44 QUIZRR

E E
(i) As intensity, I while U =
S t V

I E S L  L 
So    v as V  S L and  v
U S t E   t 

or intensity I (energy flux) = U ï v

= Energy density ï velocity ...(10)
(ii) With increase in distance from the source the total energy or power transmitted remains the
same but intensity decreases. For an isotropic point source of power P, intensity I at a
distance r from it will be

P P 
I  as S = 4r 2  ...(11)
S 4 r 2  

Now as for a given medium and source, P r

I
2
I  A Source ...(12)

So from Eqns. (11) and (12)

A2  (1/r2), i.e., for spherical waves
I  (1/r2) and A  (1/r)
(iii) In case of electromagnetic waves (e.g. light or radio waves),

1 1
I  EB  with E  c and c 
0 B 0 0

Example 21

(a) The power of sound from the speaker of a radio is 20 mW. By turning the knob of
volume control the power of sound is increased to 400 mW. What is the power increase
in dB as compared to original power ?
(b) How much more intense is an 80 dB sound than a 20 dB whisper ?
Solution :
(a) As intensity is power per unit area, for a given source P  I, so
SL2 ă SL1 = 10 log (I2/I1)

P2 400
i.e. SL = 10 log P  10 log 20
1

i.e. SL = 10[log 20) ~ 13 dB

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 45

(b) By definiton of sound level,

SL2 ă SL1 = 10 log (I2/I1)
So 80 ă 20 = 10 log (I2/I1)
or 6 = log (I2/I1), i.e., (I2/I1) = 106

Example 22

An observer is at a distance of one metre from a point of light source whose power output
is 1 kW. Calculate the magnitude of electric and magnetic fields assuming that the source
is monochromatic, it radiates uniformly in all directions and that at the point of observation
it behaves like a travelling plane wave. Given that (ø0/4) = 10ă7 H/m and c = 3 ï 108 m/s.
Solution :
By definition of intensity,

P P 103 103
I=    W/m 2
S 4r 2
4  12 4

Now in case of electromagnetic waves, as

1 E
I =  EB and =c
0 B

1 E
so I =  E c, i.e., E = I 0 c
0

 E=  
[103 / 4 ]  4   10 7  3  108  100 3  173 V / m

E 100 3 1
and B = c  8
  10 6  5.77  107 Web / m2
3  10 3

Note :

5.77  10 7
(i) As B  H , H   0.46 A / m
4   107

(ii) The peak values of fields will be E0  ( 2)E and B0  ( 2)B  as E  E0 / 2 

 

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46 QUIZRR
Characteristics of Sound

Sound is characterised by the following three parameters :

(a) Loudness : It is the sensation received by the ear due to intensity of sound.
L  log I
i.e. greater the amplitude of vibration, greater will be the intensity I ( A2) and so louder
will be the sound as in a shout and lesser the intensity.

I
The unit of loudness is decibels (dB) and L  10 log10 (in dB) Here, I0 is constant i.e.,
I0

minimum intensity (= 10ă12 W/m2) just double at intermediate frequencies.

(b) Pitch : It is the sensation received by the ear due to frequency and is the characteristic which
distinguishes a shrill (or sharp) sound from a grave (or flat) sound. As pitch depends on
frequency, higher the frequency higher will be the pitch and shriller will be the sound.
Regarding pitch it is worth noting that :
(1) The buzzing of a bee or humming of a mosquito has high pitch but low loudness while
the roar of a lion has large loudness but low pitch.
(2) Due to more harmonic usually the pitch of female voice is higher than male.

(c) Quality (or Time) : It is the sensation received by the y

ear due to waveform. Two sounds of same intensity and a
t
frequency as shown in fig. will produce different sensation T
on the ear if their waveforms are different. Now as
y
waveform depends upon overtones present, quality of a
sound depends on number of overtones, i.e., harmonics t
T
present and their relative intensities. The dependence of
quality on phase is controversial. Regarding quality it is
a
worth noting that : t
(1) We can recognise a person (without seeing) by T
listening to his sound as it has a definite quality.
(2) If same note is played on different instruments say sitar and veena at same loudness
it produces different sensation on the ear due to their quality.
(3) Sometimes it becomes difficult to recognise a person by listening to his sound on
telephone or tape due to poor quality of sound.

Stationary Waves in Air Column

Closed Pipe
A stationary wave pattern can be maintained in a closed tube containing a gas only for a
frequency, which has one of the values making the length of the column a whole number of

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 47

quarter wavelengths. It should be noted that the open end is always an antinode and the closed
end a node. According to this condition there arises a number of standing waves as shown in
figure. The wave pattern, which has the lowest frequency, is called fundamental and the others
are called overtones.

A A A

N
N

A N

N N N
Fundamental First overtone Second overtone

(a) First Mode of vibration (Fundamental mode)


The length of air column L is equal to
4

  = 4L
v = f

v v
f = 
 4L

where f is the frequency of fundamental mode.

(b) Second Mode of Vibration (First overtone)

31
L=
4

4L
1 =
3

 frequency f1  v  3v  3 f
1 4L

The frequency of first overtone is 3 times the value of fundamental.

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48 QUIZRR
(c) Third Mode of Vibration (Second overtone)

Here L = 5 2
4

4L

5

v 5v
 frequency f2    5f
 2 4L

When an air column is excited the fundamental and a number of possible overtones are present
in the vibration. Of these the loudest is the fundamental and overtones progressively becomes
weaker in intensity. The overtones whose frequencies are integral multiples of fundamental are
called harmonics. The fundamental with frequency f itself is taken as first harmonic. The overtone
with frequency 2f is called second harmonic and the overtone with frequency 3f is called third
harmonic and so on.
In the case of closed type indicated above all odd harmonics are present and even harmonics are
absent.
End correction : In the above discussion it is assumed that the position of antinode coincides
with the opened of pipe exactly. This is not however true and it is found that antinode is a little
bit displaced above the open end. If e is the end correction, then for fundamental mode.

1
  L  e
4

3 2
For the first overtone   L  e and so on.
4
The end correction depends upon the diameter of the pipe. If d is the diameter, the end correction
e = 0.3 d.

Open Pipes

A pipe with both ends open is

called open pipe. The first three
modes of vibrations, starting from
fundamental in open pipes are
shown in figures.

Fundamental First overtone Second overtone

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 49

(a) First mode of vibration (Fundamental mode) : In the fundamental mode there is a node
between antinodes at each end.


 L= or  = 2L
2

v v
f  
 2L

(b) Second mode of vibration (First overtone) : If 1 and f1 are the wavelength and frequency
of the first overtone in open pipe.
1 = L

v v 2v
f1     2f
1 L 2L

The frequency of first overtone is twice that of fundamental. It corresponds to second

harmonic.
(c) Second overtone : If 2 and f2 be the wavelength and frequency of second overtone in the
open pipe.

3 2
L=
2

2L
2 =
3

v 3v
f2 =    3f
2 2L

This corresponds to third harmonic of the vibrating system.

In an open pipe all the harmonics, both odd and even are present.

Free, Damped and Forced Vibrations

A body capable of vibration, if excited, and set free, vibrates freely in its own natural way. The
frequency of such free vibration depends on the mass, elastic property and dimensions of the
body. The frequency is called free frequency or natural frequency of the body.

Damped Vibrations

The amplitude of free vibrations of a body gradually diminishes and finally the vibrations die
away after sometime. This is due to the vibratory motion being damped by forces internal and
external to the body.

WAVES & SOUNDS

50 QUIZRR
Forced Vibrations

If an external periodic force is applied to a body which is capable of vibration and if the frequency
of the applied periodic force is not the same as the frequency of the body, the body begins to
vibrate initially with its own natural frequency but these vibrations die down quickly and the
body ultimately vibrates with the frequency of the external periodic force. Such vibrations are
called forced vibrations.

Example

Where will a person hear maximum sound at (displacement) node or antinode ?

Solution :
Perception of sound is due to pressure variations and as at node displacement is minimum,
pressure will be maximum while at antinode as displacement is maximum, pressure will be
minimum. So sound will be maximum at displacement nodes (which is actually pressure-antinode).

Example 23

A tuning fork having frequency of 340 Hz is vibrated just above a cylindrical tube. The
height of the tube is 120 cm. Water is slowly poured in. What is the minimum height of
water required for resonance ? (v = 340 m/s)
Solution :
As the tuning fork is in increase with air column in the pipe closed at one end.

v
f n with n = 1, 3, 5, ...
4L

nv 340  100
So length of air column in the pipe L  n  25n cm with n = 1, 3, 5, ...
4f 4  340

i.e., L = 25 cm, 75 cm, 125 cm, ...

Now as the tube is 120 cm, so length of air column must be lesser than 120 cm, i.e, it can be only
25 cm or 75 cm. Further if h is the height of water filled in the tube,
L + h = 120 cm or h = 120 ă L
So h will be minimum when L = max = 75
 hmin = 120 ă 75 = 45 cm Ans.

Example 24

AB is a cylinder of length 1 m fitted with a thin flexible diaphragm C at middle and two
other thin flexible diaphragms A and B at the ends. The positions AC and BC contain
hydrogen and oxygen gases respectively. The diaphragms A and B are set into vibrations

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 51

of the same frequency. What is the minimum frequency of these vibrations for which
diaphragm C is a node ? Under the conditions of the experiment the velocity of sound in
hydrogen is 1100 m/s and oxygen 300 m/s.
Solution :
As diaphragm C is a node, A and B will be antinodes (as in an organ pipe either both ends are
antinode or one end node and the other antinode), i.e., each part will behave as a closed end
organ pipe so that

vH 1100 A C B
fH = 4L = 4  0.5 = 550 Hz
H
H2 O2
v0 330
And fO = = = 150 Hz
4LO 4  0.5

As the two fundamental frequencies are different, the system will vibrate with a common
frequency fC such that
f C = nHfH = nOfO

nH fO 150 3
i.e., =  
nO fH 550 11

i.e., the third harmonic of hydrogen and 11th harmonic of oxygen or 9th harmonic of hydrogen
and 33rd harmonic of oxygen will have same frequency. So the minimum common frequency
f = 3 ï 550 or 11 ï 150 = 1650 Hz
(as 6th harmonic of H and 22nd of O will not exist.)

Example 25
A ÂpopÊ gun consists of a tube 25 cm long closed at one end by a cork and at the other end
by a tightly fitted piston. The piston is pushed slowly in. When the pressure rises to one and
half times the atmospheric pressure, the cork is violently blown out. Calculate the frequency
of the ÂpopÊ caused by its ejection. (v = 340 m/s)
Solution :
Assuming the cross-section to be A and compression to be isothermal (as the process is slow), from
P1V1 = P2V2
P ï 25 ï A = (3/2) ï P ï L ï A, i.e., L = (50/3) cm
Now after the ejection of cork, for oscillating air node will be at
piston (rigid boundary) while antinode will be at the open end 25cm
and as minimum distance between node and antinode is (/4).
N A
 50 2
so L cm, i.e.,  m
4 3 3 A A' L

v 340  3
and hence f    510 Hz
 2

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52 QUIZRR
Example 26

The water level in a vertical glass tube 1.0 m long can be adjusted to any position in the
tube. A tuning fork vibrating at 660 Hz is held just over the open top end of the tube. At
what position of the water level will there be resonance. Speed of sound is 330 m/s.
Solution :
Resonance corresponds to a pressure antinode at closed end and pressure node at open end.


Further, the distance between a pressure node and a pressure antinode is , the condition of
4
resonance would be,

  v 
length of air column l  n  n 
4  4f 

Here, n = 1, 3, 5, ...

 330 
l 1 = (1)    0.125 m
 4  660 

l 2 = 3l1 = 0.375 m
l 3 = 5l1 = 0.625 m
l 4 = 7l1 = 0.875 m
l 5 = 9l1 = 1.125 m
Since l5 > 1 m (the length of tube), the length of air columns can have the values from l1 to l4
only. Therefore, level of water at resonance will be
(1.0 ă 0.125) m = 0.875 m
(1.0 ă 0.375) m = 0.625 m
(1. 0 ă 0.625) m = 0.375 m
and (1.0 ă 0.875) m = 0.125 m Ans.

0.875m

0.625m 0.375m
0.125m

In all the four cases shown in figure, the resonance frequency is 660 Hz but first one is the
fundamental tone or first harmonic. Second is first overtone or third harmonic and so on.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 53

R esonance :

Resonancee is a special case of forced vibration. If the frequency of the external periodic force is
the same as the natural frequency of the body, the body responds to the forced vibrations more
willingly and there is a gain in the amplitude of its vibrations. This is called resonance.
Resonance has vast application in acoustics, electrical circuits and electronics.

Resonance in Air Columns-Resonance Tubes :

Suppose the length of air column in a long tube can be adjusted either by dipping the tube in
a reservoir of water or by allowing the water level to occupy a desired position in the tube by
pressure flow; the column can be made to vibrate in resonance with an excited tuning fork kept
over the mouth of the tube.
For two lengths of air column L1 and L2 ~ 3L1, the resonance would occur and the positions
corresponds to the fundamental mode and the first overtone respectively.
If  be the wavelength of sound in air and v the velocity of sound in air, then


L1  e  L1 A
4
N
3
L2
L2  e  A
4
N
where e is the end correction
From the above equations we get


= L2 ă L1 or  = 2 (L2 ă L1)
2

v = f = 2f (L2 ă L1)
where f is the frequency of vibration of the air column which is in resonance with the tuning fork
of same frequency.

Example 27

A tube of a certain diameter and length 48 cm is open at both ends. Its fundamental
frequency is found to be 320 Hz. The velocity of sound in air is 320 m/s. Estimate the value
of end correction in cm.
Solution :
Let the length of the open tube be L. The end correction on both sides is e. The tube vibrates in
its fundamental. Then


 L  2 e or  = 2 (L + 2e)
2
WAVES & SOUNDS
54 QUIZRR
If v be the velocity of sound in air the fundamental frequency is given by

v v
f =   2 L  2e
 

320
f = 320 Hz; v = 320 m/s or; 320 
2  L  2e

or L + 2e = 0.5 m
2e = 0.5 m ă 0.48 m = 0.02 m
e = 0.01 m = 1 cm.

BEATS
When two sound waves of nearly equal (but not exactly equal) frequencies travel in same
direction, at a given point due to their superposition, intensity alternately increases and decreases
periodically. This periodic waxing and waning of sound at a given position is called beats.

Calculation of beat frequency

Suppose two waves of frequencies f1 and f2 (< f1) are meeting at some point in space. Let the
oscillations at some point in space (say x = 0) due to two waves be y1 = A1 sin 2 f1t,
y2 = A2 sin 2 f2t
If they are in phase at some time ts then
2 f1t = 2 f2t or f1t = f2t
They will be again in phase at time (t + T),
2 f1 (t + T) = 2 f2 (t + T) + 2
 f1(t + T) = f2 (t + T) + 1

1
 T
f1  f2

where T is the time period of the beat or Beat frequency f = f1 ă f2

Note : If the waves are in phase at some time (t = 0) will be constructive and the resultant
amplitude will be A1 + A2, where A1 and A2 are the amplitudes of indivisual sound waves.
But at some time (t = t0) because the frequencies are different, the waves will be out of phase or
the interference will be destructive and resultant amplitude will be A1 ă A2.

1 T
and T  2t0  A1 + A2
f1  f2

Where t0 is the time between constructive and destructive

A1 ă A2
interference.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 55

Alternative Method :
y1 = A sin (2 f1t), y2 = A sin 2 f2t

C+ D C  D
Now as sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 

 f1  f2  t  f1  f2  t
y = 2 A cos 2 sin 2
2 2

f1 ~ f2 f1  f2
or y = 2A cos 2 fAt sin 2favt with fA  and fav 
2 2
or y = Ab sin 2 favt with Ab = 2A cos (2 fAt)
f1  f2
Thus, the resultant wave is a harmonic progressive wave of frequency fav i.e., and
2
amplitude Ab which is periodic in time.
Also, it can be seen that a beat, that is maximum and minimum intensity, will occur when
I  Ab2 = max (or min)
or cos 2fAt = + 1 or zero
or 2fAt = 0, , 2 ... or /2, 3
/2, 5
/2

1 2 3 1 3 5
i.e. t = 0, 2f , 2f , 2f or 4 f , 4 f , 4 f
A A A A A A

1 1
t  beat frequency = fb   f1 ~ f2
2 fA t

y1 t = 1s

(A) Wave of amplitude A and frequency 17

y2 t = 1s

(B) Wave of amplitude A and frequency 19

(C) Resultant waves of amplitude 2A

and frequency 18

WAVES & SOUNDS

 56 QUIZRR
Example 28

A column of air and a tuning fork produce 4 beats per second when sounded together. The
tuning fork gives the lower note. The temperature of air is 15ĈC. When the temperature falls
to 10ĈC the two produces 3 beats per second. The frequency of fork is f, then find the value
of 5f.
Solution :
Let  be the wavelength and n be the frequency of fork

v15 v
At 15ĈC,  f  4 or 15  f  4
 

v10 v
At 10ĈC,  f  3 or 10  f  3
 

v15 f 4
 
v10 f 3

v15 273  15 288 288 f  4

But    
v10 273  10 283 283 f  3

ó
 5  f 4 5 f 4
 1  283   1 
  f 3 566 f  3

5 f 4 f 3 1
 
566 f 3 f 3

5f + 15 = 566
5f = 551

Example 29
Two radio stations broadcast their programmes at the same amplitude A, and at slightly
different frequencies 1 and 2 respectively, where 2 ă 1 = 103 Hz. A detector receives the
signals from the two stations simultaneously. It can only detect signals of intensity > 2A2.
(a) Find the time-interval between successive maxima of the intensity of the signal received
by the detector. (b) Find the time for which the detector remains idle in each cycle of the
intensity of the signal.
Solution :
If the detector is at x = 0, the two radio-waves at the site of detector in accordance with given
conditions (i.e., A1 = A2 = A and f1 = 1 and f2 = 2) will be

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 57

y1 = A sin 21t and y2 = A sin 22t

So by principle of superposition,
= y1 + y2 = A sin 21t + A sin 22t

 C + D  cos  C  D 
But as sin C + sin D = 2 sin
2 2

 2  1  t sin 2  1  2  t
y = 2A cos 2
2 2

 1  2  t  2  1  t
or y = A´ sin 2 with A´ = 2A cos 2
2 2

So that 1  (A´)2  4A2 cos2(2 ă 1)t ...(1)

(a) So I will be maximum when

cos2(2 ă 1)t = max = 1, i.e., cos (2 ă 1)t =  1
or (2 ă 1)t = 0, , 2, ...,
i.e., t = 0; [1/(2 ă 1)], [2/(2 ă 1)], ...
So time interval between two consecutive maxima

1 1
T  t2  t1    10 3 s
2  1 103

(b) As 1  4A2 cos2(2 ă 1)t it will be 2A2 when

2A2 = 4A2 cos2(2 ă 1)t

i.e., cos (2 ă 1)t =  1 / 2  

 3 5
or (2 ă 1)t = , , , ...
4 4 4

1 3 5
i.e., t  , , ,...
4(2  1 ) 4(2  1 ) 4(2  1 )

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58 QUIZRR
So time interval between two successive positions for which I
2
intensity remains  2A as shown in Fig.
4A2 T
1 1
t  tn  tn 1    5  10 4 s
2  2  1  2  103 2A2
t

O 1 3 t ï 10ă3
4 4

Example 30

There are three sources of sound of equal intensities with frequency 400, 401 and 402 Hz.
What is the beat frequency heard if all are sounded simultaneously ?
Solution :
As intensities are equal, amplitudes of waves will be equal and it for simplicity we consider the
waves at x = 0 with 401 = f, y1 = A sin 2(f ă 1)t; y2 = A sin 2ft and y3 = A sin 2(f + 1)t
So by principle of superposition,
y = A sin 2(f ă 1)t + A sin 2ft + A sin 2 (f + 1)t
Taking first and last terms together,
y = 2A cos 2t sin 2ft + A sin 2ft
or y = A[2 cos 2t + 1] sin 2ft
or y = A´ sin 2ft with A´ = A[1 + 2 cos 2t]
2 2 2
So I  (A´)  A (1 + 2 cos 2t) ...(1)
For I to be max or min,

dI d
 0, i.e. 1  2 cos 2t2  0
dt dt

i.e. 2(1 + 2 cos 2t)(2 sin 2t) ï 2 = 0

i.e., either sin 2t = 0 or 1 + 2 cos 2t = 0
So if 1 + 2 cos 2t = 0, i.e., cos 2t = (ă ó
)

 2 
or 2  2n    , ..., with n = 0, 1, 2 ....
 3 

1 2 4 5
i.e., t , , , , ... ...(2)
3 3 3 3

and for these values of t [i.e., cos 2t = (ă ó

)], I = 0, i.e., intensity is minimum.
and if sin 2t = 0, i.e., 2t = n with n = 0, 1, 2 ...

WAVES & SOUNDS

 QUIZRR 59

1 3
i.e., t  0, , 1, , 2, ... ...(3)
2 2

I [from Eqn. (1)] will be 9A2, A2, 9A2, A2, ...

i.e., intensity is maximum (with two different values).
So from Eqns. (2) and (3) it is clear that in one second we get two minima (and two maxima of
different intensities) and hence beat frequency (i.e., number of beats per sec) is two.

9A2

A2
O
1 1 2 1 4 3 5 2 t
3 2 3 3 2 3

DOPPLER EFFECT
When a sound source and an observer are in relative motion with respect to the medium in which
the waves propagate, the frequency of waves observed is different from the frequency of sound
emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called Doppler effect. This is due to the wave-nature
of sound propagation and is therefore applicable to light waves also. The apparent change of
colour of a star can be explained by this principle.

Calculation of Apparent Frequency

Suppose v is the velocity of sound in air, v0 is the velocity of the observer (O) and f is the
frequency of the source.
(i) Source moves towards stationary observer : If the source S were stationary the f
waves sent out in one second towards the observer O would occupy a distance v, and the
wavelength would be v/f.
If S moves with a velocity vs towards O, the f waves sent out occupy a distance (v ă vs)
because S has moved a distance vs towards O in 1 s. So the apparent wavelength would be

 v  vs  v
´   
 f 
Thus, apparent frequency
S O
velocity of sound relative to O
f´ = wavelength of wave reaching O S
văvs
v  v  vs
f´ =  f 
´  v  vs  văvs

WAVES & SOUNDS