Parts of Speech

1. Noun

1) Common Noun  Boy

2) Proper Noun  Asif
3) Collective Noun  Army
4) Compound Noun  Classroom
5) Countable Noun  Chair
6) Uncountable Noun  Milk
7) Concrete Noun  Table
8) Abstract Noun  Honesty
9) Material Noun  Wood
10) Gender
a) Masculine
b) Feminine
c) Neuter
d) Common
11) Number
a) Singular
b) Plural
c) Regular
d) Irregular
e) Zero Plural
f) Uncommon plurals
Singular Plural
Phenomenon Phenomena
Bacterium Bacteria
Syllabus Syllabi
Criterion Criteria
Medium Media
Datum Data
Hypothesis Hypotheses
Basis Bases
Analysis Analyses
Crisis Crises
Parenthesis Parentheses
Larva Larvae
2. Pronoun

1) Personal Pronoun  Boy

a) First Person  I, We
b) Second Person  You
c) Third Person  He, She, It, They
2) Sequence of Personal Pronouns
a) Positive  231
b) Negative  123
3) Pronoun Cases
a) Subjective I
b) Objective  Me
c) Possessive  Mine
d) Emphatic  Myself
e) Reflexive  Myself
4) Relative Pronoun  Who, Whom, Whose, Whose, Which, That
5) Interrogative Pronoun  Who, Whom, What, Which, Whose
6) Reciprocal Pronoun  Each other, One another
7) Distributive Pronoun  Each, Either, Any, None
8) Indefinite Pronoun  Anything, Anyone, Something, Someone
9) Demonstrative Pronoun  This, That, These, Those

Technicalities:
a) He helps him more than I (do).
b) He helps him more than me.
c) His car is better than mine.
d) His car is better than Ali.
e) His car is better than Ali’s.
f) His car is better than that of Ali.
g) It is he/him who has broken the glass.
h) It is he/him who was killed.
i) The astronaut who first stepped on the moon was Neil Armstrong.
j) My phone, which I bought last week, has been stolen.
k) Which is your favorite color?
l) What is your favorite color?
m) Who is your best friend?
n) Which is your best friend?
3. Verb

1) Finite Verb
2) Non-finite Verb
3) Transitive Verb
4) Intransitive Verb
5) Ditransitive
6) Main Verb
7) Helping Verb
8) Modal Auxiliary Verb
9) Linking Verb
10) Regular Verb
11) Irregular Verb
12) Action/Dynamic Verb
13) Stative Verb
14) Causative Verbs
a) Help  help + object + V1
b) Make  make + object + V1
c) Let  let + object + V1
d) Get  get + subject + to + V1 / get + object + V3
e) Have  have + subject + V1 / have + object + V1
15) Non-progressive Verb
16) Verbs of Perception
17) Gerund
18) Infinitive
19) Participle
4. Subject-verb Agreement

1) If a singular is separated by a comma, the verb will be singular.

 The teacher, accompanied by his students, is present.
2) If the compound subject has two or more subjects joined by ‘and’, we will use a plural
verb.
 Asif and Ali are watching a movie.
3) If the compound subject is made from simple subjects and separated by ‘or’ or ‘nor’, we
will use singular verb.
 The girl or the boy is allowed to participate.
4) If two or more nouns or adjectives are joined by ‘and’ but they denote a single idea, a
singular verb is used.
 Bread and butter is my favorite breakfast.
5) One of the plural + singular verb
 One of the boys has got the first position.
6) One of those + plural + plural verb
 He is one of those boys who are always late.
7) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘and not’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming before ‘and not’.
 The students and their teacher are responsible.
8) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘along with’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming before ‘along with’.
9) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘as well as’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming before ‘as well as’.
 Asif along with his friends is coming tomorrow.
10) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘except’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming before ‘and not’.
 All the boys except Ali were absent.
11) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘neither…nor’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming after ‘nor’.
 Neither students nor their teacher was present.
12) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘either…or’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming after ‘or’.
 Either the teacher or his students are allowed to join the party.
13) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘neither…nor’, the verb will be used in
accordance with the subject coming after ‘nor’.
14) If the compound subject is joined or separated by ‘not only…but also’, the verb will be
used in accordance with the subject coming after ‘but also’.
 Not only the students but also their teacher is absent.
15) None of the plural + singular verb
 None of the boys has come to the ground.
16) Seventy kilometers is quite a long distance.
17) Twenty years is a long time.
18) Ten million dollars is a huge amount.
19) Hundred kilograms is quite a lot of weight.
20) The study of different languages is quite important.
21) A number of plural + plural verb
 A number of students are waiting for the bus.
22) The number of plural + singular verb
 The number of students is increasing every day.
23) The + adjective + plural verb
 The poor are in need of help.
24) Neither of the plural + singular verb
 Neither of the two boys is ready for the presentation.
25) Either of the plural + singular verb
 Either of the two cars is for sale.
26) Nobody is present.
27) Something is better than nothing.
28) Most of the boys are present.
29) Some of the questions are not answered yet.
30) Most of the work is done.
31) Some boys are absent.
32) Some milk is needed.
33) More than one student is not allowed.
34) More than two boys are injured.
35) I have everything but money.
36) I have nothing but money.
37) My friends are present. Yours are absent.
38) Reading books is my hobby.
39) I wish I were the president.
40) He talks as if he were the PM.
41) The teacher and director is here.
42) The teacher and the director are here.
43) A red and white cow is grazing.
44) A red and a white cow are grazing.
45) All the + uncountable noun + singular verb
 All the money is being wasted.
46) Many a singular noun + singular verb
 Many a man has come to the party.
47) It is I who am responsible.
48) I am the man who is responsible.
49) My glasses are broken.
50) His new trousers are quite expensive.
51) My shoes are stolen.
52) Appears singular but takes a plural verb.
 The cattle are grazing.
53) The children are playing outside.
54) Appears plural but takes a singular verb.
 Economics is a difficult subject.
55) A pair of shoes is stolen.
56) Scenery, poetry, stationary, furniture + singular verb
 The scenery is quite attractive.

5. Adjective
 1) Qualitative/Descriptive Adjective  Good, Small, Beautiful
2) Quantitative Adjective  Some, Many, Enough, Little
3) Ordinal Adjective  First, Second, Third
4) Cardinal Adjective  One, Two, Three
5) Proper Adjective  Indian, Victorian, Shakespearean
6) Distributive Adjective  Each, Every, Either, Neither
7) Possessive Adjective  My, Your, His, Her, Their
8) Interrogative Adjective  Who, Whose, Which, Whom, What
9) Demonstrative Adjective  This, That, These, Those
10) Compound Adjective  Clean-shaven, Soon-to-be
11) Latin Adjective  Junior, Senior, Superior, Inferior
12) Attributive Adjective  This is a new car.
13) Predicative Adjective  This car is new.
14) Present Participle  Tiring job
15) Nouns as Adjectives  School bus
16) Past Participle  Tired man.
17) Sequence of Adjectives  Quantity + Opinion + Size + Other
+ Age + Shape + Color + Origin + Material + Purpose
18) Degrees of Adjective
a) Positive
b) Comparative
c) Superlative
 Strong, Brave, Big, Dry, Grey, Beautiful, Good
 Interior, Exterior, Major, Minor
 He is more happy then sad.
 Later and Latter
 Elder and Older
 Extreme, Perfect, Ideal, Unique

6. Adverb
 1) Simple adverb  Carefully, Slowly
2) Adverb of Time  Tomorrow, Now
3) Adverb of Manner  Politely, Quickly
4) Adverb of Place  Here, There, Inside
5) Adverb of Frequency  Never, Usually, Always
6) Adverb of Degree/Intensity  Extremely, Slightly
7) Adverb of Reason  Because, So that, Since
8) Adverb of Affirmation  Definitely, Surely, Certainly
9) Adverb of Negation  No, Rarely, Hardly, Scarcely
10) Conjunctive Adverb  Therefore, However, Consequently
11) Relative Adverb  Where, When, Why
12) Interrogative Adverb  Why, Where, When, How
13) Sequence of Adverbs  Manner-Place-Frequency-Time-Place

Technicalities:
a) Verbs of Perception and Stative Verbs always take adjectives after them.
b) Adverbs like seldom, hardly, rarely, barely, scarcely are hidden negatives.
c) Negative words like ‘not’ and ‘never’ are not used with deny, forbid, unless,
until, lest, too.
d) Adverbs like ‘here’ and ‘there’ are used in the beginning of a sentence in
order to put more emphasis.
e) Adverbs of time (always, never, ever, often, seldom) are used before the
words they modify. But if these adverbs come at the beginning of the
sentence, the sentence takes inversion form which means that the verb/helping
verb comes at the beginning of the sentence.
f) Only I play cricket.
g) I only play cricket.
h) I play only cricket.

7. Prepositions
 Usage: A preposition shows relation, position, or direction.

a) Up  Down
b) Under  Below
c) Above  Over
d) On  To  Onto
e) In  To  Into  Out of
f) Get into  Get out of
g) Get on  Get off
h) In front of  In the front of  Behind
i) Along  Across  Around
j) From  Through  To
k) By  Near  Nearby  Close to Against
l) Beside  Besides
m) Of  Off
n) In time  Within
o) On time  At
p) Time  At  In  On
q) Place  In  On  At
r) To  Towards
s) Made of  Made from
t) Before  After
u) About
v) On the way  in the way
w) Among  Between

8. Article
 a) Indefinite Article  The
b) Definite Article  A, An
a. Indefinite Article
 An indefinite article “an” is used before a singular countable noun that starts
with either a vowel or vowel sound.
 Whereas, an indefinite vowel “a’ is used before a singular countable noun that
starts with either a consonant or consonant sound.
b. Definite Article
 A definite article is used when your reader or listener understands why you are
referring to.
 The thief has been arrested.
 A definite article is used before a common noun that is already mentioned or
discussed.
 I have bought a new book. The book is about marine animals.
 A definite article is used before holy books, newspapers, and important events.
 The Quran, The Washington, The Industrial Revolution.
 A definite article is used before superlative degrees of adjective.
 He is the fastest boy of the class.
 When ‘most’ means majority, we omit ‘the’.
 Most of the students were absent today.
 A definite article is used before ordinals.
 He was the first to reach the finishing line.
 A definite article is used before ‘only’ when used as an adjective.
 He is the only son of his parents
 A definite article is used before a comparative degree of adjective involving only
two things or persons.
 Asad is the better of the players.
 The earlier you come, the better it is.
 A definite article is used before the names of rivers, deserts, valleys, mountain
ranges, forests, seas, oceans, group of isles, etc.
 The Neelum River, The Sahara Desert, The Indus Valley, The Himalayas,
The Black Forest, The Red Sea, The Indian Ocean, The West Indies.
 A definite article is used before the names of the trains, ships, aeroplanes.
 The Jaffar Express, The Titanic, The Fly Emirates,
 A definite article is used before the names of countries having the words such as
Union, United, or Republic.
 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, The United States of America.
 A definite article is used before the countries the names of which are plural.
 The Maldives, The Netherlands
 A definite article is used before four directions when used as nouns.
 He lives in the north.
  A definite article is used before the names of unique objects, places, specific
names, etc.
 The earth, the Sun, the moon, the equator, etc.
 A definite article is used before the names of musical instruments.
 The piano, the guitar, etc.

Technicalities:

a) No article is used before any language, color, and subject. Urdu, Green,
Physics.
 Urdu, Green, Physics.
b) No article is used before the names of games.
 Cricket, Hockey, Football.
c) No article is used before an abstract noun.
 Honesty, Truth

9. Conjunctions

 A word or group of words that joins words, phrases, or clauses.

  And, but, or, because, etc.

 Kinds of Conjunctions:

a) Coordinating Conjunctions:
 These conjunctions join together words, phrases, or clauses which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure.
 For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
 They join two equal parts of a sentence.
 Word + Word
 He likes tea and coffee.
 Phrase + Phrase
 Asif will be in the room or on the roof.
 Clause + Clause
 I am looking for a job, for I am unemployed these days.
 When both the clauses have same subjects, the subject of the second clause is
omitted.
 He worked hard but did not succeed.

b) Subordinating Conjunctions:
 These conjunctions join together clauses of unequal ranks. One of them is an
independent clause whereas the other one is a dependent one.
 The subordinate clause always gives more information in relation to the main clause
to complete the thought.
 Although, because, if, unless, as soon as, even if, provided that, etc.
 I am unable to attend the class today because I am extremely tired.

c) Correlative Conjunctions:
 These conjunctions are used in pairs.
 They join together words, phrases, and clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.
 Either --- or
 Neither --- nor
 Whether --- or
 Both --- and
 Not only --- but also
 Different conjunctions like hardly, scarcely, barely, no sooner are often used with the
past perfect tense to suggest that one thing happened very soon after another.
 When a story is told in the past tense, the adverbials hardly, scarcely, barely and no
sooner are often used to emphasize that one event quickly followed another. The verb
 describing the earlier event is usually in the past perfect tense. If hardly, scarcely,
barely and no sooner are in the initial position, the subject and auxiliary are inverted:
 I had hardly entered the room when my friend called me.

 Hardly had I arrived home when my phone rang. (I had hardly arrived home
when my phone rang.)
 Scarcely had she finished reading when she fell asleep. (She had scarcely
finished reading when she fell asleep.)
 Barely had they won the match when the coach had a heart attack. (They had
barely won the match when the coach had a heart attack.)
 No sooner had the company launched its new product than it went
bankrupt. (The company had no sooner launched its new product than it went
bankrupt.)
 Note that hardly, scarcely and barely are followed by when, while no
sooner is followed by than.

10. Types of Sentences

 There are four types of sentences.

1) Simple Sentence
  A sentence which has only one subject followed by a finite verb in the predicate
part is known as the simple sentence.

 Asif wrote a letter.

2) Compound Sentence

 A sentence in which two independent clauses are joined by

i. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

 Tahir reads novels, but Asif reads dramas.

ii. a semi-colon

 Tahir reads novels; but Asif reads dramas.

iii. a conjunctive adverb

 Tahir reads novels; whereas, but Asif reads dramas.

3) Complex Sentence

 A sentence in which has at least one dependent clause (headed by a

subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun)

 I am unable to attend the class because I am very tired today.

 I will call you when the teacher comes to the class.

4) Compound-Complex Sentence

 A sentence in which has at least two independent and one dependent clause.

 The police have arrested Asif, for he had murdered Shazia when she was coming
out of her office.
 The weather seems fine, but we will have to wait until we get permission to move.

[Link]
 A tense is actually a form of verb which shows the time of an action.

1. Present Indefinite Tense

Usage:

I. To express actions that is a part of routine.

  I take breakfast early in the morning.
 I visit my village on weekends.
 Asif goes to Karachi for checkup after every five years.

II. To talk about some habit.

 He laughs all the time.

III. To talk about someone’s nature.

 A lion eats raw meat.

IV. To talk about some universal truth.

 The sun rises in the east.

V. To talk about the saying/quotation of a great personality

 Eleanor Roosevelt says, "The future belongs to those who believe in the
beauty of their dreams." -

VI. To talk about customs and traditions.

 Hindus bury their deads.

VII. To talk about the time table or fixed timings of program, train, bus, etc.

 The program starts at 9 o’clock

VIII. To talk about repeated actions usually with frequency adverbs.

 He always comes late.

IX. To be used in place of non-progressive verbs.

 I know him. (Not  I am knowing him)

 I need some money. (Not  I am needing some money)

X. To show imperative sentences.

 Open the door.

XI. In exclamatory sentences that start with ‘here’ and ‘there’.

 Here comes the bus.

 There goes the train.

XII. In newspaper headlines and sports commentaries.

 Pakistan tests a new missile.

 XIII. To show planned activities.

 The Prime Minister visits China next month.

2. Present Continuous Tense

Usage:

1. To express an action that is currently in progress.

 He is singing a song.

2. To talk about some present routine.

 I am reading a novel these days.

3. To talk about some plan for the future.

 We are going to Karachi next month.

4. To denote some change of present state.

 He is getting weaker and weaker.

5. There are verbs which do not take the progressive form in the usual sense. Such verbs are
called Static Verbs.

 Possess, believe, belong, know, mean, own, prefer, remember, love, recognize,
hate, resemble, seem, sound, suit, hear, want, need, desire, suppose, etc.

3. Present Perfect Tense

Usage:

I. To express an action that is recently completed.

 I have just read a book.

II. To express a past action leading to the present. We usually use adverbials like
already, before, ever, yet, so far, till now, etc.

 He has not come yet.

III. An action that started in the past and still continues in the present.
  He has been the captain for two years.

IV. To show a habit or past action with ‘ever’ and ‘never’.

 I have never smoked in my life.

V. It is used with conjunctions like after, before, when, as soon as to indicate an

action to be completed in the future.

I will meet you after I have finished my work.

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Usage:

1. To express an action which started in the past, continues up to the present and still
continues.

 It has been raining since morning.

5. Past Indefinite Tense

Usage:

1. To express an action that started in the past and completed in the past.

 I watched a horror movie last night.

2. To show past habit

 She always prayed to God for her son.

3. With different phrases such as “It is time”, “It is about time”, “It is high time”

 It is time we spoke to him.

 It is high time you wrote him a letter.

4. It is used after conditional clauses using ‘if only’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘wish’, etc.

 I wish I had a lot of money.

6. Past Continuous Tense
Usage:

1. To express an action that was going on for some time in the past.

 He was reading a book.

7. Past Perfect Tense

Usage:

1. When one event follows another in the past, the earlier event is expressed in
the past perfect tense.

 When I reached home, my daughter had already slept.

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Usage:

1. To express an action that that started in the past, continued for a specific
period of time in the past.

 I had been reading a novel for two hours.

9. Future Indefinite Tense

Usage:

1. To express an action that is expected to take place in the future.

 I will go to Karachi next month.

10. Future Continuous Tense

Usage:
 1. To express an action that will be in progress in future.

 He will be playing cricket in the ground.

11. Future Perfect Tense

Usage:

1. To denote the completion of some action before a certain point of time in

future.

 He will have reached the station before the train starts.

2. Used for expressing an action that will take place before another action.

 The classes will have resumed before you reach college.

NOTE: Remember that the future perfect tense is always followed by a time
expression.

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Usage:

1. It is used for expressing an action that will continue for some point of time in
the future.

 By the end of this month, I will have been traveling to Karachi.