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CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

(i) Biochemistry: The study of the chemicals of living organisms is called biochemistry.
(ii) Organic Compounds: The bonding of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other atoms
to carbon atom forms the compounds called organic compounds.

(iii) Inorganic Compounds: H20, HCl, H2S04, NaOH, Na2C03 like compounds in
which both C and H in same molecules are not essential.

(iv) Carbohydrates: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones are called carbohydrates.

(v) Lipids: The organic compounds which are heterogenous, hydrophobic and insoluble
in water are called lipids.

(vi) Proteins: The organic molecules in which polypeptide chains are formed by the
peptide linkages of amino acids are called proteins.

(vii) Nucleic Acids: The acids in which pentose sugar, purine or pyrimidine(nitrogen
bases) and phosphoric acid are components. For example. DNA and RNA.

(viii) Micro-molecules: The small molecules which have lower molecular weight.

(ix) Macromolecules: Large organic molecules which have polymeric chain structure.
For
Example. Proteins, polysaccharides.
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CONDENSATION AND HYDROLYSIS

Condensation:
The process in which small molecules are gathered by removal of water to make large molecules
is called condensation.

Example:
Glucose + Glucose → Starch + H2O
Hydrolysis:
Hydro mean water and lysis mean splitting.
The process in which large molecules are split into small molecules by adding water is called
hydrolysis.

Example:
Maltose + Water → Glucose + Glucose

IMPORTANCE OF H20 AND PROPERTIES OF WATER

Medium of Life:
It is found 65 to 90% in different cells of different organisms. It is most abundant in all cells or
organisms. Water is essential for existence of protoplasm because protoplasm cannot survive if
water reduced as low as 10 %.

Raw Material:
It is raw material of photosynthesis.

Best Solvent:
Water acts as solvent for metabolic reactants. It is known as the best solvent. More substances
dissolve in it than any other solvent. It is called as universal solvent.
Polar nature of water:
Water is polar, so it dissociates the ionic substances into +ve and —ve ions. But non-polar
organic molecules are insoluble in water. While in case of ionic substances, water molecules
behave like dipoles. Water is oriented toward both +ve and —ve ions. Water molecules are
boned with hydrogen bonds that is much weaker then covalent bond but still cause water
molecules to remain attached together.
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Heat Capacity:
Water absorbs heat. When it absorbs heat, very minute temperature of water is changed. So water
provides stability to the temperature of an organism in its environment. Water protects living
material against temperature change. H20 keeps the temperature of an organism relatively
constant.
Actually, water works as "Temperature Stabilizer" for energy is used to break hydrogen bonds.
"The specific heat capacity of water is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of by one degree Celsius".
Water expands at low temperature:
When temperature falls below 4 °C water expands that’s a unique property of water , ice is less
dense than liquid therefore it floats on surface of liquid water. Water body freezes on the surface
at low temperature

Heat of Vaporization:
Water absorbs much heat as it changes from liquid to gas. Heat of vaporization of water is heat
required to convert one gram of liquid water into vapors at its boiling point. It also provides cooling
effect to plants when water is transpired, or to animals when water is respired.

Ionization Of Water:
Water molecule may ionize into hydrogen ion (H) and hydroxyl ion,(OH) very few molecules out
of very large number may ionize.
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CARBOHYDRATES
Definition:
"Carbohydrates are the organic compounds which are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen".

Chemically:
"Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones which on hydrolysis produce
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone subunits.
General Formula:
Their general formula is Cn(H20)n, where n=3 to many thousands.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates are also known as "saccharides" (derived from Greek word "saccharum" means
"sugar".)
They are classified into following three groups:
(1) Monosaccharides
mono means one.
(2) Oligosaccharides *oligomeans few.
(3) Polysaccharides. *poly means
many.
Monosaccharide *saccharide means
sugars.
(1) These are simplest sugars.
(2) They are sweet in taste and soluble in water.
(3) They cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars. (4) The sugar with aldehyde group is called
aldo sugar and with the keto group is keto sugar.

GLYCERALDEHYDE
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RIBOSE GLUCOSE

Ringed structures
Monosaccharides also form ringed structures e.g. ribose will form a five corner rings known as
ribofuranose whereas glucose will form six corner ring known as glucopyranose.

Fig. Ribose and glucose form ring shaped structures

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b) Oligosaccharide
(1) The oligosaccharides yield 2-10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
(2) These are less sweet in taste and less soluble in water.
(3) The oligosaccharides, which yield two monosaccharides are known as disaccharides, those
yielding three are known as trisaccharides and so on.
(4) The covalent bond between two monosaccharides is called "glyosidic bond". Maltose,
sucrose and lactose are examples of disaccharides. The common table sugar i.e. sucrose on
hydrolysis yield glucose and fructose

Fig. A disaccharide. Note carefully the between two monosaccharides glycosidic linkages
Lactose + water hydrolase Glucose + Galactose
Lactose is found in milk.
Maltose + water hydrolase Glucose + Glucose
Maltose is found in fruits.

c) Polysaccharides:
Definition:
Those carbohydrates which can be further hydrolyzed into many sugar units are called
polysaccharides.
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Structure:
Polysaccharides are made of many sugar units which are linked with one another through
glycosidic bond. The bond may exist between.
Examples:
Glycogen, Cellulose, Starch etc.
i. Glycogen: Glycogen is made of glucose unit and it stores in animals. It form extensively
branched chains.
ii. Starch: Starch is made of glucose units and stores in plant cell. It may possess branched or
un branched chains.
ii. Cellulose: Cellulose is also made of glucose unit but it form cell wall. It posses un branched
chains. It cannot be digested by human beings.

Functions of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates perform the following functions.
1. Source of energy:
Carbohydrates are use as source of energy. It possess stored chemical energy which is release
when the bonds are broken down.
2. Storage molecule:
It store in both plants as animal cells in the form of starch and glycogen. It is stored for future
use.
3. Building materials:
Carbohydrates also for different structures like cell wall possess cellulose and exoskeleton of
insect possess chitin.
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LIPIDS
Ans. Definition:
"Lipids are hydrophobic compounds and are the basic components of cellular membranes’’.
They store energy because of C-H linkage in them. These are also related to fatty acids. They are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, alcohol, chloroform and benzene.
Most lipids are non-polar
Examples: Examples of lipids are fats, oils, waxes etc.
Classification of lipids
• Acylglycerol
• Phospholipids
• Waxes
• Steroids
• Terpenoids

(i) ACYLGLYCEROL:
They are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. The most commonly used acylglycerol is
"triglyceride"
Glycerol is a three carbon compound, to each carbon hydroxyl group is attached. Hydroxyl
groups are polar and therefore glycerol is soluble in water, the reaction occur is
condensation.
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Saturated fatty acids:

• They may contain no double bond (saturated fatty acids), they can not accommodate more
hydrogen atoms if added to them.
• They are fats
• They are solid at room temperature.
• They are stored in animals as fats.
• Example , palmitic acid
Unsaturated fatty acids:
• They have one or more double bond between carbon atoms.
• They are liquid at room temperature.
• They are stored in plant seeds.
• Example , oleic acid

(ii) PHOSPHOLIPIDS:
These are composed of 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids and 1 phosphoric acid linked with nitrogen
group. Conversion of triglyceride into phospholipid
A triglyceride molecule is converted into phospholipid when phosphate group or phosphate with
nitrogen group is replaced by one fatty acid.

Parts of phospholipid:
a) Head
• phosphate head
• polar
• It is hydrophilic ( soluble in water)

b) Tail
• it is non polar
• it is hydrophobic ( insoluble in water)
Function:
Phospholipid arrange themselves in double layer in Prescence of water in plasma membrane of
cells.
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iii. WAXES:
• Waxes are lipids which do not posses glycerol instead they posses long chain alcohols to
which long chain fatty acids are attached.
• Waxes are solid and impermeable to water.
• They preserve water loss in many plants and animals (insects).

iv. STEROIDS:
• Steroids are lipids which do not possess glycerol or fatty acid instead they possess a back bone
of 17 carbon rings.
• Steroids are very important in animal bodies because they form different steroids hormones,
cholesterol, vitamin D etc.
v. TERPENOIDS:
• Terpenoids also lack both glycerol and fatty acids.
• Terpenoids are made of special units called isoprenoids.
• Isoprenoids are made of still smaller unit called isoprene unit.
• Terpenoid make carotenoids like carotene is a precursor of vitamin A

Functions:
Lipids perform the following functions.
i) Source of Energy:
Lipids are high energy molecules. They have as high as double amount of energy than
carbohydrates.
ii) Structure Building:
Different structure like all bio membranes and insect cuticle, honey comb etc are made of lipids.
iii) Storage Molecule:
Lipids are store in the form of oil (Plant) or fats (Animals) for future use.
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iv) Hormones:
Many types of both plants and animals hormones are made of lipids e.g. aldosterone of animals
and Gibberellin, auxin and cytokinin of plants.

PROTEIN.
"Amino acid has an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic group (-COOH) attached to the same
carbon, also known as alpha carbon".
General Formula: Following is the general formula of an amino acid:

Where "R" may be a hydrogen atom as in glycine or CH3 in alanine. The amino acid differ
due to the R-group.

Role of Amino Acid in Protein:

A bond called peptide bond links amino acid is protein molecule to each other. The peptide bond
is formed between an amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl group of other amino acid ,
this is condensation reaction or dehydration reaction in which one water molecule is formed.
Dipeptide bond:
A chain containing two amino acid and one peptide bond.
Tripeptide:
A chain containing 3 amino acids and 2 peptide bonds.

Polypeptide:
a chain containing many amino acids and many peptide bond.
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Fig. Peptide linkage-formation of peptide bond

Shape of protein:
Protein classification is rather difficult due to complexity in structure. However, following 2
categories can be diversified:

(a) FIBROUS PROTEINS:

They show following characters.

(i) The molecule of fibrous protein are composed of one or more polypeptide chain that are
arranged in a form of fibers

(ii) Insoluble: They are insoluble in aqueous media. They play structural roles in cells and organisms.
For example, the secondary structure of protein, myosin, fibrin and keratin etc.

(b) GLOBULAR PROTEINS:

They have following main characters:

(i) Folding Of Polypeptide: They are spherical due to multiple folding of polypeptide chains.
(ii) Soluble: They are soluble in aqueous media..
For Example: Protein tertiary structures, enzymes, antibodies, hormones, hemoglobin etc.

Structure od proteins.
Proteins exist in 4 basic structures they are:
a) Primary Structure:
Primary structure amino acids link linear in a straight chain to form a protein.
b) Secondary Structure:
In this structure proteins either fold to form a folded sheet structure called beta “B” sheet. OR
The spiral to form x-helix (spring shape)
c) Tertiary Structure:
When primary and secondary proteins combine with the help of a short chain amino acids (bond)
and form a 3 dimensional structure it is called tertiary structure.
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d) Quaternary Structure:
When two or more tertiary structures combine to form a complex structure it is called quaternary
structure.

Functions of proteins
"Protein is the structural and functional unit of the cell".

(i) AS Enzyme: All enzymes are proteins. Enzymes speed up the chemical reactions. e.g.
Pepsin, lipase, amylase etc.

(ii) AS Hormones: Those proteins which regular and control the metabolic process are
considered as hormone. e.g. Insulin etc.

(iii) As Carrier: Hemoglobin is the protein which transports oxygen.

(iv) Antibodies: These are proteins which defend against the disease-causing organisms.

(v) Blood Clotting: Fibrinogen is a blood clotting protein. It prevents the loss of blood in case
of injury.

(vi) Contraction and Relaxation: Muscles have Myosin and actin which are contracting and
relaxing bonds

(vii) Structure of Cell Membranes: The membranes of cells and organelles are formed
by (lipid and) protein.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
"The macromolecules which are essential contributors in reproduction, genetic control, bio-
synthesis are called nucleic acid".
Types of Nucleic Acids:
There are following two types of Nucleic acids"
(i) DNA (ii) RNA

(i) DNA stands for (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid).

(ii) RNA stands for (Ribonucleic Acid)
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DNA RNA
(1) DNA occurs in chromosomes, in nucleithe (1) RNA is present in the nucleolus in the
cells, in mitochondria chloroplasts. ribosomes, in the cytosol and in smaller in other
parts of cell

(2) It is made up of deoxyribo (2)It is composed of ribonucleotides

nucleotides.

3) It contains deoxyribose (3) It contains ribose sugar

sugar.

(4) DNA has double helical (4) RNA has single chain of nucleotides.
chain of nucleotides

(5) It contain (5)It contains adenine, guanine, cytosine and

thymine as nitrogen bases.
adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine
as nitrogen bases.
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Chemical composition of nucleic acids.

Ans. Nucleic acids are complex substances. They are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is
made up of following three sub units:
(1) 5-Carbon monosaccharides (a "pentose" sugar).
(2) A 'nitrogen' base.
(i) Adenine [A]
(ii) Guanine [G] double ring (purines)
(iii) Cytosine [C]
(iv) Thymine [T] or Uracil) single ring compound (pyrimidines)
(3) Phosphoric Acid:

Phosphoric acid (H3P04) has the ability to develop ester linkage with OH group of pentose sugar. In a
typical nucleotide, the nitrogen base is attached to position '1 ' of pentose sugar, while phosphoric acid is
attached to carbon at position 3 of pentose sugar.

Bonding:

In polynucleotide chain one phosphoric acid is attached to OH group of C number 3 of pentose

sugar while another one phosphoric acid is attached to OH group of C number 5 of pentose
sugar, this is called phosphodiester linkage.

Nucleoside and Nucleotide:

The compound formed by a base and a pentose sugar is called nucleoside. A nucleoside and
phosphoric acid combine to form a 'nucleotide'.
There are following four nucleotides, depending on the nitrogen bases:

Adenine + Sugar + Phosphoric acid Adenine nucleotide

Guanine + Sugar + Phosphoric acid Guanine nucleotide

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Cytosine + Sugar + Phosphoric acid Cytosine nucleotide

Thymine + Sugar + Phosphoric acid Thymine nucleotide

ATP is also an important nucleotide used as energy currency by cell.

WATSON AND CRICK'S MODEL

In 1956, James D. Watson and Francis Crick built the scale model of DNA. Following are the
important points of their model:
Polynucleotide Chains: DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains or strands.
Antiparallel Coiling: The two strands are coiled round each other antiparallel.
Hydrogen Bonding:
The two chains are held together by weak bonds i.e. hydrogen bonds.
Complements:
Adenine (A) is always opposite to thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C) are opposite to each
other.
Specific H-bonding:
There are two hydrogen bonds between 'A' and 'T' pair and three hydrogen bonds between 'G' and
'C' pair
Diameter: 2nm
Distance: Distance between 2 nucleotides is 0.34nm
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RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

The molecules of RNA occur as single strand. This can be folded to give double helical
characters. RNA is synthesized by DNA in a process known as "transcription RNA stands for
ribonucleic acid. It is a poly nucleotide single stranded structure responsible for carriage of
genetic information for protein synthesis.
Structure:
RNA is a single stranded poly nucleotide chain. It possess only one strand made of pentose sugar
(ribose) and phosphate group to which nitrogenous bases are attached.
Pentose Sugar:
RNA possess ribose as pentose sugar while DNA possess deoxyribose.
Nitrogenous bases:
RNA and DNA have common nitrogenous bases except thymine which is present in DNA but
replaced by uracil in RNA.
Ends: Similar to DNA RNA also possess a 5’ and 3’ end.
Bonds: RNA possess pentose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous bases.
Types of RNA:
Following are three different types of RNA:
(i) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
(ii) Transfer RNA (RNA)
(iii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
mRNA (3-4%):
It takes the genetic message from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to form
particular proteins. This type of RNA consists of a single strand of variable length. Its
length depends upon the size of the gene as well as the protein for which it is taking the
message. mRNA is the most important type of RNA and is about 3-4% of the total RNA in
the cell. ii) tRNA (10-20%):
It transfers amino acid molecules to the site where peptide chains are being synthesized. The
'tRNA' comprises about 10-20% of the cellular RNA. Its main function is to pick up amino acids
from cytoplasm and to transfer them to ribosomes.

rRNA (80%):
It is about 80% of the total cellular RNA. It is mainly associated with the ribosomal protein. It
acts as bio-machinery for the synthesis of proteins.
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TYPES OF RNA

MONONUCLEOTIDE:
• It exits as single nucleotide.
• The common one is ATP
• It is a nucleotide with three phosphate
• Adenine base linked with pentose sugar to form adenosine.
• When adenosine is bonded to a single phosphate it will form a nucleotide called adenosine
monophosphate
➢ Adenine + Ribose ---------------------------------Adenine ribose (adenosine)
➢ Adenosine+ Phosphate ----------------------------- AMP (adenosine monophosphate)
➢ AMP+ Phosphate --------------------------------- ADP (adenosine diphosphate) ➢ ADP +
Phosphate --------------------------------- ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Energy currency:
ATP is energy currency and provides energy to all living cells for normal functioning of cells

Bonds:
Wavy bond is high energy bond present between phosphate group , usually the bond between
second and third phosphate breaks up releasing energy used by a cell , it releases 7Kcal energy.
ATP + H2O ------------------ ADP +P - 7 Kcal
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DINUCLEOTIDE:
• When 2 nucleotide are linked together.
• If it contain adenine as nitrogen base , it is called as adenine dinucleotide
• If it combines with vitamins to form an important compound it is called as co enzyme
• The coenzymes exist in oxidized and reduced form.

Example :
• NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
• NADP (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
• FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide)

DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL:

For decades it was said that whether DNA or proteins are genetic material or both are genetic
materials. For this purpose many scientists worked and finally they decided that DNA is a
genetic material.
Experiments:
Some famous experiments conducted in this regards are:
1. Griffith Experiment:
• In 1928 Griffith conducted experiment on pneumonia causing bacterial and mice.
• He takes two strands of pneumonia causing bacteria and injects it to the mice.
• Among these bacteria one was virulent and other was non virulent (Could not cause malaria).
• He observes that genetic material (DNA) transfer from virulent to non-viral.
2. Aveny, Mcload and Mcarty Experiment:
They repeat Griffith experiment and confirmed that DNA has transferred for virulent to non-
virulent and non-virulent become virulent.
3. Harshay and Chase Experiment:
• They conducted experiment on baveriophoge virus and bacteria.
• They concluded that protein coal of virus remain outside in cell wall and DNA is inserted into
genome of bacteria.
Results:
From all these experiments it was confirmed that DNA is a genetic material not protein.
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GENETIC CODE:
Genetic code is a sequence of 3 nitrogenous bases over a DNA (Gene) copied to mRNA for
protein synthesis. Genetic codes are specific for specific amino acids.
Number of Genetic Codes:
There are 64 genetic codes for 4 nitrogenous bases and 20 natural amino acids. Out of 64 codes
some are start & stop codons.
Start Codon:
AUG is consider as start codon for initiating protein synthesis. Aug codes for methionin. So
methionin is the 1st amino acid of all proteins. In prokaryotes the 1st amino acid is a methionine.
Stop Codon:
Out of 64 genetic codes only 3 are stop codons they are UAA, UAG, UGA. These codons stop
protein synthesis.
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RNA IS A CARRIER OF GENETIC INFORMATION

RNA carrier genetic information from DNA to ribosome for protein synthesis by two main
processes. They are:
i) Transcription:
The process in which genetic information is copied from DNA to mRNA or (synthesis of
mRNA) is called transcription. It is done with the help of “Transcriptase” enzymes. ii)
Translation:
The process in which tRNA collect and arrange amino acids according to the sequence of genetic
codes on mRNA is called translation Central Dogma of Biology:
Transcription and Translation are considered as central dogma of biology because from these
processes life begins.

CONJUGATED MOLECULES
Conjugated molecules:
A molecule that is formed by a combination of two different molecules belonging to different
categories.

a) Lipoprotein:
Combination of lipids and protein is called as lipoprotein
Example:
It is found in plasma membrane and all other types of membranes.
b) Nucleoprotein:
It is formed by a combination of protein and nucleic acid
Example:
Eukaryotic chromosome that is formed by DNA and protein, slightly acidic and soluble in water
c) Glycolipid:
It is formed by a combination of carbohydrate and lipid
Example:
It is an important component of brain and plasma membrane.
d) Glycoprotein:
It is formed by a combination of carbohydrate and protein.

Example: Integral component of plasma membrane and also present in egg albumin.