UNIT 16 SUGAR AND STARCHES.

Structure
16.1 Introduction
Objectives
16.2 Sugar
16.2.1 Sugarcane
/ 16.3 Starches
16.3.1 Potato
16.3.2 Cnssavn
16.4 Surnmcary
16.5 Tenninal Questions
16.6 Answers

lGYl INTRODUCTION
Sugar and starches, the two common forms of carbohydrates, constitute a group of organic
compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen generally, in the ratios of 1 2 1 . The
conlparatively high percentage of oxygen makes carbohydrates a less efficient source of energy
than fats and oils. They may be roughly divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides. Monosaccliarides are the least complex of the carbohydrates having a general
formula C,H2,0n They cannot be hydrolysed further into simple carbohydrates and are the
building blocks of the more complex oligo- and polysaccharides. Of all plant monosaccharides,
glucose and liuctose are the most common. Oligosaccharides are comp sed of two o r more
molecules of monosaccharides joined together by glycoside linkages and tiley yield simple
sugars on hydrolysis. Sucrose (the conde~lsationproduct of a fructose and glucose unit) and
maltose or malt sugar (the condensation product of two glucose molecules) are two common
examples of disaccharides. Polysnccharides are complex molecules of high molecular weight
composed of a large number of repenting monosaccharide units held together by glucoside
linkages. They have lost all their sugar properties. Their general formula is (CnHzn.20n.l),.
They can be broken down into their constituent sugars by [Link]. Starch and cellulose are
the two most abundant polysnccharides in plants.

The carbohydrates are reserve food supply of not only plants but animals too. They are
the most valuable products of the plant world and constitute a necessary food component
for man. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the dry weight of plants. Although they are
of many kinds, various sugars, starches and cellulose predominate. The sugars are water
soluble but starches and cellulose are insoluble in water. Cellulose cannot be digested by
man but can be decomposed by microorganisms. The common sugar and starch yielding
crops are listed in the following table (16.1).

Table 16.1: Sugar and Starch Crops.

Common name Scientific name Family
Plants yielding sugnr
Sugnrcane Saccharun~oflcinarrtrn Poaceac
Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris Chenopodiaceae
Barley Hor-deum vulgare Poaceae
Sweet sorghum, Sorgo Sorghum bicolor Poaceac
Wild date palm Phoenir sylvestris Arecaceae
Toddy palm, Sago palm Coryoru urens Arecacene
Coconut pulm Cocos nuclfera Arecnceae

Plan& yielding starch

Potato Solanurn ruberosum Solanaceae
Cassava Manihor esculenro Euphorbiaceac
aQueensland arrowroot Canna edulis Cannacene
Tam Colocasia esculet~ta Arilceae
Giant tam Alocasla macrorrl~iza Araceae Contd. ..
Economic Botany
East Indian arrowroot Curcurna anguslifolia Zingiberaceae
Greater Asiatic Yam Dioscorea aldla Dioscoreaceae
White Guinea Yam D. rotundafa Dioscoreaceae
Yellow Guinea Yam D,cayenensis Dioscoreaceae
Air potato D. bulbifera Dioscoreaceae
Cush-cusli, Yampee D. rrifda Dioscoreaceae
Sago palm Caryola urens Arecaceae
Sago palm, Queen sago Cycas circinalis Cycadacene
Japanese sago palm C. revolufa Cycadaceae
Maize &a mays Poaceae
Wheat Triricum species Poaceae
Rice Oryza sativa Poaceae

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
explain the process of formation of sugars, and their functions in plants;
prepare a list of the main sugar-ydding plants of the world:
describe the meihods of cultivation of sugarcane;
e describe the morphological nature of the plant parts yielding sugar;
explain the method of extraction of sugw and discuss its uses;
e explain the forrnatioll of by-products generated during sugar production and discuss
their uses;
summarise methods of improvement of sugar crop;
Q explain the formation and storage of starch; r

e identify main plant sources of starch; I

e identify various types of starch grains;

0 describe the morphological nature of the plants, and their parts that yield starch; ,i
I
describe the methods of cultivation of potato and cassava; and
relate the importance and uses of starch to humans.

SUGAR
The name 'sugar' comes from the Sanskrit word "sarkara" meaning gravel and refers to the i
crude sugar. The human tongue knows only four basic tastes - sweet, sour, salt and bitter. ,'
Our "sweet tooth" has therefore always played a major part in making food attractive, so
the sugar bearing plants are of great interest to us. It would be difficult to imagine our lives
without sugars both as a source of energy and as a sweetening agent. Honey was the first
sweetening material of our ancestors and, in order to have a steady supply at hand, man
domesticated the bee and thus began apiculture. Sugar was a rare commodity in Europe
until the Middle Ages and was used only by the artistocratic society. However, by the end
of the fifteenth century, sugar had replaced honey as sweetener and became a cheap and
common food for all people in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. I
I
i
All green plants are capable of synthesising sugars through their photosynthetic activity and i
it commonly occurs in small amounts in many plant species (see Fig. 16.1). Mostly the sugar
produced is so scanty that little is accuniulated while most of it is used during metabolism of
the plant. The sugarcane plant is amongst the most efficient convertors of solar energy, j
carbon dioxide and water into energy giving food. Besides sugarcane, sugars are stored in ,
-
large quantities in sugarbeet, carrots roots; maize, sorghum and sugar maple stems; -
-
number of palms chiefly in their inflorescences; onion - bulb, and in many fruits.
Sugar is not only an essential food but is also an important preservative for several food
products. The world's major supply of sugar at present comes from the culms of
sugarcane (Saccharurn oflcinarum) and smaller propdrtion from roots of sugarbeet (Beta b l
vulgaris). The former is essentially a tropical plant while the latter is confined to
subtropical and temperate climatic conditions. Sugarbeet has proved successful in Europe
and forms the main source of sugar. It is second to sugarcane as the major source of the
world's sugar supply. A small proportion is obtained from sugar maple (Acer
,
I
saccharurn); sugar palm (Arenga pinnufa); palmyra palm (Borassusflabell~er);toddy ,
F
 Sugar nnd Starches
palm (Caryofa urens); coconut palm (Cocos nucifem); wild date palm (Phoenix
,s>lvestris) and Sorglz~inlvulgc:re var, saccharaturn.
Sugarcane, an important source of sugar in tropics, is discussed in this unit.

Fig. 16.1 : Common sugnr und starch crops. a) Sugnrcnne, b) Sugar maple, c) Wild date palm, d) Sugnr
palm, e) Sugnrbeet, f) Sngo pnlm.

16.2.1 SUGARCANE
Botanical name: Saccharurrz officinarrtnt
Family: Poaceae
Vernacular name: Gannn
n = 6,8,10

Sugarcane, the primary source of sugar, is tropical by origin and is cultivated in all the
warm countries. India, Cuba, Pakistan and Brazil are the major producers of sugar. There
are significant productions also in the southern USA, the West Indies, several central and
south American countries, Mexico, Egypt, Java, China, Taiwan, Philippines, South Africa
and Australia. Cuba, also known as the 'world's sugar bowl', is the largest producer of
sugarcane. Sugarcane is believed to have originated in the South Pacific, probably New
Guinea and it spread throughout most of the southeast Asia.

In Jndia sugarcane is known to have been cultivated since prehistoric times and became
an important crop by the end of the fourth century B.C. During the invasion of India (327
B.C.) Alexander's army found the local people obtaining "honey" from a grass-like
substance without the aid of bees. These grasses were in fact the plants yieldin& ugary
juice and they have been identified as belonging to genus Sacchonrm. The method of
-
growing cane and making sugar then diffused towards East to Indo-China and West to
Arabian countries and Europe. Sugarcane was being cultivated in China before the first
century B.C. It reached Persia (now Iran) in the beginning of 6"'century A.D. Columbus
is credited with having introduced it into the New World from the Canary Islands. By the
17' century this plant was well distributed in the whole world.

In India sugarcane occupies about 2%million hectares of cultivated land, and is cultivated
practically in every state, with Uttar Pradesh well in the lead, followed by Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat and
Rajasthan. This crop requires fertile soil, long growing period, plenty of water
thrqughout the year, rainfall atleast 200-225 cm and between temperature range of 16-
 50°C and average temperature of 26°C. It requires a short, dry season during later stages
when sugar is being stored in the Stem.

Origin
Cultivated sugarcane has two geographic centres of origin:
1) South Pacific islands particularly New Guinea, where there is maximum diversity of
the genus Saccharunr. Most botanists are of the opinion that cultivated sugarcane
origrnakd in this region and spread eastwards and finally became established as an
important ctop in several countries of South East Asia.
2) The second centre is Northern India. The tall luge barrelled tropical species
S,oflcinarum originated from S. robustum in New Guinea. As it
migrated outwards it became modified to the new natural habitat with species of
related Erianthus maximus or Sclerosrachyafusca. The north Indian sugarcales.
siriense (Chinese or Japanese cane) and S. barberi (Indian canes) are believed to
have originated in North India by natural hybridization between migrating form of
[Link] the S.,sponraneum(wild cane). The last two species also occur in
the wild state (alsosee Fig. 16.2).
1

80 - chxomosomc rohustunt

- ----
Fig. 16.2 : Map slrowlng evolutlonnry geography of sugarcane.
Systematics of Saccharurn I

Five species of Saccharum, namely S. oflcinarum, S. barberi, S. sinense, S. spontaneum ;

and S. robusturn, have been recognised. These are indigenous to lhe old world and are ;
polyploid or aneuploid. These five species are building blocks for all breeding work
because they intercross and hybridize easily. Today most of the cultivated sugarcane are
interspecific hybrids. The programme of producing these hybrids is known as
"Nobilisai'ion". The chief characters of these species are as follows:
S. oficinantm (2n=80) Noble or thick cane. It is soft, thick-stemmed, large barrelled wiU~t
a low fibre and high sucrose content, Although this species is an important source of
sugar, it cannot be grown satisfactorily in most areas because it is susceptible to al~nostan
the serious diseases reported on the crop, I
S. barberi (2n=82 to 124) indian cane. The species appears to be intermediate between
the wild and the noble canes. In general, these varieties are hard, small byrelled with
higher fibre content, a vigorous root syslem and have a good amount of juice. They have!
I
become prominent because of immunity to sereh.
I

S. sittense (2n=116 to 118) Chinese or Japanese canes. These are hard and small-barrellai
It has a great vigour, has wide adaptability and matures early. It stands light frost and ]
drought and can be cultivated in north India, Though its sugar content is less the canas
fairly resistant to root rot and sereh and a few are also resistant to mosaic disease,
S. spontaneuni (2n=40 to 128) wild cane. It is a vigorous, thin, grassy form, often withpk
stalks, vimally devoid of sucrose. It has a deep penetrating root system, ond is resistanll '
drought and immune to sereh, mosaic and root rot. It is very widely used in breeding wd I
S. robustum (2n=80) wild cane. This species includes tallest canes, has great vigour and
wide adaptability. It has high fibre but low sugar content and is disease resistant. This
species is exceedingly valuable in the cane breeding programme.
 Sugar and Starches
SAQ 1
(i) Give botanical names of three sugar-yielding plants,

(ii) Name the plants in which sugar is stored in stem, root, bulb and inflorescence.

(iii) Which Indian states are leading producers of cane sugar?

(iv) Which are the centres of origin of cultivated sugarcane?

(v) Give the botanical names of: (a) Noble cane, (b) Indian cane, and (c) Wild cane.

Morphology
Sugarcane is a perennial rhizomatous giant grass with a thick solid aerial stem, 3 to 8 m
tall and usually 3.8 to 6.0 cin in diameter. It grows in clumps (stands). The colour of the
cane ranges from almost white through yellow to deep green, purple red or violet. The
stem is jointed, the joints being shorter at the base, gradually increasing both in length
and thickness upward until a inaximum is reached beyond which they become
progressively smaller and finally terminate in an inflorescence.

A cane joint consists of five conspicuous parts:

-
i) A node the area where the leaf sheath is attached to the stem;
ii) l'he root band composed of several minute translucent dots - the root initials or root primordia;
iii) The intercalary meristem, a narrow meristematic zone just above the root band,
which is responsible for the growth of the internode;
iv) The -
internode a barrel shaped structure covered with a fairly thick waxy bloom; and
v) The lateral buds placed alternately on opposite sides of the stem and protected from
damage by the leaf sheath that forms a tight covering around the internode (Fig. 16.3).

Meristemntic zone

Root initiul

Fig, 16.3: Outline dingrnm o f n piece of cnne slnlk consisting af two complete joints and part of two
adjacent jolnls,
 Anatomically, the outer part: of the stem (rincl) is connposed of several layers of thick
walled lignified cells that provide protection to the underlying cells. Internally, it consists
of soft light-coloured tissue (pith),in which are embedded numerous fibro-vascular
bundles. The parenchyma cells surrounding them contain a high percentage ofjuice,
which amounts to about 85-88 per cent of the total weight of the fresh cane juice. The
sLlcrose content of the juice varies from 12 to 17 per cent. The leaves are attached
alternately in two rows on either side of the stem at the nodes and are built upon a typical
graminaceous plan. The leaf blade is a long, thin, flat structure with a finely serrate
margin, usually 2.5- 10 cm wide and 0.9-1.5 rn or more in leogth, and often clothed with
hairs which inflict painful skin puncture (Fig. 16.4).

i
Fig. 11.4: Oullinc diagram stlowing serrate leaf margin (only a pnrt of Ic:~fst~ownI~erc).
The light silvery tall coloured inflorescence, commonly referred to as a 'tassel' or an
arrow, is an open feathery or woolly panicle, about 0.3 - 0.6 m in length and is produced ,
only in the left-over or experimental plants (Fig. 16.5). Both spikelets are surrounded at
the base by a ring of long silky hairs which impart a characteristic silky appearance to the i
inflorescence. The leaf sheath immediately surrounding the inflorescence is quite long
-
(0.6 0.9 m), while the blade is quite short and is known as the flag. The structure plan of I
both the spikelets is similar, each having a pair of glumes that enclose both the florets, the j
lower flower being represented by only a sterile lemma. The lemma is, however, missing 1
in the upper flower of S. offlcinarum (but is present in S. spontaneum and its hybrids)
whereas the palea is a small, thin, narrow structure. The lemrha of the lower flower,'
nevertheless, strongly enfolds the palea of the upper fertile flower. Two lodicules, three
stamens and a centrally placed gy~loeciurnwith two styles ending in feathery stigmas are
present (Fig. 16.6). The fruit is caryopsis. The seeds retain their viability for a very short
time. I
Chemical Composition
The millable cane contains 50-60% of the total dry matter of the whole plant, the tops
and trash are about 30-40% and the roots and stubble is about 10%. The chemical
composition is affected by age, enviro~lmentand culture conditions. The leafy tops
have a high percentage of reducing sugars and a low percentage of recoverable
s~lcroseexcept when ripened under ideal conditions. The amount of sucrose,
C12H22011 in the steni increases with maturity and is usually highest near the base, but
changes occu'r with the degree of ripeness. The 26% organic matter consists of 9-16%
of fibre and the rcst is mainly sugars. The juice 8548% of the total weight of cane is
essentially water and sucrose, with some glucose and fructose and small quantities of
mineral salts and nitrogenous substances. The total solids in thejuice, is usually 20-
22% o f with 80-95% is sucrose, depending on the ripeness of cane. The overall
recovery of raw sugar per 100 tons of millable cane is usually 9- I3 tons. Efficient
modern factories recover about 87% of the total sucrose originally present in the cane
at the point of entry of factory.
 Sugar end Starches
Final'raw molasses contains about 20% water, 35% sucrose, and 14% reducing s~aga~s.
Bagasse contains 25-55% water, 42-47% fibre, and 2:3-3.0%sucrose,
Upper glume
Sterile Icmma enclosing
I I fertile palea
\ N\\ I Lower glume

Sterile lemma enclosing

Sessile spiltelet +-' 8' 8

Fig. 16.5 : An lntlorescence or sugarcane. Fig, 16.6 : Sugnrcnnc.A part of lnflorescelmceshowing

paired spia(e8eb1.( F T o Cobley
~ & Steeb,
1976).
Propagation
Sugarcane is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings of three to five joints termed 'seed
cane' or 'seed pieces' or by ratooning, in which the dormant buds on the portion of the
cane left underground after harvesting, sprout in two or three weeks time, producing a
new crop - commonly known as "slubble" or "ratoon crop" (Fig. 16,7), The yield,
however, almost always declines slowly with successive ratoon crops. Fields arc: usually
cleared every three to four years and replanted with fresh cuttings.
n
Primary stalk

Secotidary stalks

- Tertiary stalks

Ground level

'oint of attachment
.... to original cutting-
L
Cb

Flg. 16.7: Underground portlon of a cnne cutting (stool) benrlng primary, secondary and tertinry stslks.
The cuttings are usually taken from plant canes 8-12 months old or ratoons of 6-8
months. Care is taken that they should be free from disease and pests. Setts are best
taken from the upper third of the cane. The stem cuttings used for planting may be
sections with two or more buds or eye's, usually three. They may be planted at an angle
of 45" or laid horizontally in the base of furrows. Two cuttings are sometimes placed side
by side. For rapid multiplication, one joint bearing a single pregerminated bud is used.
The setts are often*treatedwith organg-mercurial cornpourids before planting. For
successful sprouting a well prepared seedbed, which is moist at $e time of planting is
required and planting is usually done early in the wet season.

'& first crop after planting, known as the plant crop, takes 9-24 months to mature
depending on local conditions. In most of the tropics it is usually planted during the rainy
season io mature 15-16 months later. In other countires it occupies the land for 2 years.
After harvesting the stubbles are left to produce 2-4 or more rat0011crops, each taking
about a year to maturn, afer which the field is cleared grad new plant crop is planted.
Economic Botany
Sometimes a fallow period is left before replanting. The period of the plant and ratoon
crop before replanting is known as the crop cycle. About 30-40% of the crop is ratooned,

Harvesting
Sugarcane is harvested when it reaches the stage of maturity as at this time it is with the
highest sucrose content. Tests for ripeness are usually made on random samples taken
over the whole field at intervals of 7-10 days. This can be done by cutting the whole cane
or by examining the juice with a hand refractrometer from the central internodes of the
upper and lower thirds of standing canes. Experience, visual observation and the field
history also help in assessing ripeness. Modem cane evaluation is based on the sucrose
content at the time of delivery to the factory. In most tropical countries the crop is ready
to harvest in 14-18 months in plant crop and at 12 months in ratoon o r stubble crop. It
is usual to harvest first the ratoon crops which are due to be ploughed out, followed by
the plant crop and lastly ratoons which will be again ratooned.

In most countries, the cane is cut by hand using cutlasses (machete). The crop is cut close
to the ground. It is also harvested by gigantic cutting machines in modern plantation.
They are then stripped of the dried leaves and sent to factories for processing without any
loss of time. Thc cut cane soon begins to deteriorate (the sugar being labile undergoes
inversion into glucose and fructose) but the effect on milling and recovery is negligible
during the first 48 hours.

SAQ 2
(i) What is ratoon crop?
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
(ii) Which is the right stage of harvesting the sugarcane and how it is tested?
...................................................................................................

Manufacture of Sugar
The white crystalline sugar from cane is manufactured as follows:
1. Extraction of Juice: The ideal material for processing is clear, ripe cane, free from
trash, tops and foreign material. The freshly cut cane stalks are shredded into small
pieces with the help of crushers and then passed through heavy, grooved steel rollers
to squeeze out the juice. Several successive expressions are required to ensure
complete extraction of the juice. After each expression, the cane is moistened by
sprays of water to facilitate a complete recovery. The material left behind is called
"bagasse". The expressed juice is a turbid, dark greyish sweet fluid full of impurities
such as organic acids, minerals, proteins, colloidal colouring matter, gums, pieces of
cane and other extraneous material.

2. Purification of Juice: The juice is first strained to remove the insoluble and
suspended particles and is then subjected to defacation, carbonation and sulphitation,
to remove completely the dissolved non-sugars. During defacation the juice is
heated with measured amount of lime to remove free organic acids and phosphates as
insoluble calcium salts. The proteins and colloidal colouring matter are removed
from the solution as a thick scum appearing on the surface. The precipitated calcium
salts and the scum are removed by filteration through canvas. The filtered juice is
then led to tanks where it is allowed to come in contact with carbon dioxide
(carbonation), a process which removes excess lime as calcium carbonate and also
brings about decomposition of calcium sucrate into soluble black sugar. During
sulphiration the filtered carbonated juice is treated with sulphur dioxide to complete
the neutralisation of lime and the decomposition of calcium sucrate.

3. Concentrz+ationand crystallisation: The purified juice is now led LO evaporators

where it is boiled under reduced pressure until it becomes a thick syrup. Partial
vacuum boiling also prevents darkening and decomposition of sugar. The
concentrated raw syrup is finally boiled in a vacuum pan to the point of
 -

Sugar and Starthes

crystallisation to produce a thick sticky mass (massecuite) in which a part of the
sugar is thrown out in the folm of crystals. This dark brown mixture of sucrose-
crystals and mother liquor (molasses) is next stirred in open tanks, or crystallisers
until it crystallises. Finally the massecuite is led into centrifugal machines, an
operation during which the molasses passes through the screen and the crude sugar is
retained in the basket from where it can be removed after a quick washing with
water. The molasses still contain some crystallisable sugar and ismixed with the raw
s y ~ u pand boiled. This is repeated three or four times to remove as much sugar as
possible. The centrifugal raw sugar is reddish brown or somewhat greyish in colour
and contains about 96 per cent sucrose. It is usually exported in this form, filrtfler
refining being done in the importing country.

4. .Refining and Drying of Crystals: The raw sugar is redissolved in hot water and the
suspended impurities removed by adding diatomaceous earth. The solution is
decolourised to a colourless sparkling liquid by treating with carbon black. The clear
syrup, after vacuum concentration, is centrifuged so that pure sparkling white
crystals of sugar separate out. The crystals are then dried in large rotary driers in the
presence of strong current of hot air. The dried granulated sugar crystals are now
passed across inclined vibrating screens to be graded tlccordir~gto size and are
shipped for export after packaging.

In India and other parts of Asia, a considerable amount of juice is evaporated over an
open fire in a large shallow iron pan with flaring sides. Whcn the boiling syrup reaches a
temperature of 11 8-12O0C, the thick semi-solid mass is quickly transferred to wooden
troughs or moulds where it solidifies on cooling. It is known as "gur" in India, 'tjaggery"
in Africa, and "panela" in Latin America, technically it is non-centrifugal sugar.

SAQ 3
Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words.
(i) The dry fibrous residue left behind after extraction of juice from sugarcane stem is
called .........................
(ii) During .........................the extracted juice is heated with measured amount of
lime to remove free organic acids and phosphate as insoluble calciul~lsalt.
(iii) ........................
is an important by-product of sugar industry widely ilsed for
making aIco11olicdrinks.
(iv) The concentrated syrup fonned after sulphitation, which is passed on to the
crystallizing tank is known as .......................

Economic Importance
1. Sugarcane is a very important source of sugar, which is an iinportant source of
energy in the human diet.
1. L a r g e quantities of sugar are used in the marlufacture of alcoholic beverages, soft
drinks, confectionery, ice-creams and chocolates, and in canning industry.
. Cereal manufacturers use sugar as a sweetening agent.
!. It is used in hair tonics, explosives, photographic supplies and medicines,
5. I t helps in the tanning of leather, the silvering of mirrors and making aclhesives.
5, Molasses, an important by-product of the cane sugar industry, is widely used as a
livestock feed, for making alcoholic drinks such as rum and for the ma%ufacture of a
h o s t of chemicals, including industrial alcohol, vinegar, glycerol, lactic arid citric acids.
It contains about 35% sucrose and 15% reducing sugars. It is this 50% of fcrmentnble
sugar which gives it its principal value as an industrial raw material. Rum is produced
by t h e fermentation of molasses by the yeast Sacchnrortzyces cerevisiae followed by
distillation. Molasses are also used for manufacture of dry ice. Acetone and butanol
are produced by fermentation of molasses with Clostri(liitmbacteria.
. Cane wax, after extraction with solvents, is used in manufxturir~gpolishes.
cosmetics and paper coating.
, The filter cake is used as a fertiliser because of its high calcium, nitrogen and
phosphorus content.
, Thick noble (relalively soft, with a high juice and sugar conlent and low in fibre)
canes are chewed.
I. Bagasse is burnt [Link] fuel, used as a mulch for plants and as a litter or bedding
for poultry and livestock. It is also used in the mnnufacrure of paper, insulating
Economic Botany
fibreboard, cardboard, plastics and furfural. Tiie fui-fural is important in oil refining
and nylon industries.

Breeding of Sugarcane (Improvement)

Sugarcane has been subjected to elaborate breeding work, arid the hybrid canes produced
have been selected for disease resistance, faster growth, lack of branching and higher
sucrose yield. The Dutch installed a sugar experiment station in Java as early as 1885 and
one of the varieties of canes produced there is among the world's best. The British set up
a similar station at Coimbatore in India and another in Barbados, and the improved canes
produced at these stations are also widely planted.

It was in 1888 that Soltwedel in Java, arld Harrison and Bovell independently discovered
the viability of sugarcane seeds. This discovery came at a time when diseases were
threatening the cane growing regions and it marked the beginning of a new phase in
sugarcane breeding. During the first few years, the breerling programme was confined to
selection, but was soon followetl by intervarielal arid inrerspecific hybridization. Crosses
were rnade between varieties of Succharun.1nfjici~~anrir~ and other species such as S.
bnrberi and 3, sinense to produce resistant varieties. The reason for crossing noble canes
with the wild types was to produce hybrids that coinbine the best Features of both the {

parents, i.e., thick, soft, long barrelled cane and high sucrose content of S, officinurutn as
well as the deep penetrating root system, vigour, drought and disease resistance of the
wild parents - S. spontaneunl and S. robnstum. The first generation progeny is
intermediate between these two parents and is commercially unsuitable for sugar
production as the stems are often thin, pithy and contain little sugar but have some of the .
vigour and disease resistance characters. The back cross of F I hybrids with noble I
varieties greatly improves the productive quality of the cailes without diluting the i
i
favourable attributes of the wild parent hybridization with noble canes (S, oficittarurn) to i
upgrade the sugar content is known as 'nohilisarion'. The key even1 in cane breeding was j
the production in 1921 in Java of the greatest cane of all, P.O.J. 2878, the first of the so- 1
called nobilized canes, now generally outclassed, but present innearly every modem 1
pedigree. These canes are all essentially derivatives of Succlinrum spontaneuni
backcrossed to noble types (Fig. 16.8). The genetical expliination of this additive effect,
i.e., the increase in sugar content in the hybrid, was given hy Bremer in 1922, Saccharurn t
1
oficinarum transmits its somatic chromosome number (2n) to hybrid offspring when j
pollinated by any of the forms of S. spontaneum, S. [Link] and S. sinense, but behaves j
normally in transmitting only the gametic (reduced haploid) number in intraspecific I
crosses or when pollinated by [Link]. For example, in crosses of S. oficinanipn (n =
40) as the female parent with S. spontnnaum (n = 56) as the pollinator, the hybrid instead i'
of having the normal diploid chromosome number (40 c 56), will contain 40 + 40 + 56 = j
136 chromosomes. If this male fertile F, hybrid (n = 48) is back-crossed with the S. i
oficinarum type (n = 40) as the maternal parent, the new hybrid will have 40 + 40 + 68 or i
2n = 148 chmmosomes. Clones of this back-cross do not result in a further increase or
chramosomes when S. oSJicinarrim is used as the male parent.

Black cheribon Glagah Bandjemnsin Hitarn Loethers

(S. oficinarum)
0 (S, spontoneurn)
2n=ll2
2n=80 12"-99

First no ilisation

Ka soer
2n = 136 2n = 89

Second nobilisation
P.O.. .2364 E.K.28
2n = 148
4
(S. a ~cinantnt)
2n= 80

P.O.J. 2878
2n = 119 (Jtswiet)

Flg. 16.8: Parentage ofP.0.J. 2878. I

 Sugnr and Slurcl~c>
I
SAQ 4
Give the chromoso~nenumber of FI generation of the following crosses :
(i) S. offici~zarurn(n = 40) X S,spontaneum (n = 56)
(Female parent) (Male parent)
I
(ii) S. officinarum (n = 40) X S. oflcinarum (n = 40)
(Female parent) (Male parent)
I
(iii) S, oficinarum (n = 40) X S.~.nbusturn(n = 40)
(Female parent) (Male parent)

F1 1 1
(iv) S, officinarum (n = 40) X F1 male fertile hybrid frorn cross
(Female parent) No. 1
I

Through 'nobilisation' and other similar processes, a large number of new varieties have
been evolved in India, Australia, U.S.A, Hawaii and many islands in the Eastern and
Westen1 Hemispheres. The irnprovelnent of crop needs constant evolution of new
improved varieties. In our country, this work had heen undertaken by The Sugarcane
Rreeding Institute at Coirnbtore in Tamil Nadu. It is engaged in this work since its
inception in 1912. Of the sugarcane grown in India about 90% varieties come from this
Institute which has contributed immensely in the increase in the total yield in the country,
-
Some of the high yielding varieties include [Link], C0.413, C0.622, (20.712, C0.658,
-
B.14, H.M. 320; some of the disease resistant varieties are C0.331, C0,213, C0.349
and some popularly cultivated varieties are C0.513, C0.527, and C0.421.

The Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow and National Institute of Sugar
Technology at Kanpur, conduct research in varietal improvement and also impart know-
how about sugarcane and sugar industry. The Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore,
carries out main research in the country.

The sugarcane, like wheat and rice, is an outstanding example of international cooperation
and transfer of biological technology in agriculture. The high yielding and disease resistant
sugarcane clones evolved at various breeding stations have diffused widely all over the world
and have entered into the parentage of strains adaptable to local agroclimatic conditions.

16.3 STARCHES
Carbohydrates are stored primarily as starch, which occurs as grains (up to 150 p in
size) inside plastids where the enzymes for their synthesis occur. In chloroplast, the
glucose formed as a result of photosynthesis, is converted into starch. In the parenchyma
cells of roots and other storage organs, as well as in many seedlings, the tr,mslocated
sucrose is synthesized into starch in leucoplnsts or amyloplasts which may remain in
this form for months before being hydrolyzed by amylase. Each leucoplast produces
only one starch grain, so that the grain appears to be free in the cytoplasm. Starch is
composed of a - d glucose residues of two different kinds - arnylose and amylopectin
(Fig.16.9). Amylose is a long molecule (200-1000 glucose units) that forms an
unbranched helix. It is soluble in hot water and is therefore the kind of starch used
commercially as 'soluble starch' (e.g., for starching clothes). Amylopectin is a shorter
molecule (containing 40-60 units) but fonns a highly branched helix. It mc&es up 70-
Eeoaomie Botany 80% of the starch in most grains and legumes (almost 100% in corn and 30% in peas).
Starch molecules, perhaps because of their helical nature, tend to cluster in granules,
Starch is deposited in concentric layers in grains and there are characteristic patterns for
differentspecies (Fig. 16.10). It is thus possible to check such commercial products as
corn and potato stdrch for adulterants.
Starch (amylase)
CH20H FH20H

Starch (arnylopectin)

CH20H
I

Fig. 16.9 : a ) A single moleculeof amylose contnhs 1000 or more glucose units In a long unbranched
chain. b) Amylopectin~ismade up of 40 to 60 glucose units arranged In shorter, brnnched
chains. c) Starch molecules tend to form a hellx and then aggregate Into granules,
Starch is found in most green plants as the chief food reserve. Typically it is stored in
seeds, stems, leaves and roots of plants in the form of starch grains differing in size, shape "
1

and'other microscopic details. Starch grains are either eccentric (potato, bean and I
anowroot) or concentric (wheat, maize). In some cases, however, they may be joined i
together to form compound starch grains as in rice (Fig. 16.10). They stain
characteristically bluish-black with a solution of Iodine Potassium Iodine.

Cereals are the basic source of our starchy foods. All important civilizations were
founded on the basis of one or other of the cereal grains. But potato (Solanurn
ruberosum), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam (Dioscorea alata), cassava (Manihot
esculenta), banana (Musa sapienturn) are still important constituents of the diet of m a y
I
people living in regions not well-suited to growing cereals. Although not closely related,
these plants have much in common. All are tropical in origin with potato coming from
the highlands, while others are lowland species. They are propagated vegetatively. They

I
are valuable source of carbohydrate (energy food), although all are deficient in protejns
and a diet consisting almost exclusively of any of them can lead to serious diseases.

For commercial purposes, starch is obtained from the stem tubers of potato (Solanurn
tuberosum), the root tubers of cassava (Manihot esculenta) and the rhizomes of mowroo!
(Maranta amndinacea). In this unit potato and cassava are discussed in detail and some ,
important commercial starches are deskribed. i
1
I
SAQ 5
(i) Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words:
l
a) Starch is composed of a-d glucose residue of two different kinds I
I
.................. ......................
and
b) Amylose is a long molecule that forms an ...............helix,
C) Starch grains of potato ore ......................
however in ......................
they may be joined together to form compound starch grains.
dl Starch grains stain ......................
with Iodine Potassium Iodide solutioa
 Sugar and Starches
e) ........................are the basic source of our starchy food.
f) Starch is obtained commercially from the ......................of potato and
from the ............... of cassava.
(ii) Name three non-cereal starch producing plants.
...................................................................................................

Oats Banana
Maize

Sago
Wheat

Arrowroot
Bean
Rice
Fig. 16.10: Stnrch grains from dilrcrcnt plants showing thclr characteristic patterns for each sgccies.

16.3.1 POTATO
Botanical name : Solanurn tuberosnm
Family : Solanaceae
Vernacular name : Alu
11 = 24

The common potato (Solanurn tuberosunz) belongs to Solanaceae. Various wild Solmum
species produce small potato-like tubers, which from time immemorial have been
gubbed from the ground by the Indians. One or more of these was domesticated in the
Andes Mountains of Bolivia and Peru, certaitlly prior to 2000 A.D., to become the
.cultivated S. tuberosttm. The diploid chromosome complement in Solanup is 24 with S
ruberosum (211 = 48), being an autotetraploid.
Economic Botany
The potato was presumably first seen by an European in 1537, when the Spailish landed
in what in now known as Columbia. New world explorers and monks became Fa~niliar
with it in the decades that followed and it was brought back to Europe by 1570. It was
cultivated throughout the corltinent before 1600, and in Ireland by 1663. The cultivated
potato is said to have been first introduced in North America in 1621. Not until 1700
however was the potato extensively planted. One reason for its sudden prominence in
Europe during the 1700s was that reigning sovereigns recognizing its food potential
compelled the people by royal edict to plant it (Germany, 1744; Sweden, 1764). In
Ireland (the Irish were perhaps the first to recognize the potential of potato as a staple
food and started to grow it as a crop by the middle of seventeenth century) especially, the
potato was adopted as a mainstay food on which the Irish peasants survived until 1845-
46, when the 'potato blight' (a fungal disease caused by Plzytophthora ittfestans) swept
across Europe, blackening the leaves of the plant and [Link] the tubers to rot. The
failure of the so-called 'Irish potato' to support the Irish people produced one of the worst
famines in the history of the Western World, followed by an unparalleled migralion,
Death and emigration to America reduced the population of Ireland. One might speculate
that the Irish introductior, stemmed from one narrow genetic source and had the great
genetic variability of the potato in its South American homeland been available, the
famine might have been avoided and the course of history would have been different.
Even before the Irish immigrants came to the United States, introduction of the potato
into New England from Ireland had given it the appellation "Irish" potato. It is
so~netimesreferred to as "white potato" to distinguish i t from "sweet potato" (member of
a different family).

There have been two views regarding the origin of cultivated potatoes: (1) that they might
have arisen directly from an ancestral form of Solanltnl stenotornunl by a process of
simple chromosomal duplication; or (2) they might liave arisen as a spontaneous
amphidiploid hybrid between the more ancient diploid S. ster~otomurnand the diploid j

weed S, sparsipilurn.

In India, the major potato producing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, I
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nndu. In the hilly tracts, the potato is grown as a I
summer crop, while in the plains it is a winter crop.
I
The food value of potato varies depending on tlle variely, growth conditions, storage and
handling. Analyses have indicated its composition to be 70-81 per cent water, 8-28 per :
cent starch, and 1-3 per cent protein (most cultivars have around 5 per cent Kjeldahl
nitrogen perhaps half of it not in protein form), 2-3 % fibres, and 0.1 % fat and with
varying amino acid coinposition with traces of minerals (potassium, phosphorus, iron and ,
magnesium) and other food elements. i
i!
Tuberization is not favoured by high temperature. Therefore, potato is grown only in I
colder months of subtropical climate. The best environment is a cool, moist climate with
I
a mean annual temperature between 15°C and 21°C and a ridh, friable, porous, well 1

drained, acidic, light soil. Long day conditions along with high nitrogen content of the
soil favours the heavy growth of plant whereas short days and deficiency of nitrogen
favour early tuberization. Crop is usually grown by tubers free from disease, that are
either planted whole or cut into sections or sets. Large seed potatoes are cut into several
sections, each having at least one bud or eye. Ideally, they should be cut at right angle to i
the main axis to eliminate apical dominance. Tubers need a dormancy period of about 3
months but some varieties need 7 months of dormancy (Solarzum tuberosum). Green
potatoes contain a poisonous glycoside, solanin, which in high concentrations may cause
I
sickness and even death in both humans and livestock. This compound is also present in j
potato sprouts. i
I
I
Morphology
It is an erect, branching more or less spreading, tuber-bearing plant about 60-90 cm in
height. Though a perennial plant, it is treated as an annual ui~dercultivation. The aerial
part of the stem is erect in the early stages of growth but later it becomes more spreading.
Except for the nodes the aerial stem is hollow and weak. The underground portion of
stem is more or less rounded and solid, sending forth horizontal branches (stolons) that
arise f ~ o mthe axillary buds, Adventitious roots are produced in groups of 3-4 at the
nodes of main underground stem as well as stolons (Fig. 16.1 1).
 Sr~garand Stnrchcs

Fig. 16.1 1 : A polalu plant.

The first few leaves developing from ttlc "seed" piece are ~ISU~IIIYsimple but subsequent
ones are compound, and irregularly iniparipinnate. Each letif hos one terminn! leaflet, 2-4
pairs of large lateral primary oval leaflets will1 entire or serrate tlinrgirls anrl smali
secondary leaflets (folioles) interspersed between primary lsafleu (Fig. 16.1 1). 'The
leaflets are more or less opposite and arc derwely hairy when young but nt rnalurity the
hairs are confined to the midribs and lateral veins. The 1e:ives are spirally arranged on the
main stem with two small basal leaf-like s~ipulesclasping the main stem.

The tuber is the short, greatly enlivged apical portion of tlie stolon (Fig. 16.12), full of
stored food:~Morphologicallyit is a shortened, thickened stelti bearing buds or eyes in the
1 axils of scale-like leaves which are so011shed, bearing a rudi~nerltaryleaf scar (eyebrow)
or ridge. The eyes may be shallow, medium or deep, the eyebrow being well marked
(semi-circular) towards the heel or the attached end where the tuber is attached to the
stolon. Each eye consists of a rudimentary leaf scar and cluster of at least three buds
lyingin a slight depression, representing a tateral branch with under-developed
internodes. The eyes are arranged spirally around Lh'e tuber and are more crowded
towards the apical or rose end of the tuber than tlie Iieel or basal end (Fig. 16.13). The
size, shape and colour of the tubers vary greatly. The skin may be smooth or rough.
Eyebrow
Terminal bud Heel or attacl~nlenten
Rhizorne Rose end

Lenticels
Node young tuber
Eye
Fig, 16.12: An early stage in devolopmont of a tuber. Fig. 16.13: A potato tuber toshow It@
extarrlal features.
Eegnomie Botany
Anatomically tuber is a typical stem consisting of periderm, cortex, vascular cylinder
(consisting of patches of outer phloem and a ring of distinct xylem bundles), the outer
medulla representing the inner phloem and the inner medulla or pith with parenchyma
(Fig. 16.14).

Inner medulla (Pith)

Cortex
Vascular ring
Periderm
Outer pl~loern Eye

Outer m e d ~
Pi~tc'hesof inner phloeln

Fig. 16.14: Outline diagram oba potato tuber in cross-section.

The phloem elements both outer and inner are in numerous groups. The internal phloem
is rich in parenchyma and appears to be the principal storage tissue of the tuber. The
peridem and xylem bundles contain little storage parenchyma. The thin corky peridem
forms the outer protective layer (the skin) which can be easily peeled off. The skin is
pitted with lenticels. The greater part of proteins, minerals, tannins, crystals and pigments
(in coloured varieties) is localized in the outer layers of the cortex. Deep peeling of
potatoes should always be avoided as it removes the valuable nutritional ingredients. The
starch in the tuber cells swells upon cooking and consequently bursts the thin cell walls.

Flowers may or may not be produced, depending upon the variety; wherever produced
these are white, yellow or purple, borne in terminal clusters, consisting of five fused
sepals, five fused petals, five epipetalous stamens and bicarpellate gynoecium. The fruits
i
j
are spherical (berry), green when immature, and yellow, purple o r black when mature.
I
Methods of Breeding
Introduction, hybridization and selection constitute the main ways of potato breeding.
Hybridization is the principal method used in which intervarietal crosses are made
between comlnercial varieties to combine desirable characters. Such a cross may be a
dihybrid or a multihybrid one, involving several varieties. Since potato is a vegetatively
propagated crop, commercial varieties are heterozygous; clonal selection is usually
practised in F, generation after hybridization. Main breeding work is done in long day
summers in Shin~la(Central Potato Research Institute) and the crop is grown as a short
day winter crop in plains. However, selections are difficult to make in varieties adapted to
the conditions in plains. For this crosses are made at Shimla and FIseeds are sent to
regional stations at Patna and Jalandhar, where they are grown and selections are made
during short-day conditions.

Of the various desirable qualities of tuber mention may be made of keeping quality, size,
shape, colour, texture, skin thickness and nutritive value of tubers.

Now a days older varieties are being replaced by new varieties such as Kufri Kissan,
+KufriKundnn, Kufri Sindoori, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Chamtkar, and Kufri Alankar.
Most recent are Kufri Bahar, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Jyoti and Kufri Lalima.

Economic Importance and Uses

1. Potatoes are consumed, as a fresh vegetable, in the daily diet in a variety of ways -
1
i
boiled, steamed, fried, baked or roasted.
2. A number of delicacies like cutlets, "papar" are prepared.
3. They are processed into many products such as potato chips or crisps, dehydrated I
1
mashed potatoes, potato flour, frozen French fries and canned potatoes.
4, Fresh potatoes are important source of Vitamins B and C. I
5, Potato flour (up to 4%) can be mixed with wheat flour for bread making.
6. Potato starch is also used for prepnring adhesives. I
I
7. Potato starch or 'Farina' is largely used in laundries and is suitable for sizing paper. 1
8. Industrial alcohol is prepared in enormous quantities from potato starch which is , I

I
converted into sugars and are then fermented by yeast for production of alcohol. i
!
 Sugar and Starches
9. Potato is a good substrate for the growth of rnipoorganisms. The liquor from boiled
potatoes has long been used as a nutrient medium in experimental work.
10. 'Vodka', Russian alcohol beverage is prepared by fermentation of cooked potatoes.

SAQ 6
(i) Give names of major potato producing states in India.
'

..................................................................................................

(ii) Potato could be grown only during the colder months of subtropical climate.
Comment.
...............................
.....................).......,,....a ................................

(iii) Why are the green potatoes harmful?

...................................................................................................

(iv) Name three vilrieties of potato cultivated in India.

...................................................................................................

(v) Name the place and institute where improvement work on potato is being carried
out in India.
.................................................................................................

16.3.2 CASSAVA
Botanicnl name : Mnnihol ~sculenta
Fnrnily : Euphorbiaceae
Vernacular name : Manioc, mandioca, yuca, tapioca and sngu
n = 18
Cassava is a species of the tropical lowlands. It adapts to poor soil and casual cultivation,
and has consequently become a staple food in many of the poor and developing parts of
the world. It is a perennial shrub which produces a high yield of tuberous roots in one to
three years after planting. It produces exceptional carbohydrute yields, much higher than
those of maize or rice. Cassava is the sixth ~nostimportant staple food in the world today,
It is the second in importance only to the sweet potato as a root crop throughout the
tropics. It is grown in every tropical country and over 200 different varieties of the plant
are known. It can be grown easily from stem cuttings. The root tubers can be left in the
ground until required without serious deterioration. Root tubers are eaten after steaming
or boiling.

Cassava is a native of Brazil (S. America). This crop does not wilhstnnd severe cold and
that is why it does not flower well in cold conditions of north India. It can however
withstand heavy rainfall. This plant was introduced in Travancore (Southern Kerala) in
lndia long ago by colonizers either the'Portuguese, the Dutch or the Spanish. It is an
important crop of Kerela and also forms stnple food crop of West const districts for many
people. It is now being inlroduced in Tamil Nodu, Andhrn Prdesh, Gujnrat, Assam and
Maharashtra.

Well-drained garden loam soil is best suited for this crop. Planting material consists of
short stem cuttings, obtained after harvesting the previous crop. Portions &ken are
comparatively young and are stuck either flat or upright but in n slanting position into the
soil just before the rainy season. It is often intercropped with other food crops but may
also be planted as a pure stand. Sprouting takes about in a wcck's time. When properly
grown not more than three branches are allowed per plant, which attains a height of about
Ecmomic Botany
2.5-3 m. For good root growth plant should be chopped ar~dnot allowed to grow Inore
than 1.8 m in height. Mature roots are about 7-10 cm in diameter and 30-45 crn in length
and weigh 1-2 kg. Some of the giant roots may weigh as much as 10 kg. In rare cases
each plant produces about 4-5 good sized roots.

Morphology
It is a short-lived shrub with latex in all its parts. Tubers develop as swellings on
adventitious roots, a short distance from stem by the process of secondary thickening
(Fig. 16.15). Their number, shape, size and length at which they penetrate the ground,
colour of outer cork and internal tissue vary greatly. These consist O& (a) outer skin or
peridelm; the cork layers may be rough or smooth, white, light to dark brown, pink or
red; (b) thin rind or cortex, usually white but may be tinged pink or brown; and (c) core or
pith mainly consisting of parenchymatous cells rich in medium-sized starch grains with
stellate hilum, few vascular bundles and latex tubes, usually white but may be yellow or
red tinged. This is the edible portion. In addition to tubers, fibrous, adventitious rools
develop horizontally and vertically. Old tubers become lignified.

Fig. 16.15: Cassava plnut showing roots and lenves with palmntely-divided lobes.
1
Stems vary greatly in height and branching habits. Branches are usually glabrous, slender
with leaves towards apex and with prominent leaf scars below. The colour of periderm
and leaf scars ranges from silvery-grey to greenish-yellow, pale or dark brown streaked
with purple.

Leaves are sprially arranged, large, palmate, and are variable both in the size and the
colour. Petioles are usually longer than lamina. The lamina is deeply palmate with 3-9
lobes, usuaIly 5-7. Lobes ovate-ianceolate, entire margin, base narrowed, lip acuminate,
glabrous above, occasionally slightly hairly beneath veins, stipules usually with 3-5
lanceolate lobes, deciduous. Petiole and midrib green to deep red. Lamina may be tinged
red, green and yellow variegated forms also occur.

Flowers are borne in axillary racemes near the e11d of branches. These are unisexual with
male and female flowersin the sanie inflorescence and female near the base.

l'he flowers are very small. The calyx lobes are coloured and the corolla is absent. The 8.
male flowers have ten stamens in two whorls of five each. The gynoecium in the female
flower is tricarpellzuy, trilocular with one ovule per locule. The fruir is 1.5 cm long
globuIar capsule with six longitudinal, and 3-celled wings.
ndocarp woody splitting explosively on ripening 3-5 months after pollination and Sugar and Starches
ecting seeds. Seeds are ellipsoid, grey mottled with dark blotches and pronounced
nncle.

he plant is cultivated in hot climates. It grows very easily and does not require much
hour. Stem cuttings of few inches in length are sown in holes dug at intervals of I
leter. Different varieties take different time to mature. Some varieties produce mature
lbers within six months to a year while others take 18 months to2 years to mature.
econdary growth occurs in the adventitious roots to form tubers. Tubers have a starch
)ntent of about 30 per cent. Older tubers are not edible due to lignification of cells. I'he
~bers,variable in size, are very elongated and cylindrical structures attaining a length of
0.90 cm, and develop in a cluster around the base of the stem in well grown plants.
hey may be surrounded by a mass of normal fibrous roots. These are usually harvested
fter8 months but large and better quality yields can be obtained after a period of 16
lonths or more. The left-over roots continue to produce new steins so that the plant
:mains perennial.

he cultivars of cassava are vaguely grouped as "bitter" or "sweet" having respectively

igh or low concentration of a cyanogenic glycoside. Sweet cassavas require no special
eatment before consumption, but bitter varieties are shredded, squeezed, cooked, and
sated in other ways to rid them of the poisonous juice or to reduce its toxicity. There is
oclear cut demarcation between these two groups, as fne g~ycosidecontent varies with
ldividual plants and cultivars. In sweet varieties it tends to concentrate in the skin and in
itter it tends to concentrate in skin and cortex of tuber. In sweet varieties the main
torage region is relatively free of glycoside.

Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) was established in 1963 at

lvandrum. It maintains tuberous crop collection from our country and from outside. It
iasabout 1300 collections of cassava of which 250 varieties are from outside country.
ittempt is made to obtain good varieties of cassava, resistant to mosaic disease and those
hat give higher yield. As a result of intervarietal hybridization, hybrid and superior
palily fonns have been isolated; of these are H-97, H-165 and H-226. The variety H-97
assesses high starch content. Some tetraploids have been developed which have
egistered average protein value of 3.9% as compared to 1.8% in diploids. Attempts are
nade to increase protein value of high yielding varieties.

konomic uses
Zassava is used in a number of ways.
, he whole root may be boiled, it has a sticky heavy consistency, and of itself is
rather tasteless. It is used as vegetable (after boiling) like potatoes or sweet potato.
1. It is shredded, then heated and dried, to make a meal known asfarinha (in Brazil),
eaten alone if need be, or mixed with other food and sauce,
I. Tapioca is prepared by grating the peeled roots, the mass soaked in water for several
days, kneaded, strained, dried, and then heated to partly hydrolyze the starch to sugar
and gel. It swells up into lumps and these lumps and sturch are known as Topioca
pearls. Tapioca is used for puddings, biscuits nnd confectionery.
These are also used by cutting thin slices after removing rind which are boiled
moderately then dried and stored. These chips can be eaten like potato chips or
ground into meal and eaten like pomdge.
. Cassava also has several industria1,usesand its starch in some form or the other is a
marketable commodity in general world trade. Starch is used in the preparation of
adhesives for laundry, for paper sizing and as a source of sugars, alcohol and ncetone.
Inlowland tropical South America, the beer is still prepnred by chewing the roots; by
salivation the starch is converted into sugars. followed by fmentntion by wild yeasts.
In Africa, the leaves are used as a pot-herb, since they may cqntnin up to 30%
proteins. Their wider use might help prevent malnutrition among people who subsist
rninly on cassava.
Tapioca flour is prepared by a special process. The tubers are peeled, wuqhed and
grated or ground. T h e compressed pulp is then separated from latex and thl? juice
exlracted by squeezing the mass in a bag, The starch comes out like n stream of milk
and impurities remain inside the cloth bag. Squeczingkneading is cor~tinucdwith
fresh changes of water till starch stops coming and only wuter cames out, A smooth
 .
layer of starch settles at bottom and clear water is decanted off. Wet starch is frst
died in sun and then on a hot plate.
9. The starch is used as animal fodder.
10. m e juice of bitter varieties is used to produce "cassareep" which is used in prepar
sauces. The juice is fermented into alcoholic beverages.

Types of commercial starches:

1. Arrowroot starch: The tuber of several tropical plants such as West Indian
arrowroot (Maranfa ar-undinaceae), Florida arrowroot (Zumiafloridana), .
Queensland arrowroot (Canna edulis), and East Indian arrowroot (Curcuma
mgu~tif~liu) yield arrowroot starch. The tubers are peeled, washed and crushed
and the pulp is passed through perforated cylinders, where a stream of water
the starch into settling tanks. Arrowroot starch is easily digested and is u!
for preparing broth for children. It also finds some use in laundries.
2. Corn starch: It is obtained from the grains of maize (Zea mays). The grains are
soaked in warm water containing small amounts of sulphurous acid, which
prevents fermentation and helps to loosen the grains. They are then ground,
preventing injury to the embryos, passed through geh separa!ors, then ground
finely and washed in pellorated cylinders to remove the bran. The resulting milk
fluid is made to flow over inclined tables, where the starch grains settle down. It
collected, dried and readied for marketing.
3, Cassava starch: The starch obtained from cassava (Martihor esculeura) is used ;
sizing material in many industries.
4. Potato starch: It is obtained from tubers of potato (Solanurn tuberosunt). Starch
obtained from the culls which are washed, pulped and passed through sieves to
remove the fibrous matter. Sedimentation, followed by centrifuging removes the
solid starch, which is dried and made ready for marketing. Potato starch finds gr,
use in the textile industry and is an important source of glucose, dextrin and
industrial aIcoi~oL
5. Rice starch: It is obtained from the grains of rice (Oryza sariva). The broken or
imperfect grains of rice .are utilized for extracting the starch. The grains are
softened by treating with caustic soda and are washed, ground and filtered throul
fine sieves. To the filtrate, alkali is added, so that the starch settles down as
sediment, which is removed, waslied and dried. Rice starch is mainly used for
iaundry work.
6. Sago starch: It is obtained from sago palm (Metnrylon sagu). The pith of the ste
of the sago palm is the source of the commercial sago starch. This tall, tropical
palm stores up starch within the stem just before flowering, after which the trees
are cut down and the starchy pith is removed. By the process of grinding, mixing
with water, straining through a coarse sieve and sedimentation, the starch is freer
washed and dried to yield the end product known as sagoJour. The sago flour is
made into a paste and rubbed through a sieve, to form granules which are dried it
the sun or ovens to form hard shiny grains, commercially known as pearl sago.
Sago starch and pearl sago are valuable sources of edible starch.
7. Wheat starch: It is obtained from the grains of bread wheat (Triticu~rtaestivun~)
This js the oldest commercial source of starch, and is extracted by partial
fermentation of the grain. Wheat starch is used exclusively in the textile induslry,

SAQ 7
(i) Cassava (Manihot esculentu) is a member of the family .................. and its
other common n m e s are ...............................................................
(ii) Cassava is a native of ......................
and was introduced in ....................
i
India by Portuguese colonisers.
(iii) Cassava is cultivated in ................climate, whereas potato requires low
temperahrres for .......... # , ...........
(iv) The cultivars of cassava are grouped as ....................and ..................on ti
basis of concentration of a cyanogenic glycoside.
(v) The full form of CTCRI is ...........................
 Sugar and Stnrches

In this unit you have studied that:

e Sugars are the prirnary products of photosynthesis, of which the major portion is
utilized for the various metabolic processes of the plant itself. Sugar is a
carbohydrate chemically composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of
1:2: 1. It is one of the best natural sources of energy for man.
e The common s u g u yielding plants are : sugarcane (Saccharurn oflcinarurn), sugar-
beet (Beta vulgaris), maple (Acer saccharurn)and palms (Phoneixs y l v ~ t r i s ,
Caryofaurens, Arenga pir~nata,Borassusjabellifer, Cocos nucifera).
e The cane sugar is obtained from sugarcane. It is an extensively cultivated plant.
Sugarcane is propagated by cuttings of three to five joints termed "seed cane" or
'"seed pieces" preferably frorr~the joints of the upper tegion of the rnother plant, or
by "ratooning" in which the dormant buds on the poltion of the cane left
underground after harvesting sprout in two or three weeks time, producing a new
crop known as "stubble" or "ratoon crop".
e Harvesting is accomplished by cutting the stems as close to the ground as possible, for the
lower end of the cane is richest in juice content. Soon after harvesting the sugarcane is
brought to the factories for extraction. The clear and dark coloured juice is concentrated
to a density that causes sugar to crystallize out from the thick syrup (massecuite).
e Sugar has been used as a sweetener since time immemorial and is variously used as
a sweetening agent in the preparation of sweets and drinks. It is extensively used in
food preservation. It is also used in the preparation of oxalic acid and octn-acetate.
e Improved varieties of sugarcane which are disease resistant and high yielding are
obtained through elaborate breeding work involving selection, intervarietal and
interspecific hybridisation and nobilisation.
m Starch is the chie.f type of reserve food material of all green plants. It is complex
carbohydrate present in the form of grains (inside plastids) and stored within thin-
walled cells. The cereal crops such as rice, maize, and wheat and underground tubers
such as potato, arrowroot, swect potato, cassava are the chief sources of starch.
Starch grains differ in size, shape and other lnicroscopic details. They are either
eccentric or concentric or may be joined together to form compound starch grains.
m Starch is used as a sizing agent in the paper industry. In calico printing it serves as
mordant. It is also used in laundry, medicines, toilet preparations and binding
materials.
m The cornmon potato is an iniportant source of stnrch. In India the major potato
producing states nrc Uttar Pmdcsh, West Bengul, Punjab, Gujarnt, Madhya Pradesh
and Tamil Nndu. In the hilly areas it is grown as a summer crop while in plains it is
a wintcr crop. The potato tuber is anatomically a stem, with external buds (eyes) that
sprout into new plant. Sections of potato with a bud are 11sedto vegetatively
propagate and maintain potato varieties, sincc sexual reproduction would be slower
to yield and would risk clinnges due to genetic segregatiot~.
e Hybridization is the principal method of potato breeding in which intervarietal
crosses are rnade between commercial varieties to bring desirable cl~aracrers.
e Cassava is another important starcli producing root crop. This plant is a native of
Brazil and is being cultivated in many states of India. The Cnssavu plant produces
several swollen roots that resemble sweet potato. Thc palmate leaves are
characteristic of the genus. The roots contain about 30% starch found chiefly in the
voluminous pith. The cultivars of Cassavn are grouped ns bitter or sweet having
respectively high or low concentration of n cyanogenic glycoside. Sweet varieties
requile no special treatment before consumption but bitter viirieties are shredded,
squeezed and cooked to reduce its toxicity and then consumed.

16.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1, Write short notes on:
a) Nobilisation of sugarcane
b) By-products of sugar industry
c) Bagasse
Economic Botany
d) Molasses
....................................................................................................

What is cane sugar? Write an account of the process of commercial production of

cane sugar.
..,.........,.....................,,......(.................................................

. ; . . . *.
. ......................... .
..........
. .
3. Draw a labelled sketch of nodal and internodal region of sugarcane stem.

4. Write briefly on advantages of vegetative propagation of sugarcane.

5. Name the:
(a) Regions of present day cultivation of sugarcane.
(b) Researkh Institutes along with their locations wliere improvement work in
sugarcane is being carried out in India.
(c) Indian states which are the leading producers of cane sugar.
...........,..........................L...............*....,...........,.,...............,...,,..

..I.............,........,....,., ....................................................................
6. Give the botanical names,families and morphological nature of plant parts yielding
commercial starch.
 Sugar nnd Starches
7. Draw a labelled sketch of a potato tuber and label its parts.

8, Write short notes on:

(a) By-products of starch and their uses.
(b) Potato famine and Irish emigration.
(c) Manihot esculenta. :',"I,t;\

...............................................................
.,;, : ; , i . . a,.............................

1
9. 'Nation's dependence on a single crop is not free from risks'. Discuss this with
reference to potato.

1.0. Describe the methods of cultivation and uses of potato or cassava.

.......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

16.6 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. (i) Sugarcane - Saccharum oficinarum
Sugarbeet -Beta valgaris
Sugar Maple - Acer saccharurn

(ii) Stem -Sorghum, Sugarcane, Sugar maple

-
Root Sugarbeet, Carrot
-
Bulb Onion
-
Inflorescence Palms

(iii) Uttar Pardesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharwhtm, Andhrs Prudesh, Punjab,

Harayana and Bihar

(iv) Cultivated sugarcane has two geographic centres of origin:

(a) South Pacific Islands (New Guinea); and
(b) Northern India

(v) Noble cane - Sacchamm oficinarum

-
Indian cane Sacchurum barberi
-
Wild cane Saccharum spontaneum
 2. (i) After harvesting, some portions of cane are leFt underground. The dormant Guds
present on these canes sprout in 2-3 weeks time, producing a new crop known a
"stubble" or "ratoon crop".
(ii) The right stage of harvesting the sugarcane is, when it reaches maturity and is
with highest sugar content. Tests for ripcness are made on random samples take1
at an interval of 7-10 days. This can be tested by cutting whole cane or by
examining the juice with refractrorrieter from the central intenlode of the upper
and lower thirds of standing canes.

3. (i) bagasse, (ii) defacation, (iii) Molasses, (iv) rnassecuite

4. (1) 4040+56 = 136 chromosomes

(ii) 4 0 4 0 = 80 chromosomes
(iii) 4 0 4 0 = 80 chromosomes
(iv) 4040+68 = 148 chromosomes

5. (i) (a) amylosc; arnylopectin; (b) unbranched; (c) eccentric, rice; (d) bluish-
black; (e) Cereals; and ( f ) stem tubers; root tubers

(ii) Potato - Solatlum tuheroslinr

Sweet Potato - lpomoea batatus
Cassava - Manihot esculenta

6. (i) Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
(ii) The potato could be grown only in colder months of subtropical climate as
tuberization is not favoured by high temperature. The best environment is a cool
moist climate.
(iii) Green potatoes contain a poisonous glycoside solanin, which in high
concentrations may cause sickness and even death in both humans and
livestocks.
(iv) Kufri Kissan, Kufri Kundan, Kufri Sindoori
(v) Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla.

7. (i) Euphorbiaceae; Mandioca, Yuca, Tapioca, Sagu

(ii) Brazil; Tranvancore (South Kerala)
(iii) hot; tuberization
(iv) bitter; sweet
(v) Central Tuber Crop Research Institute.

Terminal Questions
1. (a) Nobilisation of sugarcane ;To improve the varieties of sugarcane, the crosses
were made between noble canes (Saccharurn oficirtarum) and wild canes (S.
spontaneum and S. robusrum). The reason for crossing was to produce hybrids
that combine the best features of both the parents, i.e., thick, soft, long-barelled
cane and high sugar content of S. oficinarurn and tlie deep penetrating root
system, drought and disease resistance of wild parent. The first generation
progeny is inlermediate between these two parents and is commercially
unsuitable for sugar production as the stems are often thin, pithy and contain
little sugar but have some of the vigour and disease resistance characters, The
back-cross of FI hybrids with noble varieties greatly improves the productive
quality of the cane without diluting the favourable attributes of the wild parent.
This hybridization with noble canes (S. oficinarum) to upgrade'the sugar
content is known as "nobilisqtion".
*
(b) The important by-Froducts obtained from the sugar industry are as follows:
1. Bagasse : After extraction of juice, the dry fibrous residue left over is
known as bagasse. It is used as a fuel for mills, in the manufacture of fibre
board, card board, insulation board and in paper making. Bagasse is also
used as a mulch for plants and as a litter or bedding for poultry and
livestock.
2. Molasses : The liquor left after the crystallization of sugar is known as
molasses and is an important by-product of the sugarcane industry. It is
widely used as a livestock f e d , for making alcoholic drinks such as rum
and for the manufacture of a host of chemicals, industrial alcohol, vinegar,
 Sugar and Starcbe
glycerol, la,cticand citric acid. It conwns about 50% of fermentable sugar
(35% sucrose and 15% reducing sugar) which gives it. its principal value as
an industrial raw material. Rum is produced by the fermentation of molasses
by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae followed b y distillation. Acetone and
butanol are produced by fermentation of molasses with Clostridium
bacteria. Molasses are also used for manufacture of dry ice.

(c) See Bagasse in the above answer.

(d) See Molasses in the above answer.

2. Refer to Section 16.2, 'Manufacture of Sugar'.

i
j 3. See Figure 16.3.
Most of the cultivated varieties of sugarcane are inters'pecific hybrids and are
propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings of three to five joints termed as."seed cane"
ar "seed pieces". The advantage of vegetative propagation are: (a) by "ratooning"
two or three more crops are obtained before another "seed cane" planting becomes
necessary. (b) Since the seeds retain their viability for a very short time, propagation
by vegetative means helps overcome this problem. (c) The crop raised by vegetative
means mature early. The cuttings are usually taken frorn plalit canes 8-12 months old
or mtoons 6-8 months whereas the first crop after planting, know11as the plarlt crop
takes 15-24 months to mature but ratoon crops takes about I year to mature.

5. (a) India, Cuba, Pakistan and Brazil are major producers.

(b) i) Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coirnbatore (Tamil Nadu)
ii) Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (U.P.)
iii) National Instinite of Sugar Technology, Kanpur (U.P.)
(c) Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pmdesh, Kilmat;ika, Ntaryana,
Punjab, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

1 6. Name Botanical Name Fan~ily Plant Part

Corn starch &a mays Poacene Fruit

Wheat starch Triticurn vrrlgare Poaccne Fruit
Potato starch Solanum tuberosurn Solnnacei!~ Tubers (stem)
Rice starch Oryza scztiva I'omcnc Fruit
Arrowroot starch Mararlta arundinacea Illaran~rceae Iioots
Sago starch Metraxylon sagid Arecaccae Stc~ns
Cassava starch Marlihot esculentn Euphorl~iuceac Root tubers

i 7. See Fig. 16.13,

i
8, a) See Section 16.3.
b) SeeSubsection 16.3.1.
C) See Subsection 16.3.2.

I1 9. Refer Subsection 16.3.1

10. See Section 16.3.