Quantum Physics & Applications M-3.

Superconductivity

MODULE -3
Superconductivity

3.1 Introduction
Even thevery best electrical conductors like copper, goldsilver etc resist, to some extent, the flow
of charge through them at ordinary temperature. As temperature decreases their resistance also
decreases. In 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes found that the resistivity of mercury (Hg) reduced with the
reduction in temperature and fell sharply to ZERO at 4.15 K. He was studying the resistance of
mercury at cryogenic temperatures (low temperature) using liquid helium as refrigerant. He
noticed that the resistance suddenly disappeared at 4.15 K. This zero resistance state of the
substance is known as superconductivity and the materials exhibiting this property are called as
superconductors

Insubsequent decades superconductivity was noticed in several other materials but all at very low
temperature. Until recently the superconductivity was a low temperature phenomena and hence
not much progress has seen in this field. Recent discoveries of high temperature ceramic
superconductors raised the hopes of using superconductors in making more efficient and smaller
clectrical and electronics devices at normal temperatures.
3.2 Temperature dependence of resistivity
Metals are very good conductors of electricity and offer very less resistance. Resistance and
resistivity decreases with the decrease in temperature and becomes 0at 0K(for pure conductors).
However according to Matheissen there exists some residual resistance even at OK due to
impurities and imperfections. In some materials (such as Mercury, Lead, Zinc etc) resistivity
suddenly decreases to ZERO below certain temperature. These variations are shown in fig
nonnal condnctors luavvg ivnpunties

prre coTLductors

supercourtuctors

4.15 K (for Hg)

72
Quantum Physics& Applications M-3. Superconductivity

The pheomenon in which electrical resistance of materials suddenly disappears (becomes 0)

ieis certan temperature is known as superconductivity and the material is known as
uperconductor

it has heen observed that the residual resistivity in a real specimen depends on the impurities the
metal has However, the transformatson to the superconducting state is independent of the
mpunties present in the specimen
3Critical temperature
The tenperature at which the nomal material abruptly loses its resistivity and becomes
superconductor ts known as critical temperature or transition temperature (T). Some of the
Crarmpic are grven below

Material Critical temperature Critical field

(Te in K) (Hc inWb/m')

Lead (Pb) 7.19 0.0803

\Mercury (Hg) 4.15 0.0411

Tin (Sn) 3.72 0.0305

Indium (In) 3.41 0.0281

Aluminum (Al) 1.18 0.0105

Zinc(Zn) 0.85 0.0054

3.4Persistent current
1 sunereonductor is a perfect conductor. Once a curent is setup in a closed loop of
sipeonducting wire. this current willcontinue to flow around the loop without any resistive loss
as longas the wire is kept below critical temperature. Such a steady current is known as persistent
current Fxperimentalcvidence shows that the decay timc exceeds 10 vears!
3.5 Behavior of superconductor in magnetic field
The eritieal temperature and hence superconducting state depends on the strengthof the magnetic
licld inwhich the material i placcd. At lower tields the magnetic Iincs are expelled by the material
Iie, they cannot enter) and hence superconductor is aperfect dia magnet. in fact this is an essential
 M-3. Superconductivity
Quantum Physics &Applications
superconductors develop negative
property of the superconductor. This clearly shows that
magnetization and hence negative magnetic susceptibility.
intensity of magnetization (M) is
The relation between magnetic field (B),field intensity (H) and

B= 4(H + M)
-M

Since B = 0 inside the superconductor

0= o(H + M)
M= -H

The ratio of intensity of magnetization and the applied supercon nonnal

magnetic field intensity is known as magnetic ductor conductor >H

Hc0)
susceptibility. It is negative for diamantes (and of course,
for superconductors).
M
X=
H

Agraph of Mv/s His as shown. If the field is gradually increased, magnetic field lines start
entering the material and at certain field value, it loses its superconducting property. The converse
of this is also true

3.6 Meissner Effect

When a superconductor above the critical temperature is placed in external magnetic field, it
allows field lines topass through. If, now, it is cooled below thecritical temperature
the magnetic
lines are expelled from the interior of the superconductor. This is known as
Meissner effect
magnetic field lmes
AAAA

superconductor

T>Tc T<Tc
nonnal state
snperconducting state

74
 Quantum Physics & Applications
M-3. Superconductivity
Meissner concluded that if a superconductor placed in a uniform
magnetic field is cooled below
its critical temperature, the magnetic flux is pushed out of the
specimen and superconductor
hecomes dia magnet. It is mainly because of the fact that below
critical
Current generates on the surface and circulates so as to cancel the fluxtemperature a persistent
density inside. It is in
accordance with Lenz's law.
3.7 Critical field (Hc)
According to Messiner effect it is possible to destroy the
superconducting property by increasing
the magnetic field even if the temperature is below critical value.
The minimum external magnetic field at which the superconductor
loses its superconductivity
and converts into normal conductor is known as critical field (H). Some
examples for Hc are
given in the above table.

Therefore, to maintain the superconductivity both magnetic field and temperature shall be
maintained below certain critical values. In fact critical field is a function of temperature. As
temperature increases critical field decreases. It is given by
H

Hc Hc (0)

Here, nonnal conducting state

Hc=Critical field at any temperature T

Ha(0) = Critical field at Tc
superconuctüng state
Tc= Critical temperature
A graph of H v/s T is as shown I.

3.8 Criticalcurrent (Ic) and Critical current density (J)-Silsbee rule

The maximum current carried by a superconductor at a temperature below Te without losing its
Superconducting property is known as critical current (l).
A current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. The magnitude of the field is directly
proportional to strength of the current. If the current in a superconductor exceeds critical current
(o), then it may produce magnetic field which is strong enough to destroy the superconducting
property. Hence certain limitation on the current flowing in a superconductor may be imposed.
This is known as Silsbee rule.
wire
II l is the critical current and Hc is the critical field then for a cylindrical superconducting
l;= 2nRHc

75
 M-3. Superconductivih
Quantum Physics & Applications

Critical current density Jc is given by

2rRHc
Jc = TRZ
A

2Hc
Jc= R

Definition:
passed in a superconductor without destroyino
current that can be
The minimum value of the critical current per unit cross sectional
current (I) and
Superconductivity is known as critical
area is known critical current density(J)
The magnetic field due to cylindrical wire
magnetic field
cylindrical wire of length L and radius R carrying current I. The
Consider a
current on the surface of the cylinder is B. Imagine an Amperian loop of radius
produced by the
R aroundthe cylinder as shown in fig (dotted circle)
According toAmpere's law
[Link] =Hol ---(1)
elemental length dl is 0. Hence
The angle between the direction ofB and the small
B. dl = Bdlcos 0 = Bdl
B
Eq (1)becomes
I
Bdl = Ho!
Amperian loop
B dl = Hol-- (2)

But dl = 2rR = cirucmference of the amperian loop

Eq (2) becomes
B(2rR) = o!
Put B MoH
HoH(2R) = ho!

H=
2TR
76
 Applications
Ouantum Physics & M-3. Superconductivity

This is the magnetic field intensity. If the current is critical current then

H=
2rR

29 Characteristics of superconductor
Following are some of the important properties of superconductor

The resistivity is zero below critical temperature. Magnetic impurities tend to

decrease the critical temperature
11 They carry current for indefinite time (called persistent current) without any loss
iil. Entropy of superconductor is very less. It shows that superconducting state is more
ordered than normal
iv. They are diamagnetic in nature and have negative magnetic susceptibility
V. The superconducting nature can be removed by applying magnetic field called
'critical field'
Vi. Critical temperature is found to be decreasing with increase in mass number (also
called isotopic effect)
Vil. Ferro magnets never become superconductor
vili. Good conductors at room temperature are not superconductors
3.10Type-I and Type-II superconductors
Superconductors are divided into two types depending on the way in which the transition from
superconducting to normal conducting state occurs when external magnetic field is applied. They
are Type -Iand Type- II superconductors
i. Type -ISuperconductors
Superconductors having only one critical field are known as Type-I. In these superconductors
sharply at
The transition from superconducting state to normal conducting state occurs
Hc.
magnets.
They exhibit complete Meissner effect and hence perfect dia
suddenly at Hc.
The magnetization grows proportionately and drops
(below Hc) and normal
Type-I exists in only two states namely superconducting state
conducting state (above Hc).
known as soft superconductors.
They have very low critical field and hence are
They are not suitable to build huge magnets.
Ex: Aluminum (0.01T), Lead (0.08 T), Indium (0.03T)etc

77
 M-3. Superconductivity
Quantum Physics & Applications

ii. Type - II Superconductors In these

superconductors
Type-II.
critical fields are known as
Superconductors having two state occurs gradually as
state to normal conducting
The transition from Superconducting

Hc1 to Hc2.
the magnetic field is increased from magnets.
Meissnereffect and hence are not perfect dia
They exhibit partial starts decreasing. It
vanishes
completely
and then
Magnetization grows lincarly up to Hc1
at Hc:. normal
namely superconducting state (below Hc1)
Iype-ll exists in three states
conductng state (above Hco) and
mixed state (Hc1<H< Hcz).
electrically a
material is in magnetically mixed state and
Between Hc1 & Hc: the
superconductor
hard
HC1 they can hold large magnetic field. Hence they are called as
Since Hc: >>
superconductors.
Ex: Nb-Sn(24.5 T), Nb-Ti(15.7 T), Nb;Ge (38 T), etc

nonnnl state

Supercon nonnal hper ixed stnte

uctor conductor conducto
>H
H0) Hc1 Hc:

3.11 Formation of Vortices

Type-lI superconductors permit partial penetration of magnetic flux if the applied field is of
intermediate strength. The bulk material is superconducting but it is threaded with very thin
filaments of normal materialas shown in fig. These filaments act as channels for the external filed

Circulating current

Superconducting region

Filarments
V'ortices
Normal conducting region
Side view Top view
78
ity Quantum Physics &Applications
M-3. Superconductivity
lines to penetrate. A current
circulates
Pesembles the vortex (whirlpool) and around the perimeter of each filament. The flow of current
hence the filaments are called
3.12 Isotopeeffect vortex lines or vortices
The critical temperature of
superconductors decreases with increase in
known as isotopic effect. The relation
cly between them approximately is atomic mass. This is
1
al
Tça
VM
Ex: Tcis 4.161 K for °Hg and 4.
126 K for 204Hg
a
3.13Two fluid model
When a material is cooled below its
superconducting transition temperature Tc, it proceeds
immediately into the superconducting phase.
material do not jump into the As the material cools below Tc all
superconducting phase
electrons in the
at once. They become
material becomes colder, moresuperconducting
by-one (or rather pair-by-pair). As the one
superconducting phase. There exists normal electrons electrons enter the
simultaneously. The presence of two types of electrons, and superconducting electrons
treated as two fluids of electrons. This is coexisting in the superconductor can be
two-fluid model.
The term fluid originates from Drude's
classical free electron theory where free electrons
treated as fluid'. are
So, the two fluid model of a superconductor
treats each electron in the superconductor as
participating in one of two
fluids: the normal fluid or the superconducting fluid. These two fluids
coexist, and they both flow simultaneously and in parallel
number density of electrons in normal fluid state (n,) and that through the superconductor. The
in superconducting fluid state (n,)
depends on the temperature. As temperature decreases n, decreases and n, increases.

Normal luid

Superconducting fluid
3.14 BCS theory
This theory was proposed by Bardeen-Cooper-Schieffer (BCS) in 1957 and it is mainly based on
the concept of cooper pair
Cooper pair is a pair of two electrons having opposite spin and momenta. Electrons are paired
via the lattice vibration. When an electron is moving near a lattice plane it exerts force of attraction
79
Quantum Physics &Applications M-3. Superconductivity

on the positive charges of the lattice ions. As a result lattice is deformed and positive charges are
pulled towards electron. Another electron moving nearby this region is attracted by the increased
positive charge cloud. If this attraction is stronger than the repulsion between electrons then two
electrons are coupled and form a pair called cooper pairs.
The formation of cooper pair is possible only through lattice deformation or lattice vibration. The
energy is exchanged between lattice and the electron through aquantized particle called phonon.
Hence cooper pair is treated as 'clectron-electron interaction through phonon'. Such interactions
are effective only at low temperature
Thus formed electron pairs will be having good correlation (good understanding! ) and stay
together over large distance (> 10"m). The number of cooper pairs increases within no time and
all of them will be having single wave function. They can be treated as a single 'macromolecule".
The entire set of electron pairs is now moving in particular direction and constitute electric
current. To resist (or oppose) sucha current, one has to alter the correlated motion of allthe pairs
(not just some individual electrons). Since it requires a relatively large amount of energy, curen
persists for a long duration. This is how zero resistance state can be explained.
The binding energy of cooper pair is called as energy gap. It is given by
Eg = 3.53kTc
Where k is Boltzmann constant and Tc is critical temperature. E, is very low (about 10eV).

BCS theory also explains the Meissner effect. The speed of cooper pair decreases whenthe
superconductor is placed in externalmagnetic field. As a result emfis induced which in turn expes
magnetic field lines from the superconductor (according to Lenz law).
positive lattice ion

electron

Cooper par

lattice plane region of lngler

positive clarge
lattice (i) lattice ater vbation
() vuitial state of (im) Cooperpair

80
 Quantum Physics & Applications
[Link]
Note:

1 Materials with large amplitude of lattice

hecause large vibrations support the vibrations can convert into super
cooper pair formation Some good conductors
gold. silver and copper have conductors like
small lattice vibrations and hence
super conductors at low they cannot convert into
temperature
2. Cooper pairs have mass 2me, charge 2e and
total spin 0
3.14.1 Phase coherence state
The electrons in a cOoper par have opposite
spins so that the total spin is zero and the
as (Bosons means particles having zero
bosons pair behaves
spin). Any number of them can exist in the same
auantum state at the same time. All the pairs are in
same ground state and can be explained by a
single wave function. This is known as phase
coherence state.
3.14.2 Limitations of BCS theory
i BCS theory cannot explain high Tc
ii. BCS theory assumes only weak superconductivity
electron-electron interaction. In some materials electrons
motion is strongly dependent on the position and spin of the
interaction cannot be explained by BCS theory neighbors. This strong
i. BCS theory is unable to predict new
superconductors
iv. ACcurrent affects the formation of cooper pairs. BCS
theory cannot explain this
V. Cooper pairs are formed not only due to electron-phonon (or
electron-lattice) interaction.
There are other mechanisms too such as d-wave pairing, p-wave
pairing. BCS theory fails
explain the formation of cooper pairs by these mechanisms
3.14.3 Examples of systems with low and high electron-phonon coupling
The interaction between electron and quantized lattice vibrations (or phonons) is known as
electron-phonon coupling. It can be weak or strong.
In weak interactions there is no scattering of electrons and they move easily and conductivity is
high. Ex,Gold, Silver, copper etc
n strong interactions, electrons are strongly affected by the lattice vibrations and hence cooper
Palrs are formed and the material becomes superconductor. Ex, Lcad, Aluminium, some high
pressure hydrides.
3.15 Andreev reflection

ha normal metal (N) and Superconductor (S) interface when an electron from the Nside whose
3y is less than the band gap of superconductor tries to enter the S side, it adds a cooper pair

81
Quantum Physics &Applications M-3. Superconductivity

is reflected back into N side

mto s SIde and hence super current increases, Meanwhile a hole
This is known as Andreev reflection. This process converts normalcurrent into super current
Mechanism

When clectron from Nside approaches the N-S interface the S side cannot accept this single
clectron because there are no single particle states within the energy gap of superconductor. It can
take only pair of electrons. So, the incident electron will 'pair-up' with another electron in the N
side. This pair is pulled into the S side as cooper pair and hence S

number of cooper pairs increases. Mcanwhile, the missing electron in

the N side (which has been paired with the initial electron), looks like
ahole which is reflected back (called retroreflection') into the N side Cooper
h
exactly in the opposite direction as shown in fig. In the whole process pair
charge, spin and momemntum are conserved.
3.16Quantum Tunneling (Cooper pair tunneling) and Josephson junction
Ifa thinlayer of insulator is sandwiched betwecn two pieces of superconductor the cooper pairs
can tunnel through the insulator (without being destroyed) giving a current from one
superconductor into the other. This is known as quantum tunneling or Cooper pair tunneling
This is alsoknown as Josephson Effect. Tunneling is possible only if the insulating layer is very
thin(about 2nm or even less). This typc of tunneling is not permitted in classical physics.
The supcrconductor-insulator-superconductor layer is known as Josephson junction. In practice
such a junction is manufactured by depositing a thin insulating layer of an oxide of Inm-2nm
thickness on the surface of one superconductor and then placing the second superconductor o1
J
topof this.
insulating layer (1-21m)

uperconductors

Josephson junction

There aretwo typCs 0n JosepbonEDect namely DC Josephson Ilect and AC Josephson Eflect

ovugthack exactly
Retro reflection neans omething parallel to its incident of
angle of refletion, The retro relllors. aro noIlly used in
toad halety direction irrespective

measureS
Quantum Physics & Applications M-3. Superconductivity

i. DC Josephson Effect
When wo
Superconductor slabs
are joined through athin (Inn-21nm thick) insulating layer, thc
from one side tunnel into the other side and constitute super current without any
Cooper pairs
Support of external emf. This is known as DC Josephson Effect.

The insulating layer introduces phase difference (ø) between wave function of cooper pairs on
current
either side and hence super curent appecars even though the applied voltage is zero. Super
junction current) is given by
(or
I,=l, sin¢
Lere L. is the maximum junction current that depends on the thickness of insulating layer. ItIS
ouite small (between luA to l mA).
There arises voltage Valso across the junction. It can be shown that the junction voltage is directly
proportionalto rate of change of super current I,.
dl

dl
V=at
Here L,is known as Josephson Inductance which is very much similar to inductance of a coil.
However Josephson inductance is nonlinear and can even be negative also. This is a crucial fact
relevant to the operation of flux qubits (discussed later)
Josephson junction consists of two superconducting electrodes separated by a thin insulator. Thus
aJosephson junction has a capacity, which is indicated by the capacitor C
ii. ACJosephson Effect
difference between
If we apply DC voltage across the junction it introduces an additional phase
gencrates an
the Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated-the constant voltage
OScillating current!. This is known as AC Josephson Effect.
on either
Itis caused by the coupling between the de-Broglie waves associated with Cooper pairs
when the waves are coupled
Side. It is equivalent to "beat' phenomena in classical waves in which
(Superimpose) amplitude is modulated and becomes periodic.
Vand is given by
Ihe frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied voltage
2eV
V=
h

83
Quantum Physics & Applications M-3. Superconductivity

3.17 Flux quantization

Consider asuperconducting ring placed in magnetic field. If we reduce the temperature of the
ring and make it superconducting, the magnetic flux in the hole will be trapped. The magnetic
Iines will remain in the hole even if we remove the external magnetic field. Thus trapped flux is
quantized. This is known as Flux quantization. Flux quantization is due to phase relationshins
of wave functions of cooper pairs in the presence of magnetic field.
The magnitude of the flux trapped in the hole is given by
h
=n
6)=noo
Where , =is known as flux quantum

Bo
B
arca A

After the trap the flux linescurl around the ring as shown

Some of the most important applications of superconductivity are connected with Josephson
effects, e.g. incredibly fast switches, measurement of extremely small magnetic flux, qubits
designing, precise measurement of voltage. In some of these applications a specially designed
device calledSQUID is used
3.18 SQUIDS
SQUID stands for superconducting quantum interference device. It is used to measure extremely
weak magnetic field. It is basically a sensitive magnetometer. Fields as small as 1021 T produced
by biological currents in human heart and brain can be measured. There are twotypes in SOUD
namely DCSQUID and RF SQUID (or AC SQUID)

84
 Quantum Physics &Applications
M-3. Superconductivity
i. DC-SQUID

lt cons1sts Josephson junctions (P

of twO
and Y. As a result biasing and Q) arranged in paarallel and DC source is connected
X
across
current enters at Xand leaves at
tunneling currents across P and Q. when Y. Let I and , be the
arrangement, a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the
phase ditterence is introduced
cimilar to interference of light waves in Young'sbetween I, and Ib and they interfere (very much
ourrent is caused by the Cooper pairs. Cooper pairsdouble slit experiment). In superconductors the
are
magnetic flux introduces phase shiftbetween these associated with de Broglie waves. Applicd
waves and hence thev interfere when arrive at
Y. The resultant current is

I, sin
I,=

Where is the flux linked with the SQUID and òo =(h/2e

=2.06 x10-15 wb/m) called fluxoid. A
graph of I/I v/s (0/Qo) is as follows. The graph is exactly similar
to intensity distribution in single
slitdiffraction of light
By measuring the resultant current one can measure the
applied magnetic flux. It is possible to
measure very small magnetic flux using this arrangements.

DC sorce

1.0

0.8

X X X XX
0.6
X
X X X XX
0.4

X X X XX
magnetic f i e l d . supercontuctor

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

0/0
DCSQUIDS are used in
Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10% T produced by biological currents in
human heart and brain can be measured.
Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
fabrication of qubits
Very precise and accurate measurement of voltage
85
 M-3. Superconductivi,
Quantum Physics & Applications

ii. RF-SQUID
be used asam
SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop that can
The RF (Radio Frequency) sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is cheaper and easier to
it is less
field detector. Although fig (i)
therefore more commonly used. It is as shown in
manufacture and is
RF ACsource as shown in
SQUD loop is placed near aLC circuit which is connected to Fig
RF flux is (to be measured). Now nacs
field whose
(i). The loop is immersed in amagnetic
through LC circuit from the RF source. It induces magnetic flux DRE. Thic
oscillating current ()
flux is coupled with the loop. The total external flux is
Pex =P+PRE

in the loop ()
The loop is linked to circuit through mutual inductance. By chance if the flux
induce
changes, there willbe corresponding changes in .x. Any changes in the total flux ex Will
emf(according to Faraday's law) in the LCcircuit and hence voltage (V) across LCchanges. By
measuring thechange in V one can measure the external magnetic flux () and its variation w.r.t.
time.
RF AC
Source

junction
X X X X X
X X XXX
X X X X X
X X X XX|

magneic flux
(i) (i1)

RF-SQUIDS are used in

bjomagnetism (ie, to measure magnetic ficld produced by different organs of our body)
geophysical mcasurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
3.19 Applications of superconductor
C Superconductors are used to build superconducting magnets. Type-llsuperconductors are
used for this purpose
Superconductors and hence superconducting magnets are used in MagLevs
SoUIDS are used in magnctometers, quantum cOmputerS, nondestructive testing of
materials and switches

Loss less power transmiission is one of the pronising application of superconductor

86
 M-3. Superconductivity
Quantum Physics & Applications

Type-II superconductors are used in bubble chambers, particle accelerators and cryo
electronic microscopes
Since superconductivity is a low temperature phenomena not many applications are found at
Common man level.

Numericals:

the
1. The transition temperature for Pb is 7.2K. However at 5K it loses
superconducting property if subjected to magnetic field of 3.3 x 10*A/m. find
the
maximum value of H which allow the metal to retain its superconductivity at OK

Given.: T, =7.2 K, T=5 K, H(0) = 3.3 x 10A/m, He=?

H¹ =

H, 3.3 × 10
=6.37 x 10Am-1
He(0) = 2

-)] 1-)
10A/m at 0K. Calculate
2, The critical field of niobiumn is 1 x 10A/m at 8 K and 2 x
the transition temperature
Given: T =?, T =8K, H(0) =2 x 10°A/m, H, = 1x 10°A/m

8
1/2* 11.3 K
Tc
Hc 11/2 (1-)

transition temperature for lead is 7.26 K. The maximum critical field for the
3. The
material is 8x 10 A/m. Lead has to be used as
asuperconductor subjected to a
precaution should be taken?
magneticfield of 4x 10 A/m. what
A/m, H =4x 10 A/m
Given: T =7.26 K,T =?, H(0)=8 x 10

87
 M-3. S u p e r c o n d u

Applications
uantum Physics &

1/2
Hc =7.08 K
T=T1 Hc(0) a wire of a
lead having a
H = 6.5
current and current density for 7.18
Kand

Calculate the critical lead is

4. temperature for
diameter of 1 mm at 4.2
K. The critical
=?
x 10 Am. x10"am-', Ic =?, Jc
(0)= 6.5 at 4.2
=4.2 K, Tc=7.18 K, Hc
s u p e r c o n d u c t i v i t y

Given, R=0.5 mm, T destroy

field Hc required to
First we have to find the magnetic
K. It is as follows

Hç =
2
4.2
Hc 6.5 x10|1-Gi)
10Am-1
Hc = 4.276 ×
According to Silsbee rule
lc
Hc 2R

Iç= 2nRHç
4.276 x 10+
I, = 2 x 3.14 X 0.5 × 10-3x
I, = 134.26 A

Jc =
2Hc
R

2× 4.276 × 104
Jc= 0.5 × 10-3
Jc= 171.04 ×106Am-2
Wirr

5. Find the critical current which can pass through along thin superconducting 7.9X
of aluminum of diameter 2 mm, the critical magnetic field for aluminum is
10 A m.
Given:Hc=7.9 x10°A m',R=1 mm Ic=?

88
 Quantum Physics & Applications M-3. Superconductivity

lc =2uRHc
I, = 2 X1x 10- x 7.9 x 103

lç = 49.65 A
6. Calculate the critical magnetic field of a thin long superconducting wire which
carries a critical current of 25 A. Given diameter of the wire 1mm.
Given:, R=0.5mm lç = 25 A, Hc =?

Hç = 2rR
2 25
Hç = 2 X3.14 X0.5 x 10-3
H, =7.95 ×10Am-1
1. Determine the transition temperature and critical field at 0Kfor a given specimen
of a superconductor if the critical fields are 1.41 x 10 and 4.20 × 10 A/m at 14.1 K
and 12.9 K, respectively.
Given: Hc1 = 1.41x 10 A/m, Hc1 = 141 x 10 A/m.. T = 14.1 K T; =12.9 K, Tc=?

Hç1 =

Hçz =
H.0-----@
Dividing Eq (1) and Eq (2) we get
2

Hc1 1-() 2
Hc2
1-()
Hc1 T-T
Hcz T-T}
1.41 x 105 T - 14.12
4.2 x 105 T- 12.92
After solving this we get
T; =14.66 K
Critical field at 0 K

89
Quantum Physics & Applications M-3. Superconductivity

21
14.1
141 x10° = H, (0) |1-\466)
After solving this we get
He(0) = 0.105 x 105 Am-1
8. In the above problem find the critical field at 4.2 K. what should be the critical
current and current density if the radius of the wire is 0.25 mm

Hc = 0.105 x
101-(
Hc = 0.096 × 105Am1
lç= 2nRHc
I, =2X 3.14 x 0.25 × 10-3 × 0.096 x 105
le =15.1 A
2Hc
Jc = R
2 x 0.096 x 105
Jc = 0.25 x 10-3

Jc=76.8 x 106Am-2
 Quantum Phhysics &Applications M-3. Superconductivity

Problem for exercise

The transition temperature of asuperconductor is 7.2K. At what temperature do we get
Hc =0.1 Hc (0) ? (6.83 K)
) The critical temperature of tin is 3.7 K and critical fieldat 0K is 0.036T. find the critical
field at 2 K (0.0216 T)
3. A long thin superconducting wire of ametal produces a magnetic field of 105 x 10° A/m
on its surface due to current passing through it at certain temperature T. If Hc(0) = 150 A
10° A/m and T¢ =9.3 K find T (5.03 K)
4, Lead has a superconducting transition temperature of7.26 K. If initial field at 0 K is 50
x10 Am,calculate the critical field at 6 K. If the lead is in the form of a wire with
diameterl mm, then calculate the critical current it can carry.
5, A superconducting material has a critical temperature of 3.7 K in zero magnetic field
and a critical field of 0.02Tat 0 K. Find the critical field at 3K.
6. The critical field for lead is 1.2 >x 10 A/m at 8 K and 2.4 x 10 A/m at 0 K. Find the
critical temperature of the material.

Questions for practice

1. Discuss the effect of temperature and impurity on resistivity
2. Give an account of phonon
3. Give an account of variation of resistivity with respect to temperature in the case of pure
conductor, impure conductor and superconductor
4.
What is superconductivity? What are superconductors? Define critical temperature. Give
an example
5. Write a note on persistent current.
6. Explain the behavior of superconductor in external magnetic field. Plot the graph of
intensity of magnetization v/s applied magnetic field
7. Elucidate the concept of Critical current and critical current density
8. Describe Silsbee rule. Derive the expression for critical field due to current carrying
superconducting wire
9. What is two fluid model? Explain with suitable diagram
10. Explain Meissner effect
11. Define critical [Link] the expression for critical field in terms of criticaltemperature.
12. Explain in detail Type-I and Type-II super conductors. Give example for each
13. What are Cooper pairs? How they are formed?
14. Explain in detail BCStheory. Mention the limitation of BCS theory
13, What are type-II superconductors? Givean account of vortices formation in them

91
 M-3. Superconductiviy
Quantum Physics & Applications

interactions along with examples

16. Explain the weak and strong electron-phonon
17. Describe Andreev Reflection.
18. Explain how the normal current is converted into super current due to Andreev Reflection

19. What is Josephson Effect or quantum tunneling?

20. Differentiate between DC and AC Josephson effect
effect in detail
21. What is Josephson junction? Explain DC Josephson
22. Write an explanatory note on flux quantization. Give the expression for flux quantum
23. What are SQUIDS? Where they are used?
24. Explain the construction and working of DC SQUID
25. Explain Meissner's Effect and thevariation of critical field with temperature. (Jan
2025) Model paper
26. Describe Meissner's Effect and hence classify superconductors into Soft and Hard
superconductorsusing M-H graphs.( (Jan-2025)Model paper)
27. Describe Meissner's effect. Distinguish between type -1 and type - 2
superconductors (2024, (make up-2023, July-2023)
28. Explain the phenomena superconductivity. Discuss qualitatively BCS theory of
superconductivity (2024)
29. Explain BCS theory of superconductor (2023)
30. Explain the phenomenon of superconductivity and Discuss qualitatively the BCS
theory of superconductivity for negligible resistance of metal at temperatures cios
to absolute zero.( (Jan-2025) Model paper)
31. Define critical field and critical temperature. exnlain briefly BCS theorY
superconductivity (make up-2023)
32. Explain DC and AC Josephson effects and mention the applications
superconductivityin quantum computing.(Model paper)