Ch4: Human Development- Important Definitions
1. Development: progressive, orderly and predictable changes beginning at birth and continue
throughout life.
1. Cognitive development: the process of active construction of knowledge from infancy to adulthood.
2. Socio-emotional development: the process by which individuals learn to understand, express, and
manage their emotions and build relationships with others.
3. Moral development: the change in thoughts, feelings and behaviour regarding standards of right
and wrong.
4. Critical periods: sensitive periods during which some developmental milestones have to happen in a
specific time period to develop normally.
5. Germinal or zygotic period (Zygote): period from conception (fertilization of egg and sperm) to 2
weeks which includes creation of zygote, continued cell division and differentiation (specialization
of cells for different tasks) and attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus.
6. Embryonic period (Embryo): period from 2 to 8 weeks which is characterized by rapid cell
division and formation of vital organs (e.g: nuclear tube and brain).
7. Fetal period (Fetus): period from 8 weeks to birth during which all the internal and external organs
grow and develop dramatically.
8. Teratogens: any environmental agents that can cause prenatal birth defects such as mental
retardation, physical deformities, etc.
9. Newborn Reflexes : automatic, built-in responses to stimuli that help in adaptation and survival of
infants.
10.Rooting reflex: Turning the head and opening the mouth when touched on the cheek of infants.
11.Moro reflex: If there is a loud noise, the baby will throw her/his arms outward while arching her/his
back, and then bring the arms together as if grasping something.
12.Grasp reflex: When a finger or some other object is pressed against the baby’s palm, the baby’s
fingers close around it.
13.Babinski reflex: When the bottom of the baby’s foot is stroked, the toes fan out and then curl.
14.Motor development: the process by which children learn to use their muscles to perform actions
intentionally.
15.Cephalocaudal growth: growth that proceeds from the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail
region where children gain control over the upper part of the body before the lower part.
16.Proximodistal growth: growth that proceeds from the center of the body and moves towards the
extremities or more distal regions i.e. children gain control over their torso before their extremities.
17.Gross motor skills: involve the use of arms and legs, and moving around with confidence and more
purposefully in the environment.
18.Fine motor skills: involve finger dexterity and eye-hand coordination.
19.Puberty: sexual maturity that marks the end of childhood and signifies the beginning of
adolescence, which is characterized by dramatic physical changes in both, growth rate, and sexual
characteristics.
20.Primary sex characteristics : Changes directly related to reproduction in males and females.
21.Secondary sex characteristics: Changes include features or signs of achieving sexual maturity in
males and females.
22.Menarche: refers to the first occurrence of menstruation in a female, marking the onset of
reproductive capability.
23.Schemas: The mental frameworks or representations that help organize and interpret information and
experiences are called schemas.
24.Assimilation: The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas is called
assimilation.
25.Accommodation: The process of modifying or altering existing schema to fit a new information is
called accommodation.
26.Equilibrium: It is the state of cognitive balance where a person's existing schemas adequately
explain and interpret new experience.
27.Disequilibrium: It occurs when new experiences or information cannot be easily integrated into
existing schemas, creating confusion or cognitive conflict or imbalance.
28.Equilibration: It is the process by which individuals move between states of equilibrium and
disequilibrium.
29.Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): In this stage, infants construct knowledge through their senses
(sensory modalities) and motor actions (reflexes and purposeful behaviours).
30.Object Permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
or perceived.
31.Symbolic Thinking: the ability to use symbols—such as words, images, or objects—to represent
concepts, ideas, or other entities that are not physically present.
32.Egocentrism: It is defined as the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and
someone else’s perspective.
33.Animism: It is the belief that inanimate objects, such as toys, clouds, or trees, have life-like qualities
(such as thoughts, feelings, or intentions) similar to those of humans or animals.
34.Centration: Characteristic thinking that tends to focus on one aspect of a situation while ignoring
others.
35.Conservation: the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.
36.Intuitive thinking: It is a form of thought that is based on immediate understanding, feelings, or
perceptions, rather than logical reasoning or evidence.
37.Logical Thinking: the cognitive ability to follow a sequence of steps and understand
cause-and-effect relationships.
38.Mental reversibility: it refers to the ability to mentally reverse a sequence of steps or changes in
order to understand that the original state can be restored.
39.Abstract Thinking: the ability to think about concepts and ideas that are not tied to concrete
experiences.
40.Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: the ability that allows individuals to formulate hypotheses and
systematically test them and conclude which path is the best best path to solve a problem. They can
consider multiple possibilities and predict outcomes.
41.Scientific Thinking: the ability to think logically about relationships and construct valid arguments.
42.Metacognition: awareness of their own thought processes, enabling individuals to think about their
thinking.
43.Systematic Planning: Adolescents can plan ahead, set goals, and develop strategies to achieve
them, often considering long-term consequences.
44.Idealistic thinking: tendency to think about the ideal situations and standards, such as an ideal
parent.
45.Imaginary audience: the thinking that others are as preoccupied with themselves as they are about
them.
46.Personal fable (sense of personal uniqueness): an adolescent's belief that they are unique, special,
and invulnerable, often leading them to feel that no one else can fully understand their experiences
or emotions.
47.Temperament: the behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well established at birth.
48.Attachment: The emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver.
49.Secure attachment: an attachment style that is characterized by feelings of trust, safety, and comfort
in relationships, a willingness to rely on others, and a belief that one is loved and valued.
50.Insecure attachment: an attachment style that is characterized by a lack of trust and a lack of a
secure base.
51.Trust: trust is the confidence that someone (e.g: caregiver) is dependable and they will do what they
say they will do.
52.Misrust: the lack of confidence and development of anxiety because their needs are not consistently
met.
53.Autonomy: the state of being in control of one's life, making independent decisions, and being
responsible for one's actions.
54.Shame: a negative emotion that involves a belief that others will view us negatively.
55.Doubt: a mental state of uncertainty or distrust about something or someone, including oneself and
abilities
56.Initiative: the ability to take initiative, set goals, and make decisions
57.Guilt: the self-conscious emotion of regret or self-blame when actions are perceived as wrong
58.Industry: developing a sense of competence and mastery
59.Inferiority: feeling inadequate or incapable
60. Identity: a stable sense of self and personal values
61.Role confusion: uncertainty about one's place in the world or future direction
62.Identity Achievement: Individuals in this status have a clear, stable sense of who they are and what
they want in life, after having explored different possibilities and made choices that reflect their true
self.
63.Moratorium: The moratorium status reflects a period of active exploration, often characterized by
questioning and experimentation but low commitment..
64.Identity Foreclosure: Individuals in foreclosure status have adopted an identity (high commitment)
without considering other options (low exploration).
65.Identity Diffusion: Identity diffusion is characterized by a lack of direction or commitment to any
particular identity.
66.Intimacy: ability to form a close, loving, and committed relationship with others.
67.Isolation: A state of feeling alone or disconnected from others having few or no friends and very
little social contact with others over a long period of time.
68.Generativity: the desire to contribute to society and future generations
69.Stagnation: a sense of self-absorption, lack of growth, or feeling stuck.
70.Ego Integrity: feeling a sense of satisfaction and wholeness about one's life
71.Despair: feeling regret, bitterness, or dissatisfaction with how one's life has turned out
72.Heteronomous morality: Moral reasoning is driven by the desire to avoid punishment. Right and
wrong are determined by what is punished.
73.Individualism and Exchange: Moral reasoning is guided by self-interest and reciprocity. People
recognize that others have their own interests.
74.Good Interpersonal Relationships: Behavior is motivated by the desire for social approval and
maintaining relationships.
Maintaining Social Order: Moral reasoning focuses on obeying laws, rules, and fulfilling societal
duties.
75.Social Contract and Individual Rights: moral reasoning in which individuals recognize that laws
and rules should benefit society but can be changed if they fail to uphold justice.
Universal Ethical Principles: Moral reasoning is based on internalized universal principles of
justice, equality, and human rights.