grid from renewable energy
sources
 These certificates are tradeable on two power exchanges Indian Energy Exchange
and the Power Exchange of India Limited
 The regulator for this market mechanism is CERC.
FOREST (10:51 AM)
 Forest: Forest is an area dominated by trees.
 Forest cover: All patches of land with tree canopy density > 10 percent and an
area of more than 1 hectare irrespective of ownership, species of trees, or land use.
 Canopy Density: It refers to the proportion of an area in the ground, that is covered
by the crown of trees, and is expressed as a percentage of total area.
 Based on canopy density we can further divide forests:
 Very Dense Forest: >70 percent canopy density
 Moderately Dense Forest: 40-70 percent canopy density
 Open Forests: 10-40 percent canopy density.
 Recorded Forest Area: All lands notified as forest under any government act or
rules,
 Deemed Forest: These are land tracts that appear to be a forest but are not
notified by the state government.
 Tree cover: All patches of trees less than 1 hectare outside recorded forest area.
 Trees outside forest: Any tree outside the recorded forest area, irrespective e of
patch size, thus tree cover is a subset of the tree outside the forest.
INDIAN FOREST SURVEY REPORT 2021 (11:20 AM)
 Forest survey report is released by forest survey of India biennially
 It is released every two years.
 The total forest cover is 7,13,789 sq. km.
 21.71 percent of the geographical forest area.
 Very Dense Forest: 3.04 percent
 Moderately Dense Forest: 9.33 percent
 Open Forest: 9.34 percent
 The top 5 states in total forest cover are:
 1. Madhya Pradesh
 2. Arunachal Pradesh
 3. Chattisgarh
 4. Odisha
 5. Maharashtra
 The top 5 states by percentage of state geographic area under forest cover
are:
 1. Mizoram
  2. Arunachal Pradesh
 3. Meghalaya
 4. Manipur
 5. Nagaland
 The state with maximin tree cover is Maharashtra.
 The top 5 states/UTs in Mangrove cover are:
 1. West Bengal
 2. Gujarat
 3. Andaman and the Nicobar Islands
 4. Andhra Pradesh
 5. Maharashtra
 State with the highest bamboo-bearing area: Madhya Pradesh
 No forest fires were detected highest in Odisha, MP, and Chattisgarh.
 In terms of forest types, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest has the highest percentage
followed by Tropical Moist deciduous forest, plantation forest, and Tropical Semi-
Evergreen Forest.
 At the global level, Russia followed by Brazil, Canada, the US and China have the
highest forest cover. India is in 10th position.
LEGAL MECHANISM TO PROTECT FOREST (11:36 AM)
 Indian Forest Act, 1927.
 It established a framework for Forest Administration and Management and it
provided for the demarcation of reserved forests, protected forests, and village
forests.
 Reserved forests are the most restricted forest constituted by the state
government.
 Local people are prohibited unless specifically allowed by a forest officer.
 Protected forests have a low level of protection, local people will be allowed.
 However, certain activities such as collecting major forest produce can be banned.
 Village forests are areas where a village community resides, within a reserved
forest.
 The act recognizes the rights of local communities such as rights of Access, Use,
and Transit.
 It provided for the regulation and control of forest produce which includes both
Timber and Non-Timber products.
 The act listed various offences like the felling of trees, encroachment, and hunting
and prescribed penalties for them.
 It provided for mapping and survey of forests and records of rights and privileges.
 In the amendment in 2017, bamboo growing in non-forest areas waived off the
requirement of permission for its felling.
 Forest Conservation Act 1980 (11:53 AM)
 This act requires prior approval from the central government for the diversion of
forest land for non-forest purposes.
 It mandates compensatory afforestation.
 If forest land is diverted for nonforest purposes an equivalent area of non-forest
land has to be afforested or reforested.
 The act established the Forest Advisory Committee, which advises the union govt.
on matters of forest conservation and diversion of forest land.
  The act provides exceptions for certain categories such as projects related to
defense national security, and public utility.
 It recognizes the involvement of the local community in forest conservation and
management.
 Compensatory Afforestation Act 2016
 Supreme Court in 2002, TN Godavarman case has ordered the creation of
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority Fund.
 In 2016, the government enacted the Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Act which established a two-tier mechanism:
 National Fund and the State Fund under Public Accounts of India and States.
 The net Present Economic Value of the Forest will be calculated, 10 percent of the
contribution will go to the National Fund, and 90 percent to the State Fund.
 National Compensatory Afforestation Fund, State Compensatory Afforestation
Fund under respective Public Accounts.
 The National Fund will receive 10 percent and the State will receive the remaining
90 percent.
The topic for the next class: Water Conservation, Sustainable Agriculture
Environment Class 19
FORESTS RIGHT ACT, 2006 (09:07 AM)
 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forests
Rights), Act 2006 implemented by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
 Landmark legislation aims to correct historical injustices suffered by indigenous
communities regarding the access and use of forest resources.
 The main provisions are:
 1. Recognition of Forest Rights:
 The act recognizes forest rights to forest-dwelling communities to forest-dwelling
communities.
 This includes individual and community rights such as title rights: and legal
recognition over traditional lands (Maximum 4 hectares).
 2. Use Rights:
 It provides the right to extract use and manage forest produce to collect Minor
Forest Produce including Bamboo, Honey, Wax, etc.
 3. Relief and Development Rights:
 Rehabilitation in case of eviction or forced displacement.
 4. Management Rights:
 Right to Protect, conserve and manage any community forest resource.
 5. Habitat Rights:
 Habitat rights are given to PVTGs who are pre-agricultural communities These
rights are given over a fairly large area.
 It includes rights, livelihood, and social and cultural practices in their habitat.
 The Bharia tribe in MP and the Baiga community in Chattisgarh were given habitat
rights.
 Thus Forest Rights Act includes both individual rights such as self-cultivation, and
habitation.
 As well as community rights such as grazing fishing, access to water bodies, and
management of community forest resources among others.
 Eligibility
  Members of scheduled tribes and non-ST forest dwellers who have resided on the
forest land for more than three generations or 75 years before December 2005.
 Implementation: This act comes under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
 The act was involved with a bottom-up approach involving a three-tier structure.
 i. Gram Sabha: It initiates the process by receiving claims and conducting enquiry.
 ii. Sub-Divisional Level Committee: Reviews the recommendations made by
Gram Sabha
 iii. District-level committee: Makes final decision on recognition of rights.
 Critical Wildlife Habitat:
 It is defined as areas within National Parks and Sanctuaries, where certain rights
can be modified or resettled for wildlife conservation.
 This will be done on a scientific basis by experts in consultation with local
communities with suitable resettlement packages.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR FOREST CONSERVATION (09:43 AM)
 1. National Afforestation Policy, 1988: 33 percent of forest cover.
 2. Green India Mission
 It is one of the plans of National Action Plan on Climate Change
 Growth in forest or tree covers to 5 Million hectares and increase the quality of
forest by another 5 million hectares.
 Joint forest management: This was introduced as part of the National
Afforestation Policy.
 This is implemented under an arrangement between village communities,
beneficiaries, and a state forest department committee called forest protection
committee is constituted
 The committee consists of one or two members from each family of the village, this
committee with the local forest department, jointly manages the forest block.
 Social Forestry:
 It means the management and protection of forests and afforestation, on barren
lands, with the help purpose of environmental social and rural development.
 It can include urban forestry, and the use of the Miyawaki method to increase forest
cover in urban areas.
UN-REDD & UN-REDD+ (09:57 AM)
 UNREDD (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation), is
the UN knowledge and advisory platform on the forest solution to the climate
crisis.
 It was launched in 2008 and uses the expertise of UNEP, FAO, and UNDP as of now
UN-REDD supports REDD+ processes.
 The plus refers to the conservation, sustainable forest management, and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
 It is a framework created by UNFCCC at COP 19, 2013 in Warsaw, Poland.
 It aims to increase the forest cover.
 Parties agree that REDD+ should be implemented in phases:
 1. Adoptiong National Strategies
 2. Implementation of National Policies
 3. Result-based payment
 Forest carbon partnership facility, the global partnership of government
businesses, civil society, and indigenous people, helps developing nations in the
implementation of REDD+.
  United Nations has declared the current decade 2021-2030 as the UN decade on
ecosystem restoration, including restoring both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 The Namami Gange Program is recognized as one of the projects under the
objectives of ecosystem restoration.
WATER CONSERVATION (10:26 AM)
 As per the Central Water Commission, the per capita availability of freshwater in
India will decrease from 1434 cubic metres in 2005 to 1219 cubic metres in 2050.
 Water availability of 1700-1000 cubic cm per person per year, is water stressed
condition
 1000-500 is water scarcity and less than 500 is absolute scarcity.
 India accounts for more than 17 percent of the world's population with about just 4
percent of water resources, out of total water on planet Earth, 97 percent is marine.
 Out of 3 percent fresh water, about 68.7 percent is ice caps, glaciers and
permafrost, 30.1 percent ground water, 0.26 percent lakes, 0.05 percent soil
moisture, 0.04 percent atmosphere and about 0.006 percent in rivers.
 India accounts for 25 percent of global groundwater extraction out of which 90
percent is used, in agricultural activities.
INSTITUTIONS (11:02 AM)
 Central Water Commission
 Responsible for research and development and policy formulation in water
planning and projects.
 Central Ground Water Board
 To monitor and implement policies for sustainable management of groundwater
resources.
 Central Ground Water Authority
 It is a statutory body created under the Environment Protection Act, to regulate the
development and management of groundwater resources.
SUSTAINABILITY IN AGRICULTURE (11:42 AM)
 Problems due to current agricultural practices:
 a. Biodiversity Loss:
 Monocropping
 Slash and Burn Agriculture
 b. Land degradation
 Excessive fertilisers and pesticides
 Excessive water.
 Intensive Tillage
 c. Water Pollution:
 Excessive Pesticides and Fertilisers
 Eutrophication
 d. Water Scarcity
 Water guzzling crops
 e. Air Pollution
 Stubble burning,
 f. Global Warming and Climate Change
 CH4 Emission due to crops such as rice.
 N20 due to animal manure, and the fertilizer industry.
 g. Negative impact on human health.
 Excessive fertilizers and pesticides.
  Monocropping
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE METHODS
 Diversification
 Millet Cultivation
 Mulching: Covering the soil surface around plants with a layer of material which can
include organic matter such as straw, leaves, and wood chips, but can also include
inorganic material such as plastic gravel,
 Mulching helps in moisture conservation, temperature regulation, soil erosion
control, improved fertility of soil, and enhancing soil organic matter.
Topic for The Next Class: Sustainable Agriculture (Continued)
World History Class 14
COLD WAR (01:12 PM):
 2 Equals with 2 ideologies ( Communism Vs. Capitalism).
 Due to a defensive approach.
 Class conflicts with third countries.
 Role of leaders (Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, etc).
 Psychological fear of communism among the public.
 UN is seen as biased towards the USA (Seen as an agent of the allied power).
 The formal beginning of the Cold War - 1947 (Truman Doctrine).
 The US tried to end communism through culturally, economically, and militarily (Set
up NATO, Baghdad Pact, SEATO)
 Cold War became the economic reason for the failure of the USSR.
 Warsaw Pact - 1955.
 Yalta Conference - 1945 (02:20 pm):
 Germans were about to be defeated and a conference was held to decide the future
of Axis powers.
 Potsdam Conference - 1945:
 Germany - It's now defeated; Disarmement.
 Disagreement on the unification of Germany; Japan nuked after two days without
informing Stalin.
 What was Iron Curtain: Lack of engagement and animosity @ Eastern and Western
Europe.
 (Note: Refer to the map regarding Germany after WW II).
TRUMAN DOCTRINE (02:45 PM):
 It led to the policy of containment and abandonment of the policy of isolation.
 The US will support free people.
 A policy of containment:
 Economically - By Marshal Aid 1947
 Politically - Interfering and rigging elections.
 Militarily - Establishment of NATO (1949).
1979 ISLAMIC REVOLUTION REASONS AND CONSEQUENCES:
 Clerics - western style society of Shah.
 Shah was seen as pro-US by radicals.
 Shah flew and the Ayatollah regime was established.
MARSHAL PLAN (1947) (02:51 PM):
 Aim - To strengthen Western Europe against the communist east.
 Impact - 13 billion $ from 1947 to 1951.
  The long-term impact was the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the fall of the
Berlin Wall (1989).
COMNIFORM:
 Group of all socialist parties of Europe.
 Only one road to socialism ie must follow USSR-like policies (rapid industrialization,
collectivized, and centralized).
 Disbanded in 1956 by Nikita as part of Destalinization.
 [Czech Republic 1948:
 Govt was a coalition of communist and socialist parties.
 Public - Rejection of Marshal's aid under Soviet pressure].
DIVISION OF GERMANY (02:58 PM):
 It all started with occupation zones in 1945, Marshal Aid in 1947, and the launch of a
new currency in 1948.
 People in the East EU began changing all of their German currency to new currency
because it was worth more.
 Strong currency in West Berlin while poor currency in East Berlin.
 Thus Stalin was put under pressure to merge but Stalin didn't like pressure.
 The fall of the Berlin Wall became the symbol of the end of communism.
 McCarthyism - 1950-54:
 Started with the USSR developing an Atomic Bomb in 1949 and strengthened by
events like the Korean War, the Indo-China freedom struggle, etc.
PARTIAL THAW POST-STALIN (1953) (03:13 PM):
 Events during thaw:
 The Korean War ended in 1953.
 Indo-China War (1946-54).
 1955 Austrian State Treaty.
 1956 Comniform disbanded.
 (Cuban Missile Crisis - 1962).
TENSION IN EAST EU:
 Poland 1956 - Nikita shows weapons.
 Czechoslovakia checked in 1968.
 Socialism with a human face.
KOREAN WAR 1950-53:
 Dangerous doctrines came during this time by the US:
 Massive retaliation.
 Doctrine of Brinkmanship.
 MAD - Mutually Assured Destruction.
 Nuclear deterrence.
VIETNAM (03:35 PM):
 1st Indo-China War - 1946-54.
 Geneva Agreement 1954 - Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia were given independence.
 The Civil War affected the Geneva Agreement.
 There were four phases of the Vietnam War (Like under Kennedy, under Johnson, etc).
DETENTE IN 1970s (03:48 PM):
 SALT I 1972.
 US - USSR feared a nuclear war.
 US policy in Vietnam brought public pressure.
 1978 - The US withdrew recognition to govt in Taiwan as govt of the whole of China.
  1979 - The Islamic Revolution in Iran broke CENTO.
 1981 - Poland was invaded by the USSR.
 [Note: The faculty explained the personal views (Like wanted an economic revival of
USSRs based on capitalist measures, decentralization, etc) and political steps taken
by Mikhail Gorbachev (like Glasnost, Perestroika - brought partial democracy,
small-scale industries were opened to the private sector, etc and disintegration of
USSR (Reasons like Siberian coal miners strike, failure of USSR economy, food
shortages, etc in detail through handouts].
NOTE: The syllabus of World History is completed with this class.

Environment Class 20
AGRICULTURE (CONTINUES) (01:10 PM)
 Fertigation
 It is a method of applying fertiliser, nutrients or other plant growth-promoting
substances through irrigation.
 Drip irrigation systems are generally used for fertigation.
 Integrated Pest Management
 It is an environmentally sensitive approach with the goal not to eradicate but to
manage pest populations at acceptable levels.
 Multiple methods are used such as:
 Mechanical or physical traps
 Biological methods such as the use of natural predators or parasites of the pest
 Even Chemical pesticides as a last resort in a judicious manner.
 Permaculture
 Permaculture is not one strategy but a holistic approach to agriculture that
integrates ecological principles, economic considerations, and landscape
management with agricultural strategy.
 The goal is to create sustainable and resilient farming systems that promote
biodiversity, enhance soil health, and animal health, and support the well-being of
local communities.
 Conservation Tillage
 Minimising or eliminating tillage to reduce soil erosion through water filtration,
preserve soil organic matter, and Carbon sequestration among others.
ORGANIC FARMING (01:27 PM)
 It is a method of agriculture that avoids synthetic fertilizer, pesticides, GMOs
(Genetically modified organisms) and other chemical inputs which focuses upon
natural methods to maintain soil health which promotes biodiversity and
sustainably produces crops.
 It relies on techniques such as crop rotation, composting, green manure, and
integrated pest management among other strategies.
 There are multiple benefits- environmental sustainability, improved soil health,
and enhanced nutritional value.
 However, there are concerns-
 Lower yields
 Dependence on weather and biological control
  Certification and compliance. E.g. in India, there are two certification mechanisms-
NPOP (National Program for Organic Production) under APEDA (Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority)
 This is a globally recognised certification mechanism. However, it is expensive for
farmers.
 Participatory Guarantee Scheme under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
Welfare
 This includes a small group of farmers being trained in organic production as well
as in certification, farmer groups can provide certification to products. However,
this is not accepted in some countries such as the USA and European nations.
SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (01:43 PM)
 It is a set of innovative practices aimed at increasing the productivity and
sustainability of rice farming.
 It includes the following strategies-
 Planting of young seedlings with wider spacing
 Alternate wetting and drying
 Regular weeding
 Organic matter incorporation
 Crop diversification
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) (01:52 PM)
 It is an approach that seeks to balance economic growth, social well-being and
environmental protection, realising that these 3 pillars are interconnected and
interdependent.
 Thus it includes access to education, healthcare, clean water, gender equality,
protecting the rights of marginalised groups, and conserving biodiversity,
protecting ecosystems and natural resources among others.
 The concept of sustainable development has evolved over time.
 The World Commission on Environment and Development released this report
which defines sustainable development as development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.
 Rio Earth Summit 1992 (UN conference on environment and development)
 This led to Agenda 21, a non-binding agenda for the 21st century.
 Rio+10, officially known as the World Summit on Sustainable Development
included the adoption of Johhansberg's plan of implementation.
 Rio +20, officially known as UN Conference on Sustainable Development which
happened in Ri, adopted a document 'The Future We Want'
 It also led to the UN Environment Assembly, the world's highest-level decision-
making body on the environment.
MDG GOALS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (02:08 PM)
 In 2000, the UN adopted a set of 8 goals aimed at social and economic development
along with environmental sustainability for the next 15 years.
 In 2015, the UN adopted 17 goals and 169 targets aimed at achieving sustainable
development by 2030.
 Note- Remember the below goals with their corresponding number
 

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT (02:30 PM)

 It is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment.
 It quantifies the amount of biologically productive land and water area required to
produce the resources a population consumes and to absorb its waste given
prevailing technology and resource management practices.
 Ecological Footprint Accounting
 This includes the supply side i.e. how much earth can provide in terms of
productive land on the demand side i.e. ecological footprint
 Earth Overshoot Day
 Based on ecological footprint accounting, a think tank Global Footprint
Network marks the date when humanity's demand exceeds what Earth can
regenerate in that year.
GREEN GDP (03:12 PM)
 It is a modified version of traditional GDP that attempts to account for the
environmental cost of economic activities.
 It is calculated by estimating the economic value of environmental damage by
subtracting from traditional GDP
 GEP- It aims to quantify the total contribution of the environment to economic
contribution and well-being.
NATURAL CAPITAL AND VALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROJECT (03:22 PM)
 This project is funded by the European Union and jointly implemented by the UN
statistics division, UNEP and CBD in 5 countries Brazil, China, India, Mexico and
South Africa.
 It is part of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting adopted by the
United Nations.
 Under this project, countries are expected to maintain 5 accounts-
 Ecosystem extent account- This includes information about forests, wetlands,
agricultural area
 Ecosystem conditions account- This includes the quality of ecosystem assets
 Ecosystem Services Account- This includes the supply of ecosystem services and
their beneficiaries
 Monetary Asset Accounts- This records the monetary value of ecosystem assets
  Thematic Accounts- This includes special themes such as biodiversity, carbon, and
Water among others.
 In India, it is implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Ministry of Statistics, National Remote Center, Department of Space
CIRCULAR ECONOMY (03:34 PM)
 It is an economic model designed to minimise waste and make the most of
resources.
 It stands in contrast to the traditional linear economy which follows the take-make-
dispose model.
 The circular economy seeks to redefine growth.
 It aims to redesign products in a way that their recovery, reuse, recycle becomes
easier.
 It includes refurbishment, remanufacturing, and use of biodegradable materials for
resource security and sustainability.


ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (03:44 PM)
 EIA started in India in river valley development projects in the 1960s and 1970s
however, as of now it has legislative backing under the Environment Protection Act,
of 1986
 The current EIA process includes the following:
 Screening- This includes whether the project requires EIA or not
 Projects are divided into two groups- A and B
 Category A projects require clearance at the Union level under MoeFCC
 B1 projects require EIA at the state level, and B2 projects do not require an EIA
report. They still need environmental clearance but follow a simpler process
 Scoping- This step identifies key issues and impacts that should be considered
 Preparation of EIA report- This involves the collection of baseline data,
assessment of potential impact, and proposing mitigation measures among others.
 This is prepared by an accreditated environmental consultant
 Public involvement- This includes sharing information with local people, receiving
feedback,
 Appraisal- The EIA report along with outcomes of public consultation is appraised
at the union or state level
 Decision making- Based on the appraisal regulatory authority, either grant, reject
or propose modifications, monitoring and compliance
 Post environmental clearance, the project proponent must ensure compliance with
environmental conditions and safeguards
 Challenges in EIA process
 Many concerns have been raised in past regarding the quality and reliability of the
report often due to poor data quality and sometimes allegations of data
manipulation etc
 Project proponents commission the EIA report which raises conflict of interest
issues.
 Often Public consultation is a mere formality, lacking meaningful engagement.
 The follow-up and the compliance do not occur effectively.
IMPORTANT ACTS (04:12 PM)
 Refer to the handout for details.
 Environment Protection Act, 1986
 NGT Act
THE SYLLABUS IS COMPLETED.