Parts of Speech

• Noun

• Common Noun Boy

• Proper Noun Asif
• Collective Noun Army
• Compound Noun Classroom
• Countable Noun Chair
• Uncountable Noun Milk
• Concrete Noun Table
• Abstract Noun Honesty
• Material Noun Wood
• Gender
• Masculine
• Feminine
• Neuter
• Common
• Number
• Singular
• Plural
• Regular
• Irregular
• Zero Plural
• Uncommon plurals
Singular Plural

Phenomenon Phenomena
Bacterium Bacteria
 Syllabus Syllabi
Criterion Criteria
Medium Media
Datum Data
Hypothesis Hypotheses
Basis Bases
Analysis Analyses
Crisis Crises
Parenthesis Parentheses
Larva Larvae

• Pronoun

• Personal Pronoun Boy

• First Person I, We
• Second Person You
• Third Person He, She, It, They
• Sequence of Personal Pronouns
• Positive 231
• Negative 123
• Pronoun Cases
• Subjective I
• Objective Me
• Possessive Mine
• Emphatic Myself
• Reflexive Myself
• Relative Pronoun Who, Whom, Whose, Which, That
• Interrogative Pronoun Who, Whom, What, Which, Whose
• Reciprocal Pronoun Each other, One another
• Distributive Pronoun Each, Either, Any, None
• Indefinite Pronoun Anything, Anyone, Anybody, Something, Someone,
Somebody, All, One, Either, Neither, One, None
• Demonstrative Pronoun This, That, These, Those

Technicalities:
• He helps him more than I (do).
• He helps him more than me.
• His car is better than mine.
• His car is better than Ali.
• His car is better than Ali’s.
• His car is better than that of Ali.
• It is he/him who has broken the glass.
• It is he/him who was killed.
• My phone, which I bought last week, has been stolen.
• The boy who is sitting in the corner is my cousin.
• My brother, who had won the scholarship, has left for America.
• The movies that are based on biographies are quite interesting.
• Which is your favorite color?
• What is your favorite color?
• Who is your best friend?
• Which is your best friend?
• Tim’s friend = a friend of Tim's
• my class = a class of mine
• Verb

• Finite Verb
• Non-finite Verb
• Transitive Verb
• Intransitive Verb
• Ditransitive He gave them some books.
• Main Verb
• Helping Verb
• Modal Auxiliary Verb
• Linking Verb
• Regular Verb
• Irregular Verb
• Action/Dynamic Verb
• Stative Verb
• Causative Verbs
• Help help + object + V1
• Make make + object + V1
• Let let + object + V1
• Get get + subject + to + V1 / get + object + V3
• Have have + subject + V1 / have + object + V1
• Non-progressive Verb
• Verbs of Perception
• Gerund
• Infinitive
• Participle
 • Subject-verb Agreement
1. If the subject is joined by any of the following conjunctions, the verb will agree with the first
subject.
'as well as'
'with'
'along with'
'together with'
'and not'
'in addition to'
'but'
'besides'
'except'
'rather than'
'accompanied by'
'like'
'unlike'
'including'
• The teacher, accompanied by his students, is present.
• The voters, as well as their minister, are coming.
• The players ,along with their coach, are waiting outside.
• My father, unlike his friends, is always on time.
2. If the compound subject has two or more subjects joined by ‘and’, we will use a plural verb.
• Asif and Ali are watching a movie.
3. If the compound subject is made from simple subjects and separated by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, we will
use singular verb.
• The girl or the boy is allowed to participate.
4. If two or more nouns or adjectives are joined by ‘and’ but they denote a single idea, a singular
verb is used.
• Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.
• Rise and Fall is a part of life.
5. One of the + plural countable noun + singular verb
• One of the boys has got the first position.
6. One of + plural pronoun + singular verb
• One of them is waiting outside.
7. One of those + plural countable noun + plural verb
• He is one of those boys who are always late.
8. If an article is placed before the 1st subject only, it means that the person or thing is the same
for which two nouns are used. Therefore, a singular verb will be used.
• The manager and director is my friend.
• A white and red cow is in the ground.
9. But if an article is placed before every subject, it means that the people or things are not the
same. Therefore, a plural verb will be used.
• The director and the producer are waiting outside.
10. If the compound subject is separated by ‘neither…nor’, the verb will be used in accordance
with the subject coming after ‘nor’.
 • Neither the students nor their teacher was present.
11. If the compound subject is separated by ‘either…or’, the verb will be used in accordance
with the subject coming after ‘or’.
• Either the teacher or his students are allowed to join the party.
12. If the compound subject is joined by ‘not only…but also’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming after ‘but also’.
• Not only the students but also their teacher is absent.
13. None of the + plural countable noun + singular verb
• None of the boys has come to the ground.
14. None of the plural pronoun + singular verb
• None of them is waiting outside.
15. Seventy kilometers is quite a long distance.
16. Twenty years is a long time/duration.
17. Ten million dollars is a huge amount.
18. Hundred kilograms is quite a lot of weight.
19. The study of different languages is quite important.
20. A number of + plural countable noun + plural verb
• A number of students are waiting for the bus.
21. The number of + plural countable noun + singular verb
• The number of students is increasing every day.
22. The + adjective + plural verb
• The poor are in need of help.
23. Neither of the + plural countable noun + singular verb
• Neither of the two boys is ready for the presentation.
24. Neither of plural pronoun + singular verb
• Neither of them is ready to come.
25. Either of the + plural countable noun + singular verb
• Either of the two cars is for sale.
26. Either of plural prnoun + singular verb
• Either of them is allowed to go.
27. Nobody/Nothing/No one + singular verb
• Nobody is present today.
28. Somebody/Something/Someone + singular verb
• Something is better than nothing.
29. Most of the + plural countable noun + plural verb
• Most of the boys are present.
30. Most of plural pronoun + plural verb
• Most of them are unable to come.
31. Most of the + uncountable noun + singular verb
• Most of the work is done.
32. Some of the + plural countable noun + plural verb
• Some of the boys are present.
33. Some of plural pronoun + plural verb
• Some of them are unable to come.
34. Some of the + uncountable noun + singular verb
• Some of the work is done.
35. Some + plural countable noun + plural verb
• Some boys are seen playing cricket in the ground.
36. Some + uncountable noun + singular verb
• Some milk is needed.
37. More than one + singular countable noun + singular verb
• More than one student is not allowed.
38. More than two/three/four... + plural countable noun + plural verb
• More than two boys are injured.
39. I wish + subject + were
 • I wish I were the president.
39. As if + subject + were
• He talked as if he were the PM
40. All the + uncountable noun + singular verb
• All the money is being wasted.
41. All the + countable noun + plural verb
• All the robbers are arrested.
42. Scenery, poetry, stationary, furniture + singular verb
• The scenery is quite attractive.
• His poetry is quite inspiring.
• The stationary is still unavailable.
• The furniture is quite expensive.
43. It is I who am responsible.
44. I am the man who is responsible.
45. My glasses are broken.
46. His new trousers are quite expensive.
47. Appears singular but takes a plural verb.
• The cattle are grazing.
• The children are playing outside.
48. Appears plural but takes a singular verb.
• Economics is a difficult subject.
49. A pair of + plural countable noun + singular verb
• A pair of shoes is stolen.
• Adjective

• Qualitative/Descriptive Adjective Good, Small, Beautiful

• Quantitative Adjective Some, Many, Enough, Little
• Ordinal Adjective First, Second, Third
• Cardinal Adjective One, Two, Three
• Proper Adjective Indian, Victorian,
Shakespearean
• Distributive Adjective Each, Every, Either, Neither
• Possessive Adjective My, Your, His, Her, Their
• Interrogative Adjective Whose, Which, What
• Demonstrative Adjective This, That, These, Those
• Compound Adjective Clean-shaven, Soon-to-be
• Latin Adjective Junior, Senior, Superior,
Inferior
• Attributive Adjective This is a new car.
• Predicative Adjective This car is new.
• Present Participle Tiring job
 • Nouns as Adjectives School bus
• Past Participle Tired man.
• Sequence of Adjectives Quantity + Opinion + Size + Other
+ Age + Shape + Color
+Origin + Material + Purpose
• Degrees of Adjective
• Positive
• Comparative
• Superlative
• Strong, Brave, Big, Dry, Grey, Beautiful, Good
• Interior, Exterior, Major, Minor
• He is more happy than sad.
• Later and Latter
• Elder and Older
• Extreme, Perfect, Ideal, Unique

• Adverb

• Adverb of Time Tomorrow, Now

• Adverb of Manner Politely, Quickly
• Adverb of Place Here, There, Inside
• Adverb of Frequency Never, Usually, Always
• Adverb of Purpose/Reason Because, So that, Since, Hence
• Adverb of Affirmation Definitely, Surely, Certainly
• Conjunctive Adverb Therefore, However, Consequently
• Relative Adverb Where, When, Why
• This is the garden where they took their photos.
• I know the reason why he slapped his brother.
• I met him last year when he got married.
• Sequence of Adverbs Manner-Place-Frequency-Time-
Purpose
• I have to run quickly (Manner) down the street (place) each morning
(Frequency) after the breakfast(Time) in order to catch the school bus
(Purpose).
Technicalities:
• Frequency adverbs
• 100% - Always.
• 90% - Usually
• 80% - Normally / Generally
• 70% - Often / Frequently.
• 50% - Sometimes.
• 30% - Occasionally.
• 10% - Seldom
• 05% - Scarcely / Rarely / Hardly / Barely
• 0% - Never
• Verbs of Perception and Stative Verbs always take adjectives after them.
• Adverbs like seldom, hardly, rarely, barely, scarcely are hidden negatives.
• Negative words like ‘not’ and ‘never’ are not used with deny, forbid, unless,
until, lest, too.
• Adverbs like ‘here’ and ‘there’ are used in the beginning of a sentence in order
to put more emphasis.
• Adverbs of time (always, never, ever, often, seldom) are used before the
words they modify. But if these adverbs come at the beginning of the
 sentence, the sentence takes inversion form which means that the verb/helping
verb comes at the beginning of the sentence.
• Only I play cricket.
• I only play cricket.
• I play only cricket.

• Prepositions
Usage: A preposition shows relation, position, or direction.
• Up Down
• Under Below
• Above Over
• On To Onto
• In To Into Out of
• Get into Get out of
• Get on Get off
• In front of In the front of Behind
• Along Across Around
• From Through To
• By Near Nearby Close to Against
• Beside Besides
• Of Off
• In time Within
• On time At
• Time At In On
 • Place In On At
• To Towards
• Made of Made from
• Before After
• About
• On the way in the way
• Among Between

• Article

• Definite Article The

• Indefinite Article A, An
• Indefinite Article
• An indefinite article “an” is used before a singular countable noun that starts
with either a vowel or vowel sound.
• Whereas, an indefinite vowel “a" is used before a singular countable noun that
starts with either a consonant or consonant sound.
• Definite Article
• A definite article is used when your reader or listener understands what you are
referring to.
• The thief has been arrested.
• A definite article is used before a common noun that is already mentioned or
discussed.
• I have bought a new book. The book is about marine animals.
• A definite article is used before holy books, newspapers, and important events.
• The Quran, The Washington Post, The Industrial Revolution.
• A definite article is used before superlative degrees of adjective.
• He is the fastest boy of the class.
• When ‘most’ means majority, we omit ‘the’.
• Most of the students were absent today.
• A definite article is used before ordinals.
• He was the first to reach the finishing line.
• A definite article is used before ‘only’ when used as an adjective.
• He is the only son of his parents
• A definite article is used before a comparative degree of adjective involving only
two things or persons.
• Asad is the better of the players.
• The earlier you come, the better it is.
• A definite article is used before the names of rivers, deserts, valleys, mountain
ranges, forests, seas, oceans, group of isles, etc.
• The Neelum River, The Sahara Desert, The Indus Valley, The
Himalayas, The Black Forest, The Red Sea, The Indian Ocean, The
West Indies.
• A definite article is used before the names of the trains, ships, aeroplanes.
• The Jaffar Express, The Titanic, The Fly Emirates
• A definite article is used before the names of countries having the words such as
Union, United, or Republic.
• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, The United States of America.
The Republic of South Africa
• A definite article is used before the countries the names of which are plural.
• The Maldives, The Netherlands
• A definite article is used before four directions when used as nouns.
• He lives in the north.
• A definite article is used before the names of unique objects, places, specific
names, etc.
• The earth, the sun, the moon, the equator, etc.
• A definite article is used before the names of musical instruments.
• The piano, the guitar, etc.

Technicalities:
• No article is used before any language, color, and subject.
Urdu, Green, Physics.
• Urdu, Green, Physics.
• No article is used before the names of games.
• Cricket, Hockey, Football.
• No article is used before an abstract noun.
• Honesty, Truth
• Conjunctions

• A word or group of words that joins words, phrases, or clauses.

• And, but, or, because, etc.

• Kinds of Conjunctions:

• Coordinating Conjunctions:
• These conjunctions join together words, phrases, or clauses which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure.
• For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
• They join two equal parts of a sentence.
• Word + Word
• He likes tea and coffee.
• Phrase + Phrase
• Asif will be in the room or on the roof.
• Clause + Clause
• I am looking for a job, for I am unemployed these days.
• When both the clauses have same subjects, the subject of the second clause is
omitted.
• He worked hard but did not succeed.

• Subordinating Conjunctions:
• These conjunctions join together clauses of unequal ranks. One of them is an
 independent clause whereas the other one is a dependent one.
• The subordinate clause always gives more information in relation to the main clause
to complete the thought.
• Although, because, if, unless, as soon as, even if, provided that, etc.
• I am unable to attend the class today because I am extremely tired.

• Correlative Conjunctions:
• These conjunctions are used in pairs.
• They join together words, phrases, and clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.
• Either --- or
• Neither --- nor
• Whether --- or
• Both --- and
• Not only --- but also
• Different conjunctions like hardly, scarcely, barely, no sooner are often used with the
past perfect tense to suggest that one thing happened very soon after another.
• When a story is told in the past tense, the adverbials hardly, scarcely, barely and no
sooner are often used to emphasize that one event quickly followed another. The verb
describing the earlier event is usually in the past perfect tense. If hardly, scarcely,
barely and no sooner are in the initial position, the subject and auxiliary are inverted:
• I had hardly entered the room when my friend called me.
• Hardly had I arrived home when my phone rang. (I had hardly arrived home
when my phone rang.)
• Scarcely had she finished reading when she fell asleep. (She had scarcely
finished reading when she fell asleep.)
• Barely had they won the match when the coach had a heart attack. (They had
barely won the match when the coach had a heart attack.)
• No sooner had the company launched its new product than it went
bankrupt. (The company had no sooner launched its new product than it went
bankrupt.)
• Note that hardly, scarcely and barely are followed by when, while no sooner is
followed by than.
• Types of Sentences

• There are four types of sentences.

• Simple Sentence
• A sentence which has only one subject followed by a finite verb in the predicate
part is known as the simple sentence.
• Asif wrote a letter.
• Compound Sentence
• A sentence in which at least two independent clauses are joined by
• A coordinating conjunction FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
• Tahir reads novels, but Asif reads dramas.
• a semi-colon
• Tahir reads novels; Asif reads dramas.
• a conjunctive adverb
• Tahir reads novels; whereas, Asif reads dramas.
• Complex Sentence
 • A sentence which has at least one independent and one dependent clause (headed
by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun) is called a Complex
Sentence.
• I am unable to attend the class because I am very tired today.
• I will call you when the teacher comes to the class.
• Compound-Complex Sentence
• A sentence in which has at least two independent and one dependent clause.
• The police have arrested Asif, for he had murdered Shazia when she was coming
out of her office.
• The weather seems fine, but we will have to wait until we get permission to move.

CLAUSE AND ITS TYPES:

Clause:
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”

Example I will meet him in office.

A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence.
Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.

Examples

• He is sleeping. (One clause)

• The kids were laughing at the joker. (One clause)

• The teacher asked a question, but Asif could not answer. (Two clauses)
• I am happy because I have won the match. (Two clauses)

• I like Mathematics (1), but my brother likes Biology (2) because he wants to become a
doctor(3). (Three clauses)

Types of Clauses
Clauses are divided into two categories.

1. Main clause FREE Independent clause

2. Subordinate clause BOUND Dependent clause

He is buying a shirt which is very expensive.

The above sentence has two clauses
i. “He is buying a shirt”
ii. “which is very expensive”.

The clause “He is buying a shirt” expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence. Such a clause is called main or independent clause.

While the clause “which looks very expensive” does not express a complete thought and can’t
stand as a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a
clause is called subordinate or dependent clause.

Main or Independent Clause

“Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a
sentence.

Examples:

She is wearing a shirt which looks very expensive.

He takes medicine because he is suffering from fever.

In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though
and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a
simple sentence.

Subordinate or Dependent Clause

Subordinate (or dependent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and
depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete thought.
Subordinate clause does not express complete idea and cannot stand alone.
A sentence having a subordinate clause must have a main clause.

Example: He likes Chinese rice which tastes awesome.

The clause “which tastes good” in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not
express complete thought and cannot stand as a sentence. It depends on the main clause (he likes
Chinese rise) to express complete thought.

Examples:
You will score well if you work hard.
He is taking medicine because he is suffering from fever.

Types of Subordinate Clause

A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence.
On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided into following
types.

1. Noun Clause 2. Adverb Clause 3. Adjective Clause

1. Noun Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.
Example:

I know that Asif has taken the first position.

In above sentence the clause “that Asif has taken the first position” functions as a noun, hence
it is a noun clause.

A noun clause starts with words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever”.

Examples:

Whatever you learn will help you in future. (Noun clause as a subject)
Whosoever wants to become a doctor can take admission here.(Noun clause as a subject)
He thinks that money can buy anything. (Noun clause as an object)
I know what he is thinkuing at the moment. (Noun clause as an object)

2. Adverb Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause.”
The function of an adverb is to modify (describe) a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Similarly an adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Example:

I will call you when the program starts.

The clause “when the program starts” in above sentence is an adverb clause because it
modifies the verb “call” in the sentence.

Examples:

You can go wherever you want to.

I am unable to come to college because I am suffering from fever.

3. Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.”
The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause
modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Example
He likes the shirt which he bought last month.

The clause “which he bought last month” in above sentence is an adjective clause because it
modifies the noun “shirt” in the sentence.
An adjective clause always come after the noun it modifies.

Examples:

I met the boy who had helped me.

The boy who wastes his time will have a dark future.

My mobile phone, which I bought last week, is stolen.

The house where I live consists of four rooms.

NOTE: Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or non-restrictive

clause
A Restrictive (Essential or Defining) Clause modifies the noun that comes before it in an
essential way. Restrictive clauses limit or identify such nouns and cannot be removed from a
sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Examples:

The boy who is sitting in the corner is my cousin.

The movies that are based on biographies are quite interesting.

A Non-restrictive (Non-essential or non-defining) clause, on the other hand, describes a noun

in a non-essential way.
This clause can be removed from a sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Examples:

Minar-e-Pakistan, which is situated in Lahore, is a historic building.

My phone, which I bought last week, has been stolen.

Tenses
• A tense is actually a form of verb which shows the time of an action.
• Present Indefinite Tense
Usage:
• To express actions that is a part of routine.
• I take breakfast early in the morning.
• I visit my village on weekends.
• Asif goes to Karachi for checkup after every five years.
• To talk about some habit.
• He laughs all the time.
 • To talk about someone’s nature.
• A lion eats raw meat.
• To talk about some universal truth.
• The sun rises in the east.
• To talk about the saying/quotation of a great personality
• Eleanor Roosevelt says, "The future belongs to those who believe in the
beauty of their dreams." -
• To talk about customs and traditions.
• Hindus bury their deads.
• To talk about the time table or fixed timings of program, train, bus, etc.
• The program starts at 9 o’clock
• To talk about repeated actions usually with frequency adverbs.
• He always comes late.
• To be used in place of non-progressive verbs.
• I know him. (Not I am knowing him)
• I need some money. (Not I am needing some money)
• To show imperative sentences.
• Open the door.
• In exclamatory sentences that start with ‘here’ and ‘there’.
• Here comes the bus.
• There goes the train.
• In newspaper headlines and sports commentaries.
• Pakistan tests a new missile.
• To show planned activities.
• The Prime Minister visits China next month.

• Present Continuous Tense

 Usage:
• To express an action that is currently in progress.
• He is singing a song.
• To talk about some present routine.
• I am reading a novel these days.
• To talk about some plan for the future.
• We are going to Karachi next month.
• To denote some change of present state.
• He is getting weaker and weaker.
• There are verbs which do not take the progressive form in the usual sense. Such verbs are
called Static Verbs.
• Possess, believe, belong, know, mean, own, prefer, remember, love, recognize,
hate, resemble, seem, sound, suit, hear, want, need, desire, suppose, etc.

• Present Perfect Tense

Usage:
• To express an action that is recently completed.
• I have just read a book.
• To express a past action leading to the present. We usually use adverbials like
already, before, ever, yet, so far, till now, etc.
• He has not come yet.
• An action that started in the past and still continues in the present.
• He has been the captain for two years.
• To show a habit or past action with ‘ever’ and ‘never’.
• I have never smoked in my life.
• It is used with conjunctions like after, before, when, as soon as to indicate an
action to be completed in the future.
• I will meet you after I have finished my work.
• Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Usage:
• To express an action which started in the past, continues up to the present and still
continues.
• It has been raining since morning.

• Past Indefinite Tense

Usage:
• To express an action that started in the past and completed in the past.
• I watched a horror movie last night.
• To show past habit
• She always prayed to God for her son.
• With different phrases such as “It is time”, “It is about time”, “It is high time”
• It is time we spoke to him.
• It is high time you wrote him a letter.
• It is used after conditional clauses using ‘if only’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘wish’, etc.
• I wish I had a lot of money.

• Past Continuous Tense

Usage:
• To express an action that was going on for some time in the past.
• He was reading a book.

• Past Perfect Tense

Usage:
• When one event follows another in the past, the earlier event is expressed in
the past perfect tense.
 • When I reached home, my daughter had already slept.

• Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Usage:
• To express an action that that started in the past, continued for a specific
period of time in the past.
• I had been reading a novel for two hours.
• Future Indefinite Tense
Usage:
• To express an action that is expected to take place in the future.
• I will go to Karachi next month.

• Future Continuous Tense

Usage:
• To express an action that will be in progress in future.
• He will be playing cricket in the ground.

• Future Perfect Tense

Usage:
• To denote the completion of some action before a certain point of time in
future.
• He will have reached the station before the train starts.
• Used for expressing an action that will take place before another action.
• The classes will have resumed before you reach college.
NOTE: Remember that the future perfect tense is always followed by a time
expression.
• Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Usage:
• It is used for expressing an action that will continue for some point of time in
the future.
• By the end of this month, I will have been traveling to Karachi.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

• Active Voice / Passive Voice
Active Voice = Subject + verb + Object
e.g. Ali plays cricket.

Passive Voice = Object + Verb + By + Subject

e.g. Cricket is played by Ali.

Pronoun Cases:-
Subjective Case Objective Case

He Him

She Her

It It

They Them

We Us

You You

Conversion Table
Active Voice Passive Voice
V1 is, am, are + V3

Do, Does + not + V1 is, am, are + not + V3

V2 was, were + V3

Did + not + V1 was, were + not + V3

 Is, Am, Are + Ving is, am, are + being + V3

Is, Am, Are + not + Ving is, am, are + not + being + V3

Was, Were + Ving was, were + being + V3

Was, Were + not + Ving was, were + not + being + V3

Has, Have + V3 Has, Have + been + V3

Has, Have + not + V3 Has, Have + not + been + V3

Had + V3 Had + been + V3

Had + not + V3 Had + not + been + V3

Will, Shall + Have + V3 Will, Shall + have + been + V3

Will, Shall + V1 Will, Shall, be + V3

Can, Could, Should, Would, May, Might, has to, have to, had to, will have to + V1
Can, Could, Should, Would, May, Might, has to, have to, had to, will have to + be + V3

Imperative Sentences
Positive:
Active Voice V1 + Object
Passive Voice Let + Object + be + V3
e.g. Open the door Let the door be opened
Negative:
Active Voice Do + not + V1 + Object
Passive Voice Let + not + Object + be + V3 OR Let + Object + Not + be
+ V3
e.g. Do not open the door Let not the door be opened OR Let the door
not be opened

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct Speech Original Words of the Speaker Original Message
Indirect Speech Words of the Narrator Original Message
Direct Speech Ali Says, “I am late.”
Message Ali = Late
Original Words of the Speaker = “I am late”
Indirect Speech Ali says that he is late.
Message Ali = Late
Words of the Narrator = he is late
Parts of Direct Speech:
Reporting Speech Addition by the Narrator e.g. He says, He said, etc…
Reported Speech Original Words of the Speaker “I am late”
Reporting Speech:
Subject = S
Verb = V
Object = O
e.g. He says to me
(S) (V) (O)
Reported Speech:
1st Person = Speaker = I, We
2nd Person = Addressed = You
3rd person = Discussed = All the universe except I, We, and You
He says to me, “I can help you and Ali.”
(S) (V) (O) (1st) (2nd) (3rd)
Pronoun Cases
Subjective Objective Possessive Emphatic Reflexive
I Me My / Mine Myself Myself
We Us Our / Ours Ourselves Ourselves
They Them Their / Theirs Themselves Themselves
He Him His / His Himself Himself
She Her Her / Hers Herself Herself
It It Its / Its Itself Itself
You (s) You Your / Yours Yourself Yourself
You (p) You Your / Yours Yourselves Yourselves
Examples:
1. I play games.
(S)
2. He helps me.
(O)
3. This is my bag.
(P)
4. I myself completed the task.
(E)
5. I beat myself.
(R)
CHANGE OF PERSONS
1st Person in Reported Speech = Subject in Reporting Speech
e.g. He says, “I am happy.”
(S) (V) ( 1st )
‘I’ is replaced by ‘he’
He says that he is happy.
2nd Person in Reported Speech = Object in Reporting Speech
e.g. He says to me, “You are late.”
(S) (V) (O) (2nd)
you me I
He tells me that I am late.
3rd Person in Reported Speech = No Change
e.g. He says to me, “Ali is late.”
(S) (V) (O) (3rd)
He tells me that Ali is late.

RULES
IF Reporting Verb = Present or Future
THEN The Tense in the Reported Speech WILL NOT CHANGE
e.g. He says, “I can sing.”
He says that he can sing.
e.g. He will say, “I can sing.”
He will say that he can sing.
IF Reporting Verb = Past
THEN the Tense in the Reported Speech WILL CHANGE
e.g. He said, “I can sing.”
He said that he could sing.
CHANGE OF TENSES
V1 V2
He said, “I write letters.” He said that he wrote letters.
Do, Does Did
He said, “I do not like games.” He said that he did not like games.
He said, “Ali does not study.” He said that Ali did not study.
Is, Am, Are Was, Were
He said, “I am the winner.” He said that he was the winner.
He said, “Ali is ill.” He said that Ali was ill.
He said, “Players are late.” He said that players were late.
Has, Have Had
He said, “Right time has come.” He said that right time had come.
He said, “Ali has been waiting since long.” He said that Ali had been waiting since long.
He said, “I have won.” He said that he had won.
He said, “I have been studying since long.” He said that he had been studying since long.
V2 Had + V3
He said, “I wrote letters.” He said that he had written letters.
Was, Were Had + been
He said, “I was studying.” He said that he had been studying.
He said, “Boys were fighting.” He said that boys had been fighting.
Had Had
He said, “I had been sleeping.” He said that he had been sleeping.
Will, Shall Would
He said, “Asif will come.” He said that Asif would come.
He said, “I shall leave soon.” He said that he would leave soon.
Can Could
He said, “I can swim.” He said that he could swim.
May Might
He said, “Ali may come.” He said that Ali might come.
Might Might
He said, “Ali might come.” He said that Ali might come.
Must (Future obligation) Had to
He said, “I must work hard.” He said that he had to work hard.
Must (Certainty) Must
He said, “The teachers must be tired.” He said that the teachers must be tired.
Could Could
He said, “I could not study well.” He said that he could not study well.
Would Would
He said, “I would help the needy.” He said that he would help the needy.
Should Should
He said, “I should leave early.” He said that he should leave early.

CHANGE OF CERTAIN WORDS

Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Today That day
Yesterday The day before
This That
These Those
Here There
Now Then
Last night The night before
Tomorrow The day after

Imperative sentence
A sentence which expresses command, request, advice, prohibition or suggestion
is called Imperative sentence.
For example,
• Open the door.
• Please help me.
• Learn your lesson.
To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested”
or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb
depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.
Examples.
Direct speech: He said to me, “Please help me”
Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.
Direct speech: She said to him, “You should work hard for exam”
Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.
 Direct speech: They said to him, “Do not tell a lie”
Indirect Speech: They advised to him not to tell a lie.
Direct speech: He said to him, “Open the door”
Indirect Speech: He ordered him to open the door.
Direct speech: The teacher said to students, “Do not waste your time”
Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste their time.
Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”
Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.

Exclamatory sentences.
Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory
sentence.
For example.
• Hurrah! We won the match.
• Alas! I failed the test.
• Wow! What a nice shirt it is.
To change such sentences, the words “exclaimed with joy” or “exclaimed with
sorrow” or “exclaimed with wonder” is added in the reporting verb depending
upon the nature of exclamatory sentence in indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct speech: He said, “Hurrah! I won a prize”
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won a prize.
Direct speech: She said, “Alas! I failed in exam”
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she had failed in the exam.
Direct speech: John said, “Wow! What a nice shirt it is”
Indirect Speech: John exclaimed with wonder that it was a very nice shirt.
Direct speech: She said, “Hurrah! I am selected for the job”
Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with joy that she was selected for the job.
Direct speech: He said, “Oh no! I missed the train”
Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the train.
Direct speech: They said, “Wow! What a pleasant weather it is”
Indirect Speech: They exclaimed with wonder that it was a very pleasant
weather

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
 • Conditional sentences describe a conditional situation, or a result that depends on an
event occurring first.
• "If" one thing happens, "then" another thing will happen. It simply means that one thing
is required for something else to occur or exist.
• It uses the conjunction “if” (and occasionally “when”) to express a condition and its
result. The likelihood of the result depends on the type of conditional sentence, which
are:
1. Zero conditionals (extremely likely)
2. First conditionals (possible)
3. Second conditionals (unlikely but still possible)
4. Third conditionals (impossible)
5. Mixed conditionals (impossible)
1. ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional uses the present tense in both clauses and is used to talk about
something that is always or generally true. The present tense signifies that these actions
are both possible and typical.

Form: If + simple present, simple present

Example 1: If it rains, I take an umbrella with me to work.

Example 2: If I wake up early, I always read in bed.

2. FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional uses the present tense in the if clause and the future tense in the
result clause. First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the
outcome is likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future.
Form: If + simple present, will/can/may + base verb
Example 1: If you work hard, you will pass the test.
Example 2: If you run fast, you will win the race.
3. SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional uses the past tense in the if clause and a modal and base verb in
the result clause. This form is used to talk about a hypothetical situation that cannot happen or
is unlikely to [Link] type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and
its probable result.
 Form: If + simple past, would/could/might + base verb
Example 1: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a large vacation home.
Example 2: If I were you, I could go for the picnic.
4. THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional uses the past perfect in the if clause and a modal and present
perfect in the result clause. This form is used to talk about a hypothetical situation
in the past that did not happen – typically with an outcome that did not happen and is
perhaps the opposite of what did happen.
Form: If + past perfect, would/could/might + have + Past Participle
Example 1: If you had worked hard, you would have passed the test.
Example 2: If you had run fast, you could have won the race.
5. MIXED CONDITIONAL
Mixed conditionals combine the second and third conditionals to express both an
unreal condition either in the past or the present and an unreal result either in the past or
the present.
• The first form presents an unreal condition in the past that changes an unreal outcome in
the present (the past changes the present).
Form 1: If + past perfect, would/could/might + base verb
Example 1: If I had worked harder, I would be a doctor now.
Example 2: If we had left early, we would be home now.
• The second form presents an unreal condition in the present that changes an unreal
outcome in the past (the present changes the past).
Form 2: If + simple past, would/could/might + have + Past Participle
Example 1: If I spoke louder, you would have heard my voice.
Example 2: If you were active, you could have avoided the robbery.

PUNCTUATIONS
1. Period .
i. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know him well.

ii. If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do not
 follow it with another period.
Example: This is Alice Smith, M.D.

iii. Full stops are also used after abbreviations.

Example: Dr. etc. Prof. i.e.
2. Ellipses ...
--> An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.

i. Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a
quoted passage.
Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are useful in
getting right to the point without delay or distraction:

Example: Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

With ellipsis: "Today … we vetoed the bill."

ii. A four-dot method may be used to indicate the period at the end of a sentence,
then the ellipsis to indicate omitted material.

Example: I don't know him but .…

3. Comma
i. We use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases:

Example: It’s important to write in clear, simple, accurate words.

Example: They were more cooperative, more talkative, more open than last time
we met them.

Note: When the last comma in a series comes before 'and' or 'or', it is known as the
Oxford comma. Omission of the Oxford comma can sometimes lead to
misunderstandings.

Example: There are different cars for Asif, Asad, Ali and Kamran.

Example: There are different cars for Asif, Asad, Ali, and Kamran.

ii. We use commas to separate words or phrases that mark the place where the voice
would pause slightly:

Example: I can’t tell you now. However, things will be revealed tonight.

Example: In fact, we had lost all of our money.

iii. When main clauses are separated by 'and', or, 'but', we don’t normally use a
comma if the clauses have the same subject. However, we sometimes use commas if
the clauses have different subjects:

Example: They worled very hard and were able to win the final last week.
(same subject)

Example: It was an expensive hotel in the centre of Stockholm, but we

decided it was worth the money. (different subjects)

iv. When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we commonly use a
comma to separate the clauses. However, we do not always do this in short
sentences:

Example: If you get lost in the city centre, please don’t hesitate to text us or
phone us.

v. We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses normally add extra,
non-essential information about the noun or noun phrase:

Example: The ambulance, which arrived after just five minutes, took three
people to the hospital immediately.

vi. We commonly separate tags and yes-no responses with commas:

Example: They are going to the party, aren’t they?

Example: No, I cannot come to the party tomorrow.

vii. We use commas to show that direct speech is following.

Example: Asad said, "I am suffering from fever."

viii. In the following examples, the need for an appositive comma with one or more
nouns.

Incorrect: My best friend, Joe arrived.

Correct: My best friend, Joe, arrived.

ix. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most
people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2019, edition.

No comma is necessary for just the month and year.

 Example: It was in a June 2019 article.

x. Use a comma to separate a city from its province, and province from its country.

Example: I'm from Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.

4. Apostrophe

i. Use an apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun,

add an apostrophe plus the letter 's'.

Example: a woman’s hat

Example: the boss’s car

ii. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter 's' or
'es' (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession,
simply put an apostrophe after the 's' without adding another 's'.

Correct: three guys’ cars (guy + s + apostrophe)

Incorrect: three guy’s cars (implies only one guy)

Correct: two actors’ roles (actress + es + apostrophe)

Incorrect: two actor’s roles

iii. In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a
noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.

Example: Here are some do’s and don’ts.

iv. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.

Incorrect: The Sanjarani’s are here.

Correct: The Sanjaranis are here.

v. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name
only.

Example: Asif and Maria’s home is constructed of redwood.

vi. If two people possess different items, put the apostrophe + s after the second
name only.
 Example: Asif's and Maria’s homes are constructed of wood.

vii. Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or
letters have been removed.

Examples: Doesn’t, it’s, can’t, should’ve, etc.

5. Semi-colon

i. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between
two closely linked sentences (independent clauses).

Examples:

We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.

ii. Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause comes before an independent clause.

Incorrect: If you work harder; you may get good marks.

Correct: If you work harder, you may get good marks.

6. Colon

i. A colon means "that is to say" or "here's what I mean."

Use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item
after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).

Examples: He runs after only one thing: money

Examples: You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags,

pants, and warm clothing.

Examples: I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.

ii. Avoid using a colon before a list if it directly follows a verb or preposition that
would ordinarily need no punctuation in that sentence.

Incorrect: I want: butter, sugar, and flour.

Correct: I want butter, sugar, and flour.

iii. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when
 the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first
sentence.

Example: He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.

7. Hyphen

i. There are two things to keep in mind about this misunderstood punctuation mark.
First, there should not be spaces around hyphens. Second, 'hyphens' should not be
used interchangeably with 'dashes' which are noticeably longer.

ii. Hyphen's main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two
or more elements in a sentence are linked. Although there are rules and customs
governing hyphens, there are also situations when writers must decide whether to
add them for clarity.

iii. Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun they
modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.

Examples: a ten-year-old boy

Examples: a no-look six

iv. Hyphens are used to form compound words.

Use a hyphen in some compound words.
Example: My brother-in-law is a police officer.
v. Use a hyphen with some prefixes and some suffixes.
Example: He is an ex-hockey player.
Example: He is an ex-captain.
vi. Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.
Example: There are forty-two boys in the class.
vii. Use a hyphen fractions, when written out as words.
Example: Two-thirds of the school voted for me as class president.
Example: We still had three-quarters of a tank of gas.

viii. Use a hyphen with nouns that follow a single letter.

Example: She wore a V-neck sweater to the party.
Example: We went the wrong way, so we had to make a U-turn.
 8. Dash
i. Words and phrases between dashes are not generally part of the subject.
Example: Jamal—in my opinion—will win the first prize.
ii. Use dashes to separate additional information
Example: My cousins—Jamal and Asad—will come tomorrow.
9. Quotation Mark
i. Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.
Correct: He said, “I hope you will be here.”

ii. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations of dialogue or text.

Examples: “Why,” I asked, “don't you care?”

10. Exclamatory Mark

i. Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
Examples: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
Examples: Yay! We won!
ii. An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence. It also replaces
a midsentence comma.
Incorrect: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!.
Correct: I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
Incorrect: "I'm truly shocked by your behavior!," I told her.
Correct: "I'm truly shocked by your behavior!" I told her.

CAPITALIZATION
1. Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence
• The cat is sleeping.
• Where did you put that book?
2. Capitalize Names and Other Proper Nouns
 • My favorite author is Jane Austen.
• Asim and Daud met at Asad’s house.
3. Names are proper nouns. The names of cities, provinces countries, companies, religions,
and political parties are also proper nouns, so you should capitalize them, too.
• Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan, Nestle, Islam, Congress.
You should also capitalize words like mom and grandpa when they are used as a form of
address.
• I want your prayers, Mom.
But
• My mom is not going to like this.
4. Don’t Capitalize After a Colon (Usually)
In most cases, you don’t need to capitalize after a colon.
• I have one true passion: flying a plane.
5. There are a couple of common exceptions. One is when the word following the colon is a
proper noun.
• There is only one place I want to visit: New Delhi.
6. The other exception is when the words following the colon form one or more complete
sentences.
• Maggie wears a light cap at all times for these two reasons: Strong light often gives her a
headache. She also likes the way it looks.
7. Capitalize the First Word of a Direct Quote
• Malik asked, “What is everyone doing this weekend?”
• Saqib answered, “My sister and I are going to the water park.”
8. Don’t capitalize the first word of partial quotes.
• Gretchen said she was “way too busy” to join the gym.
• Mr. Thompson described the rules as “extremely difficult to follow.”
9. Capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, But Not Seasons
• I hate Mondays!
• Tom’s birthday is in June.
 • Oh no! I forgot about Mother’s Day!
10. The names of seasons, however, are not proper nouns, so there’s no need to capitalize
them.
• I hate winter!
• Having a summer birthday is the best.
11. Capitalize Most Words in Titles
The capitalization rules for titles of books, movies, and other works are a bit different.
In general, you should capitalize the first and the last words, all nouns, all verbs (even short ones,
like is), all adjectives, and all proper nouns. That means you should lowercase articles,
conjunctions, and prepositions—however, some style guides say to capitalize conjunctions and
prepositions that are longer than five letters.
• Sense and Sensibility
• Between the Devil and the Deep Sea
12. Capitalize Cities, Countries, Nationalities, and Languages
• English is made up of many languages, including Latin, German, and French.
• My mother is British, and my father is Spanish.
13. Capitalize Time Periods and Events (Sometimes)
• Most of the World War I veterans are now deceased.
• In the Middle Ages, poor hygiene was partly responsible for the spreading of bubonic
plague.
14. However, centuries—and the numbers before them—are not capitalized.
• In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England blossomed into an empire.